Sassanian Studies

Abstract
This article examines the longstanding rivalry of Rome and Parthia, which began as an unintended consequence of Crassus’ decisive defeat at Carrhae in 53 BCE. It synthesizes the accounts and opinions of numerous Graeco-Roman writers from the Augustan Age to late antiquity in order to help illustrate the new and interconnected post-Carrhae world and its legacy. The rivalry of the Romans and Parthians became a primary focus of their foreign policies and drastically expanded their perceptions of the world in which they interacted. Even after the fall of the Parthians to the rebellious Sassanid Persians in the 220s CE, the Romans continued to find their three-century-long rivalry with the Parthians of interest and relevant to the changing world of late antiquity.

ÖZET: Bizans ve Sâsânî İmparatorlukları arasında akdedilen barış antlaşmalarındaki iktisâdî hükümlerin değerlendirilmesi, bu savaşların arkasında yatan, ticâret yollarının kontrolünden kaynaklı iktisâdî sebeplerin de anlaşılmasını sağlayacak mahiyettedir. 562 yılında akdedilen Dara Antlaşmasının tam metni günümüze ulaştığından, antlaşma metni temelinde inceleme yapılabilmesi mümkündür. Antlaşmanın başlıca iktisadî hükümleri, devletlerarası ticaretin sadece belirli şehirlerle sınırlandırılması, elçilere ve diplomatik heyetlere verilen ticâret izni, her iki devletin tabiyetindeki Arap tüccarların ve tüm diğer tüccarların da Nisibis ve Dara üzerinden mutabık olunan ticari yolları takip etmeleri ve yeni ticari yollar denememeleridir. Bu hükümler, eski antlaşmalar ve yasal düzenlemeler temelinde tetkik edileceği gibi, Iustinianus döneminde yeni ticâret yolları tesis etme çabası, Bizans İmparatorluğunda ipekli dokuma sektörünün teşekkülü gibi girişimler, Sâsânîlerin İpek Yolu’nun ana ticârî güzergâhlarını kontrolünde tutmasının yarattığı sorunlar göz önüne alınarak tarihsel bağlamda değerlendirilecektir. Bu çalışmada, ticari ilişkilerin eski durumuna geri döndürülerek restore edilmesi çabasının Bizans-Sâsânî savaşlarının bir bir boyutunu teşkil etme ihtimali de tartışılacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Bizans-Sâsânî Savaşları, Bizans-Sâsânî İktisâdî ve Ticârî İlişkileri.

ABSTRACT: An evaluation of the economic clauses of the peace treaties that were concluded between Byzantine and Sāssānid Empires, can make us understand the underlying economic factors that was based on controlling the trade routes. Since we have the full text of the treaty of Dara that was concluded between the Byzantine and Sāssānid Empires in 562 AD, it is possible to make a research based on this text. The main economic clauses in the treaty contains the limitation of the interstate commerce by certain cities, the permission to trade of the ambassadors and the diplomatic envoys, and the constraint of the Arabian merchants and all other merchants that are subjects of either state for trying new trade routes and their enforcement to follow the agreed trade routes by Nisibis and Dara. These clauses will be examined on the basis of older treaties and legal regulations,  on the historical context of the effort to establish new trade routes and the attemp to establish the silk weaving industry in Justinian’s times and regarding the problems caused by the Persians' controlling of the main trade routes of the Silk Road. In this work, the possibility of the restoration effort of the commercial relations to its previous state as one of the aspects of the Byzantine-Sāssānid wars, will also be discussed.

Keywords: Byzantine-Sasanian Wars, Byzantine-Sasanian Economic and Commercial Relations.

