History of Navigation

Power Point presentation in support of the
Seminar de Historia Global Prof. Dr. Guido Abbattista (Università degli Studi di Trieste https://www.units.it/) Rotte marittime globali. Un geodatabase storico della navigazione globale (1500-1900) martes 1 de junio 2012 h 10 am -11:30 am Lima time, 5 p. m. CET
Link meet.google.com/yxk-rirj-qre

Resumen

El presente artículo considera la historia de Rapa Nui en el siglo XVIII desde dos perspectivas distintas. Primero, examino el desarrollo de la exploración europea de los océanos que resultó en el redescubrimiento de Isla de Pascua por los habitantes del Viejo Mundo; lo hago a base del análisis de los viajes de descubrimiento que se realizaron bajo el mandode Jacob Roggeveen, James Cook (Primera Circumnavegación), Felipe González, James Cook (Segunda Circunnavegación), La Pérouse, y Charles Bishop. Sin embargo, este artículotambién se dedica a la historia de herramientas de navegación que hicieron posible la dicha exploración. A base de los diarios de las expediciones que visitaron Isla de Pascua intento demostrar que estos dos aspectos estaban mucho más entrelazados que se puede imaginar. Que yo sepa, hasta el momento este tema no fue debidamente analizado en la literatura acerca de Rapa Nui.



Palabras clave: exploración oceánica europea, historia de la navegación, Isla de Pascua, Rapa Nui, diarios de navegación



Abstract

In the present paper Easter Island is viewed in the eighteenth century perspective, from two angles. Firstly, I examine the history of the European oceanic exploration which led to the re-discovery of Easter Island by the inhabitants of the Old World, describing and discussing the voyages of discovery led by the following commanders: Jacob Roggeveen, James Cook (First Voyage), Felipe González, James Cook (Second Voyage), La Pérouse, and Charles Bishop. However, the paper also deals with the history of the navigational tools which made this exploration possible. Based on an analysis of the journals from the expeditions that called at Easter Island, the paper strives to show that these aspects depended on each other to a far greater degree than many people are generally aware of. To the best of my knowledge, this subject has not been sufficiently addressed in the literature on Easter Island to date.



Keywords: European oceanic exploration, history of navigation, Easter Island, Rapa Nui, travelogues

Together with the anonymous chart of c. 1471 and the chart of Jorge de Aguiar (1492), this chart signed by Pedro Reinel, but not dated, it is one of the earliest surviving exemplars of the Portuguese nautical cartography. A curious distinctive feature, shared with the chart of Jorge de Aguiar, is relegation of the African coastline east and south of Cape Coast (in the Gulf of Guinea) to an inset drawn over the Sahara and Sahel. . Knowing that most charts were drafted by copying the coastlines from the available patterns, the reason to employ an inset for representing part of the coast of Africa is that no adequate model covering the whole region was available at the time the chart was drawn.

This is a lecture on global history of science which I have delivered in the course Early Modern Global Exchanges, led by Dr Carlo Taviani (part of the Curriculum Global Cultures, University of Bologna) on the 11th May 2020.
The lecture touched questions such as what is a global history of science, how methodologies such as SSK and ANT are used in its context, what is agency and how acknowledging its function can allow us to have a less Eurocentric view on scientific knowledge production. The lecture also elaborated on the interconnectedness of the concepts of knowledge transfers and networks by relying on and familiarising students with various recent authors who have written on the topic (Sivansundaram, Raj, Montero-Sobrevilla, Pomata, Kroupa, Mawson, Briuxius, Ghobrial, Roberts, among the many)