ABSZTRAKT: A Bizánci és a Sāssānid Birodalom között megkötött békeszerződések gazdasági záradékainak értékelése segíthet megérteni a mögöttes gazdasági tényezőket, amelyek a kereskedelmi útvonalak ellenőrzésén alapultak. Mivel rendelkezésünkre áll a Bizánci és a Sāssānid Birodalom között Kr. u. 562-ben kötött dárai szerződés teljes szövege, lehetőség van arra, hogy a szöveg alapján kutatást végezzünk. A szerződés főbb gazdasági záradékai tartalmazzák az államközi kereskedelem korlátozását bizonyos városok által, a követek és diplomáciai követek kereskedelmének engedélyezését, valamint az arab kereskedők és minden más, bármelyik állam alattvalójának számító kereskedő korlátozását új kereskedelmi útvonalak kipróbálására, és a Nisibis és Dara által megállapított kereskedelmi útvonalak követésére való kényszerítését. Ezeket a záradékokat a régebbi szerződések és jogi szabályozások alapján, az új kereskedelmi útvonalak létrehozására irányuló törekvések és a selyemszövőipar létrehozására tett kísérletek történelmi kontextusában vizsgáljuk meg Jusztiniánusz idejében, valamint a Selyemút fő kereskedelmi útvonalainak perzsák általi ellenőrzése által okozott problémák tekintetében. Ebben a munkában a kereskedelmi kapcsolatok korábbi állapotának helyreállítására irányuló erőfeszítések lehetőségét, mint a bizánci-sāssānid háborúk egyik szempontját is tárgyaljuk.

Kulcsszavak: Bizánci-szaszanida háborúk, bizánci-szaszanida gazdasági és kereskedelmi kapcsolatok.

АБСТРАКТ: Оценка экономических положений мирных договоров, заключенных между Византийской и Сасанидской империями, может помочь нам понять экономические факторы, которые лежали в основе контроля над торговыми путями. Поскольку у нас есть полный текст Дарийского договора, заключенного между Византийской и Сасанидской империями в 562 году н. э., можно провести исследование на основе этого текста. Основные экономические пункты договора содержат ограничение межгосударственной торговли определенными городами, разрешение на торговлю послам и дипломатическим посланникам, а также ограничение арабских купцов и всех других купцов, подданных обоих государств, на новые торговые пути и их принуждение следовать согласованным торговым маршрутам Нисибиса и Дары. Эти положения будут рассмотрены на основе более древних договоров и правовых норм, в историческом контексте попыток установления новых торговых путей и создания шелкоткацкой промышленности во времена Юстиниана, а также в связи с проблемами, вызванными контролем персов над основными торговыми путями Шелкового пути. В этой работе также будет обсуждаться возможность восстановления торговых отношений до прежнего состояния как один из аспектов византийско-сасанидских войн.

Ключевые слова: Византийско-сасанидские войны, византийско-сасанидские экономические и торговые отношения.

Peri Hermeneias of Paul the Persian is a summary of Aristotles Peri Hermeneias figure by Paul the Persian in Middle Persian and translated to Syriac by Severus Sebokht. That's translated from Syriac to English by Said Hayati and Paul Stevenson.

The book is available to order from: https://reichert-verlag.de/schlagworte/altaegyptischer_stil_schlagwort/9783954902439_ancient_engraved_gems_in_the_national_museum_in_krakow-detail

This book is a catalogue raisonée of a rich collection of ancient engraved gems housed in the National Museum in Krakow. It offers a thorough insight into ancient glyptic art through the considerable range of almost 780 so far unpublished objects – cameos, intaglios, scarabs and finger rings of various styles, workmanship and cultural circles: Egyptian, Near Eastern, Minoan, Greek, Etruscan, Italic, Roman, Sassanian and early Christian, dated from the second millennium BC to the seventh century AD.

Many pieces in this cabinet are notable not only for their top quality in terms of craftsmanship and design, but also for the materials used and engravings involving complex iconography illustrating religious beliefs, political allegiances, needs and desires that ancient people wished to be fulfill, fears, dangers and terrors from which they sought protection and even their daily occupations. The collection provides with a fascinating gallery of portrait studies presenting Hellenistic rulers and their queens, Roman emperors and members of their families as well as some private individuals. Some specimens are exceptional and unparalleled like the onyx cameo portraying Drusus Maior, likely executed by the hand of Eutyches, son of famous Dioscurides (cover) or a tiny but remarkably cut emerald cameo with a laureate portrait bust of Livia Drusilla as goddess Venus. Some objects have been preserved in their original settings (gold, silver, bronze, iron rings), which contributes to the study of ancient gems’ chronology and indicate their users, while others have been later re-set into eighteenth- and nineteenth-century collectors’ rings and sometimes more elaborated mounts. There are also pieces discoloured due to contact with considerable heat, which may suggest them to have been burnt with other personal objects on the funeral pyres and later deposited in burials. Noteworthy is the number of Greek and Latin inscriptions appearing on intaglios and cameos forming this cabinet. They span from owners’ names to the subtle messages communicated between lovers and invocations to the God.

Each gem is thoroughly analysed, described and exhaustively commented as to the device it bears, chronology and possible workshop attribution. A vast number of parallel objects is referenced too. This combined with provenance study presented in the first part of the book enabled to establish where a number of intaglios and cameos were manufactured, including almost 140 objects most likely to origin from the most important Roman workshop located in Aquileia. It ought to be singled out that many gems in this volume once constituted a part of distinguished collections formed by such personalities as Tobias von Biehler, Alessandro Gregorio Capponi, Auguste le Carpentier, Alessandro Castellani, Comte de Caylus, Count Nikolai Nikitich Demidoff, Baron Albert de Hirsch, Jean François Leturcq, Sibylle Mertens-Schaaffhausen, Dr. George Frederick Nott, Benedetto Pistrucci, James-Alexandre de Pourtalès (Comte de Pourtalès-Gorgier), Paul von Praun, Andrey Kirillovich Razumovsky, Jacques Meffre Rouzan, Philipp von Stosch, Antonio Maria Zanetti and many more. They seemed lost for more than 130 years, but now have been brought back and are accessible to everyone. Consequently, the volume presents three intriguing stories of collectors whose donations contributed to the Krakow assemblage. They not only provide the reader with a sort of background for the objects discussed further, but also illustrate nineteenth- and early twentieth-century collecting practices and the art market for engraved gemstones, contributing to our knowledge of the history of scholarship and collecting. In summary, this book is intended to be useful not only for scholars interested in gems, but also those who study the history of the art market and collecting as well as all the enthusiasts of Classical art and archaeology.

Государство Сасанидов — последняя иранская держава доисламской эпохи — просуществовало более четырех веков. Оно пережило могущество Рима и на равных боролось с Византией. Его политическое и культурное влияние распространялось в Западную Европу, Африку, Индию и Китай, его купцы держали в своих руках восточную торговлю. Чеканившиеся при Сасанидах серебряные дирхемы проникали и в Поднебесную империю, и на территорию франков, их сохраняли в своих капищах ханты и манси далекой Сибири. Однако, объединив к 620 году под своей властью огромную территорию, включавшую Иран, Месопотамию, Малую Азию, Сирию, Палестину, Египет, династия Сасанидов стремительно свое могущество утратила и спустя всего тридцать лет рухнула под ударами арабов. Последний ее шахиншах Йездегерд III, оставшись в полном одиночестве, был зарезан грабителем из-за шкатулки с драгоценностями…

When the region of Gandhara, located in modern day Pakistan and Afghanistan, began mass producing art, around 100 CE, to when they were invaded by a group called the Ephthalites in 463 CE, depictions of a Buddhist demon called Mara continually changed. In Buddhist mythology, this demon is seen as the physical manifestation of desire. He is predominantly known for being present during the enlightenment of the Buddha. In this thesis, I argue that Gandharan artists depicted Mara in their sculptures and reliefs in the form of the various invaders and armies that threatened the region. Therefore, when the Gandharans were threatened by the Bactrians, they depicted Mara as Bactrian and when they were threatened by the Sassanians, they depicted Mara as Sassanian and so on and so forth. By comparing artwork from Gandhara, Iran and Bactria and examining excavation reports and journals, I show how Gandharan artists repeatedly demonized enemy armies by associating them with the demon Mara. Primarily this was done by equipping Mara with arms and armor typical of the invading forces.