Als Motto für die Ausstellung und das Begleitbuch wurde gewählt „Navigare necesse est“. Dieses Motto hat uns Plutarch (um 45 – um 125 n.Chr.) überliefert. Es geht auf den römischen Feldherrn Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106–48 v.Chr.) zurück, der für die Getreideversorgung Roms verantwortlich war und den Seeleuten, die wegen des Sturms nicht auslaufen wollten, zugerufen haben soll: „Navigare necesse est, vivere non est necesse“ (Seefahrt tut not, Leben ist nicht nötig). Dieses Motto „Seefahrt tut not“ wurde populär, weil diesen Titel auch ein Roman des norddeutschen Schriftstellers Gorch Fock [Johann Kinau] (1880–1916) trägt.
„Navigare necesse est“ – das erkannten nicht nur die Römer. Ohne die Erkenntnisse der Seefahrer wären die Entdeckungen im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert und der Handel mit aller Welt nicht möglich gewesen. Der Leitsatz findet sich auf vielen Dingen, die in Verbindung zur Seefahrt stehen, auf Gebäuden, Schiffen oder auf Sanduhren.1 Die Inschrift des Portals des Hauses der Seefahrt in Bremen lautet ähnlich: „Es ist notwendig, Schifffahrt zu treiben, es ist nicht notwendig zu leben.“ Bei dem Service „Navigare“ von
Gotthardt wurde der Spruch abgewandelt in „Navigare vivere est“.
Der Wort Navigation stammt aus dem Lateinischen „navis agere“ und bedeutet „ein Schiff führen“. Im Zentrum des Interesses steht die Bestimmung der Position auf See. Dafür entwickelte man eine Vielzahl von immer verfeinerten Instrumenten (Kompaß, Jakobsstab, Sextant, Chronometer, usw. bis zur Funk-, Radartechnik und zum GPS). Ausgehend von Koppelnavigation wurden im Laufe der Zeit neue Sensoren und Meßprinzipien entwickelt, mathematische und technische Neuheiten führen dazu, daß die Navigation als selbstständige Wissenschaft mit vielen Anwendungsmöglichkeiten etabliert wurde. Der Begriff, der anfangs auf die Seefahrt beschränkt war, hat sich heute erweitert bis zur virtuellen Navigation:
• Navigation auf See (Astronomische und terrestrische Navigation, Funk- und Radartechnik)
• Navigation in der Luft- und Raumfahrt
• Navigation auf der Straße (Satellitennavigation GPS, Navigationssysteme)
• Navigation bei Tieren (z.B. bei Vögeln, Walen, Seehunden)
• Navigation im Internet.

1 vgl. Hochschule für Schiffahrt Warnemünde; das Wappen der Rotterdam Studenten Vereniging „Sanctus Laurentius“ heißt auch „Navigare necesse est“. In der Ausstellung findet sich eine Sanduhr und Geschirr mit dem Motto.

With contributions by Michael A. Rappenglück, Heidi Tauber, Perry Lange, Albrecht Sauer, Ernst-Reinhold Mewes, Thomas Sonar, Bernd Wolfram, Karl Heinrich Wiederkehr, Klaus Barthelmess, Matthias Hünsch, Detlev Machoczek, Jürgen Koch, Cornelia Lüdecke, Bernhard Möller, Manfred Lux, Reinhard A. Krause, Harald Goldbeck-Löwe, Hans Blank, Thomas Lange.

This article presents new research on the Portuguese Maritime Front during World War One, especially regarding the German submarine war off the Portuguese coast. One subject, in particular, has remained obscure for many contemporary Portuguese historians: the direct and indirect impacts of the German submarine war on the Portuguese economy. In this article, we correlate the material losses provoked by German submarines in the Portuguese Atlantic with fluctuations in maritime commerce during the Great War. This approach sheds new light on how the war at sea affected the economies of peripheral countries like Portugal.

https://www.rutter-project.org/uploads/1/2/9/4/129482413/salomoni_review_nuns_navigating.pdf

The history of women in the context of the early modern globalization is still largely unwritten, despite the increasing gender awareness of this research field. Among the reasons for this historiographical deficiency is the scarcity of sources produced by women in the Renaissance, also due to a lower female schooling during this age. In addition to this, the world of transoceanic sailing was particularly lacking in female presence, even for Renaissance standards. Women on board ships could create disorders among the motley crews, which were composed by sailors, soldiers, and adventurers of all kinds. As we can easily imagine, the captains were not eager to embark ladies. However, this was not a strict rule and there is abundance of exceptions. Noblewomen, widows, prostitutes, slaves, and servants often had room on board. To these categories we can add that of the nuns. Sometimes, an exception within an exception, thanks to their greater literacy, they could produce written sources and testimonies of their travels.

The Cantino planisphere is one of the most precious monuments of the world’s cartographic heritage. It was drawn by an anonymous Portuguese cartographer, in 1502 and immediately taken to Italy by Alberto Cantino, an emissary of the Duke of Ferrara. It depicts the world as Europeans knew it in the wake of recent Spanish and Portuguese voyages of exploration to the Americas, Africa, and India. Together with the Kunstmann III anonymous chart of the Atlantic Ocean (c.1501-1506), it is one of the earliest nautical charts depicting the places according to observed latitudes.

In the thirteenth century, Italian merchant and explorer Marco Polo traveled from Venice to the far reaches of Asia, a journey he chronicled in a narrative titled Il Milione, later known as The Travels of Marco Polo. While Polo’s writings would go on to inspire the likes of Christopher Columbus, scholars have long debated their veracity. Some have argued that Polo never even reached China, while others believe that he came as far as the Americas. Now, there’s new evidence for this historical puzzle: a very curious collection of fourteen little-known maps and related documents said to have belonged to the family of Marco Polo himself.

In The Mysteries of the Marco Polo Maps, historian of cartography Benjamin B. Olshin offers the first credible book-length analysis of these artifacts, charting their course from obscure origins in the private collection of Italian-American immigrant Marcian Rossi in the 1930s; to investigations of their authenticity by the Library of Congress, J. Edgar Hoover, and the FBI; to the work of the late cartographic scholar Leo Bagrow; to Olshin’s own efforts to track down and study the Rossi maps, all but one of which are in the possession of Rossi’s great-grandson Jeffrey Pendergraft. Are the maps forgeries, facsimiles, or modernized copies? Did Marco Polo’s daughters—whose names appear on several of the artifacts—preserve in them geographic information about Asia first recorded by their father? Or did they inherit maps created by him? Did Marco Polo entrust the maps to Admiral Ruggero Sanseverino, who has links to Rossi’s family line? Or, if the maps have no connection to Marco Polo, who made them, when, and why?

The North Sea. A review of shipping lanes, volume of traffic and frequency of shipwrecking from medieval times, to 1900. Cultural heritage on and in the seabed, as a non-renewable resource.
Nordsjøen. Analyse av seilingsleder, skipstrafikkens volum, og forlisfrekvens fra middelalder til 1900. Kulturminner er ikke-fornybart kulturhistorisk materiale. I Nordsjøen utsettes kulturminner, i form av skipsvrak og submarine levninger fra steinalderen, for en stadig større belastning. Dette skjer blant annet ved fiske med bunnredskaper, og inngrep i sjøbunnen i forbindelse med petroleumsvirksomhet. Målet med denne artikkelen er å kaste noe lys over Nordsjøens potensial som kulturhistorisk kilde, med hovedvekt på skipsfarten og vrakene. Seilingsleder, og volumet av skip og beseilinger, til forskjellige tider belyses. Senmiddelalderens navigasjon, lesekartbøkene og de første sjøkart nevnes.Videre blir det lagt frem en analyse av forlis i åpen sjø i Nordsjøen, blant annet basert  på Malmsteins seilskuteregister, som konkluderer med at det i Norsk sektor av Nordsjøen finnes rester etter rundt 10.000 forlis.
Nævestad, Dag 2010: «Nordsjøen og skipsvrakene»  i ;Stylegar, Frans Arne (red) «Mangesysleren. En vennebok til Svein Mjaatveit.»  Vest-Agder Fylkeskommune, Kristiansand 2010. Side 162-179

One of the central questions in the history of cartography and navigation, the issue of the
prime meridian, with its strong implications for the most diverse aspects of our life, is far
from being just a matter of geography. Similarly, the choice of which of the numerous prime
meridians that were in use until the late nineteenth century would be selected as the
internationally recognized zero-degree point was not just a simple geographical decision.
It was also a matter of politics, economy, and power. However, this is a tale in which science
competed with local and national interests. The selection of a single meridian saved many
lives, standardized maps, including, most crucially, those used for navigation, united diverse
scientific communities, and provided a good base on which to regulate the measurement of
time and space.

Depuis l’apparition du logement marinier jusqu’à la transformation des cales en pièces de vie, nous suivons dans cet article les transformations du bateau de commerce de petit gabarit (principalement les « 38 mètres ») sur les fleuves et canaux bruxellois et wallons. Nous montrons comment, à partir de 1975, le déclin de la batellerie, mais également le contexte social et spatial particulier, permettent le développement du phénomène d’habitat fluvial, initié par des gens d’à terre. De cette manière, nous cherchons à tracer la genèse du logement fluvial, habitat non-conventionnel qui n’en reste pas moins un habitat à part entière, et non une excentricité anecdotique.

El mantenimiento de un imperio ultramarino exigió de la Monarquía un enorme esfuerzo organizativo, de gestión de administraciones y de preparación de equipos humanos. La secretaría de Marina logró aglutinar bajo su jurisdicción las políticas relacionadas con la formación náutica y la formación de los pilotos encargados del gobierno técnico de los navíos. En este sentido, las Reales Escuelas de Náutica de la Armada fueron centros de formación de pilotos de la Marina de guerra, en los que se impartió una formación técnica, que satisfizo una creciente demanda de estos profesionales.
Los pilotos meritorios o concurrentes tienen su propia historia, y el análisis de estos centros de formación ha sido una cuestión bastante desconocida por la historiografía. 
Las Reales Escuelas de Náutica o también denominadas Escuelas departamentales de la Armada cumplieron un papel importante en el la seguridad de la navegación a lo largo de las numerosas rutas ultramarinas que conectaron los distintos territorios del imperio.
En las políticas de organización y formación del pilotaje a lo largo del siglo XVIII intervinieron grandes marinos, algunos más conocidos que otros. A la labor incansable de los secretarios de Marina Antonio Valdés y Bazán y José de Mazarredo, se unieron las de otros oficiales de la Armada,que brillaron por su  excelente labor en este campo: Félix Berenguer de Marquina y Francisco Javier Winthuysen y Pineda.