Central to the main ideas of this thesis is the idea of syncretism—the incorporation of iconography from different belief systems or cultural ideas and intermixing them with another cultures. Gandhara was located at the borders of many empires throughout history and was subject to many different invading forces. This led to different people with varying beliefs and creeds to live in close proximity to each other. For example, this led to many examples of syncretism depicting the Buddha in the way the Greeks depicted Zeus. By examining the idea of syncretism in Gandharan art, I will show that artists in the area not only incorporated other religious traditions into their art, but also incorporated the clothing, weaponry and other cultural aspects of invading forces throughout their history into their art of Mara.

Along the history of Sassanid’s Empire many landmarks marked its turns. But the most important internal issues the kings Shapur I and Khosrau II had to go through were the political, military, social and administrative reforms that they had to imposse to ensure the empire and their power.

In modern historiography, Sasanian Iran is commonly perceived as a land power. However, various primary sources indicate that the Sasanian navy played an important role in the military efforts of the Persians in late antiquity. The Sasanian navy was established to ensure the external security of the Persian state by exerting control over the sea lanes in the Persian Gulf region, and based on the aspiration of the Sasanid authorities to enhance their military and political, as well as commercial, influence in the northern part of the Indian Ocean. The most dynamic phase of the Persian navy’s activities occurred during the reign of Khosrow Anushirwan (531–579 CE), when fleet operations enabled the Persians to conquer Yemen and there was an attempt to establish the navy in the Black Sea basin. The last phase of Sasanian naval activity took place during the Byzantine–Persian war of 602–628 CE. In this conflict, the Persian fleet initially achieved some success in the Mediterranean Sea, but eventually it was completely defeated by the more skillful Byzantine navy. The main areas of the Persian navy’s activities were the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea. The Sasanids’ attempts to establish fleets in the Black Sea in the 540s and Mediterranean in the 620s were ended by Byzantium. After the fall of the Sasanian Empire, Persian ships became part of the Arabian armed forces and for some time continued to participate in wars on the side of the Arabs, whose victories over the Byzantines were, to some extent, due to the naval experience of the Persians.

In modern historiography, Sasanian Iran is commonly perceived as a land power. However, various primary sources indicate that the Sasanian navy played an important role in the military efforts of the Persians in late antiquity. The Sasanian navy was established to ensure the external security of the Persian state by exerting control over the sea lanes in the Persian Gulf region, and based on the aspiration of the Sasanid authorities to enhance their military and political, as well as commercial, influence in the northern part of the Indian Ocean. The most dynamic phase of the Persian navy’s activities occurred during the reign of Khosrow Anushirwan (531–579 CE), when fleet operations enabled the Persians to conquer Yemen and there was an attempt to establish the navy in the Black Sea basin. The last phase of Sasanian naval activity took place during the Byzantine–Persian war of 602–628 CE. In this conflict, the Persian fleet initially achieved some success in the Mediterranean Sea, ...