Maintaining an overseas empire in XVIIIth Century required from the Spanish Monarchy an enormous organizational effort, as well as the management of vast administrative structures and the training of human teams. The Secretariat of Marine was able to encompass under its jurisdiction all policies related to the nautical education, and training of marine pilots in charge of the technical governance of the ship. In this sense the Royal Nautical Schools of the Navy became training centers for
war pilots, in which technical skills were taught aiming to cover an  increasing demand for marine pilots.
Pilots "meritorios" or "concurrentes" have their own history, and the analysis of such training centers has been quite left out by historiography. The Royal Nautical Schools, also named Navy Departmental Schools,  played a key role in the safety of navigation along the overseas routes that connected the different territories of the empire.
During the XVIIIth Century, numerous Navy officers, ranging in prestige and popularity, took part in the organizational and training policies related to pilotage. The tireless work of the secretaries of the Navy, Antonio Valdés y Bazán and José de Mazarredo was supported by other Navy officers, such as Félix Berenguer de Marquina and Francisco Javier Wintuysen y Pineda, who stood out for their excellent contributions in this field.

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Conquerors is an agile, compelling book that lacks nothing in historical accuracy and methodological rigor. Roger Crowley’s narration takes the reader, both the simple curious and the specialist, through a relatively short historical parable that changed the history of the world forever. The book starts with the exploration of the west African coast made by Diogo Cão between 1483 and 1486, and it ends in 1515 with the death of Afonso de Albuquerque, conqueror of Malacca, Goa and Ormuz. Between these chronological boundaries, the author explores the epic moments of the Portuguese maritime, military, and commercial expansion towards the east and the west. It recounts the achievements of some great Portuguese explorers such as Bartolomeu Dias, who rounded the Cape of Good Hope, Vasco da Gama, discoverer of India, and Pedro Álvares Cabral, who first arrived in Brazil.

Man has been sailing since ancient times, first on the great rivers of Mesopotamia and on the Nile, and subsequently venturing into the open sea. Particularly in the Mediterranean, history and navigation have developed together, allowing the latter to develop the majority of commercial exchanges, meanwhile war and cultural interrelations shaped history. We can well state that history has developed on the shores of the Mediterranean due to navigation and exchanges that encouraged and permitted history to develop itself, the population that lived on the shore, were able to develop and expend themselves faster than elsewhere.
The intensification of commercial exchanges and naval traffic has, since the dawn of history, posed problems of legal nature connected essentially, but not exclusively, with the riskiness of shipments that have led the legislative authorities to codify those rules which were established spontaneously with the uses and customs of the navigators.
Due to this particular genesis, modern Navigation Law therefore has as its backbone a solid and ancient structure based on the consolidated maritime customs of the populations of the Mediterranean.

L’uomo naviga da tempi antichissimi, dapprima nei grandi fiumi della Mesopotamia e nel Nilo, e da qui avventurandosi nel mare aperto. In particolare nel Mediterraneo la Storia e la navigazione si sono sviluppate insieme consentendo quest’ultima la maggior parte delle interrelazioni commerciali, belliche e culturali che hanno formato la prima. Possiamo ben dire che la Storia si è sviluppata sulle sponde del Mediterraneo proprio perché, per mezzo della navigazione e degli scambi da essa propiziati e consentiti, i Popoli che vi affacciavano si sono potuti sviluppare più rapidamente che altrove.
L’intensificarsi degli scambi commerciali e del traffico navale ha sin dagli albori della storia posto tuttavia dei problemi di natura giuridica connessi essenzialmente, ma non esclusivamente, con la rischiosità delle spedizioni navali che hanno spinto le autorità legislative a codificare nel tempo quelle norme e regole che si formavano spontaneamente con gli usi e le consuetudini della gente di mare.
Per questa sua particolare genesi il Diritto della Navigazione moderno ha dunque come ossatura portante una solida e antichissima struttura basata sulle usanze marinare consolidate dei popoli del Mediterraneo.

The sudden appearance of portolan charts, realistic nautical charts of the Mediterranean and Black Sea, at the end of the thirteenth century is one of the most significant occurrences in the history of cartography. Using geodetic and statistical analysis techniques these charts are shown to be mosaics of partial charts that are considerably more accurate than has been assumed. Their accuracy exceeds medieval mapping capabilities. These sub-charts show a remarkably good agreement with the Mercator map projection. It is demonstrated that this map projection can only have been an intentional feature of the charts' construction. Through geodetic analysis the author eliminates the possibility that the charts are original products of a medieval Mediterranean nautical culture, which until now they have been widely believed to be. Map historians, medievalists and all those interested in the history of science. READERSHIP: For more information see http://www.brill.com/products/book/enigma-origin-portolan-charts View full information on http://www.brill.com/

Üç kıtanın iç bölgelerine etki eden limanlara sahip olması nedeniyle Akdeniz, her çağda ticarete elverişli bir ulaşım yolu olmuştur. Özellikle coğrafi keşifler öncesinde, bu denizi çevreleyen kıtalardaki hem doğal sınırlamalar(Alpler, Sahra Çölü), hem de karayolu ticaretinin güvenlik sorunları deniz ticaretini daha fazla tercih edilir hale getirmiştir. Akdeniz çerçevesinde ticari hatlar limanlarla ve dolayısıyla denizle bağlantılı olarak gelişmiştir. Ayrıca Avrupa’nın doğal kaynaklarının sınırlı olması, Doğu’yla ticari ilişkisini de zorunlu kılmıştır. Akdeniz kendisini kullanan güçleri karşı karşıya getirirken, aynı zamanda Batı ve Doğu arasında yoğun bilgi ve kültür paylaşımına da ortam sağlamıştır. Ticaretle birlikte bilimsel eserlerin üretiminin de artışı, bu yoğun paylaşımın da bir sonucudur.
Pîrî Reis coğrafya biliminde yazılı belgelerin en önemlilerinden biri sayılan Kitâb-ı Bahriye ile Akdeniz’le ilgili araştırmalara öncülük etmektedir. Pîrî Reis, Kitâb-ı Bahriye’de Çanakkale başlangıç ve bitiş yeri olmak üzere saat yönünün tersinde bir yol izleyerek gezdiği tüm Ege ve Akdeniz kıyılarını coğrafi özellikleriyle açıklamış ve haritalandırmıştır. Eserin yazıldığı dönemde Akdeniz’i çevreleyen alanlarda uzakyol karayolu taşımacılığının oldukça yetersiz kaldığı düşünülürse, deniz taşımacılığının ve limanların önemi görülmektedir. Pîrî Reis’in eserlerinde liman şehirlerini, ticareti yapılan ürünleri ve özelliklerini ayrıntılı olarak işlemesi, Akdeniz deniz ticaretinin 15-16.yy.’daki yoğunluğunun bir göstergesidir.
Çalışmamızda 15-16.yy.’da Akdeniz’de ticareti yapılan ürünlere ve mallara, deniz ticaretinin özelliklerine Kitâb-ı Bahriye’den örnekler verirken, liman şehirlerin harita çizimleriyle etki alanlarını ve önemlerini göstermeyi amaçlamaktayız.

En este trabajo se describe la construcción del Astrolabio Planisférico por los métodos geométricos que se utilizados en dos manuscritos españoles, que son:
1.- El "Libro Primero del Astrolabio Llano" incluido en el corpus de los "Libros del Saber de Astrología" de Alfonso X de Castilla.
2.- El cuaderno sobre la Construcción del Astrolabio de Ptolomeo" incluido en el corpus llamado "Fracmentos Mathematicos" de Fr. Joseph Maria Comellas de Mallorca.
Aunque muy distanciados en el tiempo. El manuscrito del "Libro Primero del Astrolabio Llano" es de 1276 y el de "Fracmentos Mathematicos" es de finales del Siglo XVII, la comparación de los métodos geométricos utilizados presenta un interés especial.

A multicentenária e desaparecida barca de passagem de Silhades (Freguesia do Felgar, Con-celho de Torre de Moncorvo, Distrito de Bragança) deixou de fazer a travessia fluvial entre as duas margens do rio Sabor no último quartel do século XX. Perdeu-se assim uma incomparável amostra do rico património fluvial transmontano. Felizmente, hoje dispomos de muitas e variadas fontes que nos permitem reconstruir a sua peculiar morfologia e plurisecular biografia. Com esta achega pretendemos apenas fazer uma primeira incursão à referida linha do tempo através de uma metodologia ancorada num registo alargado que nos fornece numerosos textos, memórias, imagens e materialidades residuais.