Sakestan has always been an important region during the Sassanian era. The mints of this region have been the most active of all in Iranshahr from the reign of Khosrow I to Khosrow II, demonstrating the full dominance of Sassanians over Sakestan. After the death of Khosrow II, the mints of the region were inactive intermittently. A coin from the reign of Ardashir III which is currently kept in Hazrat Masumeh Museum of Qom is the only gold coin found of this king and the first with the mint mark of Sakestan. In this research, apart from studying this coin and comparing the findings with archeological data from the late Sassanian period in Sakestan, the political situation of southeastern Iran after Khosrow II has been explored using the archeological and historical data. This paper is considered an original research concerning its objective, and a historical and analytical-descriptive research in terms of its methodology and context. Data and information gathering were carried out in the field and library. Based on the results of this study, it seems that Sakestan region was under the control of the main branch of Sassanian dynasty, loyal to Khosrow II during the late Sassanian period. The importance of this study is that it can clarify the political status of southeastern Iran in the late Sassanian period based on new findings.
ناحیه‌ سکستان همواره در دوران ساسانی از اهمیت خاصی برخوردار بوده است. از دوران خسرو یکم تا خسرو دوم ضراب‌خانه‌ منتسب به این منطقه از فعال‌ترین ضراب‌خانه‌های ایرانشهر به شمار می‌رفته که نشانگر تسلط کامل ساسانیان بر این منطقه است. پس از مرگ خسرو دوم ضراب‌خانه‌ این ناحیه در مقاطع گوناگون زمانی فاقد فعالیت بوده است. امروزه سکه‌ای متعلق به اردشیر سوم در موزه‌ آستانه‌ مقدسه‌ حضرت معصومه(س) قم نگهداری می‌شود که تنها سکه‌ طلا از این شاهنشاه ساسانی و همچنین نخستین سکه از وی با علامت ضراب‌خانه‌ سکستان می‌باشد که تاکنون به‌دست‌آمده است. در این پژوهش سعی شده تا ضمن مطالعه‌ این سکه‌ نویافته و سنجش آن در کنار سایر یافته‌های باستان‌شناختی به‌دست‌آمده از اواخر دوران ساسانی در سکستان، وضعیت سیاسی نواحی جنوب شرقی ایران در دوران پس از خسرو دوم، بر‌اساس شواهد تاریخی و داده‌های باستان‌شناختی موردبررسی قرار گیرد. این مقاله از نظر هدف تحقیق از نوع تحقیقات بنیادی و ازنظر روش و ماهیت تحقیق نیز پژوهشی تاریخی و توصیفی-تحلیلی محسوب می‌گردد، همچنین گردآوری داده‌ها در آن به‌ صورت میدانی-کتابخانه‌ای است. بر‌اساس نتایج حاصل از این پژوهش به نظر می‌رسد که ناحیه‌ سکستان در اواخر دوران ساسانی تحت فرمانروایی شاخه‌ اصلی دودمان ساسانی و وفادار به خسرو دوم بوده است. این مقاله از این منظر مورد اهمیت است که می‌تواند وضعیت گرایش‌های سیاسی جنوب شرقی ایران در اواخر دوره‌ ساسانی را بر‌اساس یافته‌ای نوین تا حدود زیادی روشن سازد.

Tras la caída del Imperio parto a manos de Ardešīr, el nacimiento de la nueva Persia sasánida llevo aparejada la aparición de un nuevo poder en Oriente Próximo que sustentaría su cohesión y expansión en la fuerza militar. A lo largo de su historia los sasánidas no solo tuvieron que hacer frente a numerosos problemas internos, sino que debieron desarrollar su estrategia militar, heredera de la tradición parta, para poder enfrentarse con garantías a poderosos enemigos como el Imperio romano-bizantino, los hunos, los heftalitas o los turcos goks. Finalmente, un imperio desgastado por los constantes enfrentamientos no podría resistir al empuje de los árabes musulmanes tras cuatro siglos de historia.

The article is devoted to the history of Sasanian Iran as it reported by the great Khwarezmian scholar Biruni (973–1048). Information concerning to the Sasanids can be found in almost all Biruni’s survived books, but mainly In his “Chronology of Ancient Nations”. Biruni’s data is an important source for the study of not only Islamic but also pre-Islamic (i.e. Sasanian) age of Iranian history.