La guerra contra el Imperio otomano incrementó la demanda de remeros en las escuadras de galeras de la Monarquía hispánica. Para conseguirlos, la Corona dio a la pena de galeras un mayor peso dentro del sistema penal de sus territorios. Las reformas dictadas permitieron aumentar el número de galeotes aportados por Mallorca. La mayoría de ellos eran convictos procedentes de la parte foránea mallorquina, siendo menos numerosos los prisioneros de guerra franceses y los esclavos musulmanes. Desde la isla eran enviados a Barcelona, donde el tesorero real los remitía después generalmente a las galeras de Sicilia, aunque en varias ocasiones también fueron destinados a las de España. Para asegurarse de que la mayoría llegaba a la ciudad condal, los puertos de Palma y de Sóller fueron designados como puntos de envío.

"During the late Middle Age Mathematics and Geometry began to be used for navigational purposes, even if only in an empirical and experimental way.
La raxon de marteloio (with its toleta, i.e. a board) is one of the first applications to navigational purposes of mathematical knowledge, even if the sailors could not comprehend fully the geometrical and mathematical implications of the routes’calculation methods used in the raxon.
The use of taoleta is fully explained with navigational examples.

Este trabajo, es la introducción al estudio de las construcciones geométricas utilizadas en el "Libro Primero del Astrolabio Llano", que forma parte del corpus general de los "Libros del Saber de Astrología", que hizo recopilar el  Rey Alfonso X de Castilla, entre 1276 y 1277.
Manuscrito que se conserva en la Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
En este articulo se hace una introducción al Astrolabio Planisférico, a las partes de las que está constituido, cual es su fundamento teórico y cual es la pequeña Historia del Astrolabio desde que Ptolomeo lo trazó por primera vez, hasta que a través de los árabes llego a España y desde allí al mundo occidental desde donde originalmente había salido.

En el siguiente trabajo, continuación de este, se describen los métodos geométricos del manuscrito Alfonsí, que son muy similares a los utilizados por autores posteriores, como Johan Stöffler en su "Elucidatio Fabricae Ususque Astrolabii" de 1513, y se analizan desde el punto de vista trigonométrico.

Autobiography - During his circumnavigation in 1579, Francis Drake recorded a survey on Neahkahnie Mountain, Oregon by building cairns and then placing atop them incised rock markers which became known as the Treasure Rocks of Neahkahnie Mountain.  Letting all who pass know that a European Christian was here and claimed these lands.  This report was compiled from meetings conveyed to the author over a period of years by Wayne Jensen’s steps leading up to how he and Donald Viles made their discovery; the survey’s subsequent verification by Robert J. Schultz, A.S.C.E. and Phil Costaggini’s Oregon State University Master’s thesis Survey of Artifacts at Neahkahnie Mountain Oregon, and how symbols incised on the survey markers was ultimately deciphered.

Throughout history, the Norse people of the Viking Age (commonly referred to as “Vikings”) were known as violent marauders who raided, raped, and pillaged innocent coastal villages throughout Western Europe. While that may be true, they were also an expansive culture that established extensive trade routes, founded a number of cities that still stand today, and explored the North Atlantic further than any other European culture at the time. Few can deny the prowess of the Norse on the seas, but few realize their significant impact on oceanic exploration. The Norse people were accomplished sailors and particularly skilled navigators.

Casi todo lo que podría decirse sobre el descubrimiento de América y sus circunstancias se ha dicho ya. Este libro no aspira a descubrir el Descubrimiento ni a rectificar —aunque en algún punto no tenga más remedio que hacerlo— las conclusiones de tantos eruditos, historiadores, navegantes, que han dedicado su vida a la investigación sobre el tema. No renuncia a decir cosas nuevas, o renovadas, o mejor explicadas. Pero sobre todo busca dejar claro, de una manera sencilla, ligera de términos técnicos, uno de los más grandes secretos del Descubrimiento de América: cómo se orientó Colón en el primer viaje que el hombre hizo, consciente y deliberadamente, a través del Océano, y cómo, en virtud de la ruta y de los elementos que lo condujeron, pudo llegar precisamente a donde llegó, y no a otro rincón del mundo.

El estudio del viaje, sus fundamentos y sus jornadas nos permite seguir paso a paso una de las más bellas aventuras del hombre y también una de las más ricas en frutos. Se prescinden adrede de toda expresión matemática y de todo aparato crítico, documental o historiográfico; no porque para elaborarlas no se hayan utilizado, sino porque aspiran a expresar con viveza y naturalidad todo el encanto de una aventura que fue al mismo tiempo maravillosa y cierta.

O artigo aqui apresentado tem como objetivo uma análise do Imaginário Romano do Oriente no século I E.C.. Pretende-se fazê-la a partir de trechos retirados do texto anônimo intitulado “O Périplo do Mar Eritreu”, o qual narra portos, cidades e povos descritos pelo autor como parte da jornada realizada através desse universo plural que, em sua época, englobava a Costa Leste da África, a Península Arábica e a Índia.

"No subject in science can be deeply understood without the history of its roots and the human story behind it. This fine collection of essays does precisely that. It offers a well edited and refreshing approach to the way ‘monsters’ are produced about the past of Easter Island (Rapa Nui) when we put our scientific mind to rest. The bundle is concluded with a nice and very welcome overview of the state of affairs in the field of rongorongo inscriptions". - Jan J. Boersema, Leiden University, Author of "The Survival of Easter Island" (CUP, 2015)

Presents new DNA evidence regarding a very old controversy - whether the two titled Drake families of Devon are related. Steps through the careers and ancestry of Sir Francis and Sir Bernard Drake, and the various disagreements that  have followed interpretations of the life of Sir Francis over the past 200 years. Presents an indication that these Drakes are related more than 1000 but less than 2000 years ago, and might possibly be the result of a very early Scandinavian settlement in the south of England. Recommends further DNA and archaeological investigation.

A recent National Highway Authority report predicts over 4-fold increase in trade volume by 2025 in Pakistan. Current trajectory of transportation infrastructure development in the country points that highways and motorways would take the bulk of this volume. The existing literature, however, suggests that inland waterways can handle 70 and 16 times more cargo than roads and railroads respectively. Additionally, waterways are 700/70 times safer in terms of accidents, 5/3 times more fuel efficient, and, 11/1.5 times less emitting than roads/railroads. Inland waterways, therefore, are an obvious mode for transportation both in developed and developing countries. However, despite having sizeable rivers in Pakistan this mode of transportation remains absent. This study has investigated the potential of inland water transportation in Pakistan and finds that it is technically possible and can become socioeconomically sustainable when implemented with a systematic phase-wise plan. The study also points that existing water usage in the agriculture sector, due to its inefficiency and wastage, is the biggest impediment to reach the optimum potential of the inland navigation in our rivers and recommends a parallel approach in improving irrigation efficiency along with the development of inland waterways.

Planck's Black Body Radiation Law is proved starting from the kinetic theory of gases. All mathematical steps are included, including a proof of Stirling's formula for factorial N, and use of the methods of statistical mechanics to derive Boltzmann's energy distribution. A derivation of the formula for radiation pressure is given which uses a simplistic approach, also a more stringent procedure is described in an Appendix by analysing reflection from a perfect conductor using Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism. Stefan's law is derived using thermodynamics principles and the radiation pressure.By integrating Planck's Radiation Law, the relationships between the constants in the Wien and Stefan-Boltzmann equations and the fundamental physical constants are established.

El presente ensayo ofrece una sistematización de un corpus de información etnográfica relativa a ciertos seres y objetos del agua entre los mayas chontales de Tabasco; se analiza la lógica por la que dichos seres se vinculan conceptualmente con los fenómenos de propiciación, reproducción o interconexión de las distintas clases de agua en la cosmología yokot’anob. En análisis se concentra en dos deidades -Ix Bolon y Yumpa’-, una serie de animales acuáticos mitológicamente emparentados -como el lagarto o cocodrilo, las tortugas hicotea y guao, y el pejelagarto-, así como un tipo de embarcación de uso tradicional en la navegación indígena regional: el cayuco, cuya agencia y animacidad derivan, desde la perspectiva chontal, del chapopote con el que se recubre durante su fabricación, atribuido a la deidad Ix Bolon.

This paper offers a systematization of a corpus of ethnographic information concerning certain water beings and objects among the Maya Chontal of Tabasco; it analyzes the logic and representations by which these beings are conceptually linked to the phenomena of propitiation, reproduction or interconnection of the different types of water in the Yokot'anob cosmology. The analysis is focused on two deities -Ix Bolon and Yumpa'-; a series of mythologically related aquatic animals -such as the alligator or crocodile, the Hicotea (Trachemys venusta) and Guao (Staurotypus triporcatus) turtles, and the pejelagarto (tropical gar)-, as well as a traditional canoe used in regional navigation: the cayuco, whose agency and animation are given by the chapopote-asphalt, which is dispensed by Ix Bolon.

A comienzos del siglo XVI España y Portugal comenzaban a consolidar lo que serian imperios marítimos que abarcarían el mundo conocido. De la misma forma procedía el imperio Otomano a una escala mas reducida, pero igualmente creando un enorme imperio marítimo islámico. El almirante Piri Reis es un personaje que supo sacar lo mejor de esta coyuntura y su mapa es, sin duda, el producto de una serie de encuentros y desencuentros entre estos dos imperios marítimos en expansión. Tras la caída de Constantinopla en 1453 el naciente imperio Otomano comenzó a procurarse los medios para asegurar su expansión en los territorios vecinos a la antigua Bizancio y en el Mediterráneo oriental. En los años posteriores, el enfrentamiento naval con Venecia obligo a los gobernantes Otomanos a crear una flota marítima de gran escala y a buscar navegantes y marinero experimentados para operarla. Habiendo ya absorbido a los remanentes de la flota de Bizancio la única alternativa era reclutar capitanes y pilotos provenientes de los corsarios musulmanes que operaban en el mediterráneo en las fronteras con el occidente cristiano.

An interdisciplinary study that draws together geography, historical navigation data, and eyewitness accounts into a comprehensive picture of one of the world’s great rivers.

This ground-breaking view of the navigational landscape of the Nile in medieval Egypt draws on a broad range of sources: medieval Arabic geographies; traveler accounts; archaeology; and meteorological, hydrological, and geological studies. John Cooper first charts the changing geography of the Nile waterways, particularly in the Delta, from the eve of Islam to the early modern period, and logs the “rise and fall” of these waterways for natural and/or anthropogenic reasons. He then presents a new perspective on the Nile, drawing on traveler accounts and environmental data to portray the river as a uniquely challenging and sometimes dangerous navigational environment requiring extensive local knowledge by skilled and hard-working Nile navigators. Finally, he looks at how the main Delta and Red Sea ports of medieval Egypt fitted into the navigational landscape described, explaining how these ports were affected by changes occurring to the navigational landscape, and how they reflected the navigational conditions of the Nile and surrounding seas.

История развития древнего водного транспорта насчитывает многие тысячелетия, но, к сожалению, археологические находки древних лодок очень редки. К тому же, не всегда удается сохранить находку для музейного хранения и экспонирования, должным образом законсервировать и отреставрировать ее. Отдельной проблемой является установление возраста найденных лодок, так как типологические характеристики часто не позволяют его определить. Особенно это касается наиболее архаичных по конструкции судов – лодок-долбленок. Наиболее результативным методом определения возраста этих находок является метод радиоуглеродного датирования. В этой работе мы всесторонне рассматриваем 50 археологических находок долбленых лодок, найденных в интервале начиная от конца XIX в. и до 2020 г.

SIR  FRANCIS DRAKE'S NORTHWEST EXPLORATION: 
AN HISTORICAL DISCUSSION AND SURVEY OF ARTIFACTS AT
NEAHKAHNIE MOUNTAIN, OREGON.
  Submitted as a Project by Phillip A. Costaggini. In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for Master's Degree in Engineering  Surveys Oregon state University Corvallis, Oregon Major Professor: Robert J. Schultz, P.E. P.L.S., Oregon

Морское дело и развитие морской инфраструктуры являются важнейшими показателями эффективности использования наукоемких технологий, общегеографических знаний и созидательного творчества морских инженеров и авторитетных мореплавателей, при которых хорошая морская практика исключает возможность «изобретательства без пользы для реального морского дела».

Современный флот, как правило, имеет фундаментальное преимущество перед средневековыми кораблями и старинными пароходами, выражающееся в избыточном запасе мощности главных двигателей. Надежная работа машин позволяет активно маневрировать для предотвращения жестких захватов корпуса штормовой волной, а при неизбежном возникновении опасных коллизий, уверенно восстанавливать выбранный режим движения: вновь и вновь достигая заданной ходкости, или оптимизируя курс и скорость для умерения штормовой качки. В то же время, избыток мощности двигателей имеет следствием повышенный расход топлива на дальних переходах по тихому морю.

В настоящем исследовании целесообразно воспользоваться поверенными хорошей морской практикой шедеврами кораблестроения эпохи становления океанского мореходства, когда непротиворечивое проектирование и единение корабля со штормовой стихией доверялось исключительно авторитетным мореплавателям. На этом пути можно выявить главные режимы штормового плавания корабля; означить рекомендации штурману по выбору курса и скорости для эффективного решения поставленных задач в любых: сложных, штормовых и ледовых условиях плавания; и, как следствие, путем сравнения выявить ключевые элементы формы корпуса и общекорабельной архитектуры для нового перспективного корабля, наилучшим образом отвечающем его предназначению.

В настоящей работе приводится обобщение многолетних поисковых исследований в области непротиворечивого целевого проектирования кораблей и судов, с примерами постановки задач об эффективном мореходстве, и их оптимального решения для конкретных вариантов перспективных проектов кораблей и судов. Используемые способы постановки, реализации и контроля проектных изысканий привносят инженерные достижения морских наук, и одновременно ограничивают разнообразие инженерно-технических новаций в соответствии с предназначением будущего корабля.