در میان چهارطاقی‌های ساسانی که تا به امروز شناسایی شده‌اند، بیشترین تعداد آن‌ها در جنوب ایران و در نواحی فارس و کرمان قرار دارند که دراین‌بین چهارطاقی‌های کرمان به سبب دورافتادگی تا حدود زیادی ناشناخته مانده‌اند. تا به امروز شناخت معماری مذهبی دوره‌ی ساسانی در نواحی کرمان به پژوهش‌های واندنبرگ در دهه‌ی 60 سده‌ی بیستم میلادی محدود می‌شود. در پژوهش پیش‌رو براساس یافته های نوینی که از آوار برداری و پاکسازی محوطه‌های علی‌آباد و رحمت‌آباد بدست آمده نگارندگان سعی کردند ضمن مطالعه و مقایسه‌ی ویژگیهای معماری دو بنای مذکور به این پرسش پاسخ دهند که چهار‌طاقی‌های مطالعه شده در این مقاله از نظر کیفیت مذهبی به کدام یک از آتش‌های مقدس سه‌گانه در دین زرتشتی شامل آتش‌های بهرام، آدران و دادگاه قابل انتساب هستند؟ این پژوهش ازنظر ماهیت‌ و ‌روش، پژوهشی توصیفی-تحلیلی بوده و گردآوری داده‌ها به‌صورت میدانی و کتابخانه‌ای است. نتایج حاصل از این پژوهش بیانگر این نکته است که چهارطاقی‌های مطالعه شده علاوه بر راهروی پیرامونی دارای فضاهای معماری متصل دیگری نیز بوده و بر اساس ویژگی‌های معماری و مکانی که دارا هستند می توانند با آتش «دادگاه» مرتبط باشند. این پژوهش از این منظر می‌تواند اهمیت داشته باشد که ضمن ارائه‌ی پلانی جدید از چهارطاقی‌های مطالعه شده، جایگاه مذهبی نوینی برای آن‌ها مطرح کرده که می‌تواند برای سایر چهارطاقی‌های ساسانی با ویژگی‌های معماری مشابه نیز قابل ارائه باشد.
A large number of ChaharTaqis that have been identified so far are located in the south part of Iran, Fars and Kerman regions. However, Kerman ChaharTaqis due to their location in the remote areas are less known. Our knowledge about Sasanian religious architecture is limited to the investigations done by Vanden berghe in the 1960's. In this study, Aliabad and Rahmatabad ChaharTaqis which are located in the south-west part of Kerman province, in Orzouyeh County, both in architectural and religious typology will be studied based on new findings. First of all, the type of the architecture in these buildings will be studied. After that, in comparison with other similar structures and writing resources as well, their religious quality will be evaluated by the authors. This study, it is a fundamental research, with descriptive-analytical methodology and nature, while data collected bibliographically and following fieldwork. The results of this research indicate that some ChaharTaqis such as the ChaharTaqis studied in this research could be considered as a “Dadgah” fireplace in Sassanian period. This study due to the new architecture features of these ChaharTaqis describing in this paper and offering a new usage for them would be considerable.

Tang-i-Chakchak complex is located at eastern Fars Province. As one of the biggest religious Sassanid architectural complex, it consists of two main architectural spaces including a Chahartaq or a domical squared space. One of the two main spaces, with a square plan, considered the place of maintenance of the holy fire. Present paper attempts to suggest a plan of the structure of the religious architecture, during Sassanid period, following investigating architectural square space of Tang-i-Chakchak in comparison to similar structural spaces, in order to understand historical and realistic function of the building. Purposefully, it is a fundamental research, with a historical and descriptive-analytical methodology and nature, while data collected bibliographically and following fieldwork. The conclusions present a modern classification of the sanctuaries attributed to Anāhitā during Sassanid period, consisted of two different religious architectural spaces, furthermore, there is an introduction of the square architectural space of Chakchak as a sanctuary that attributed to Anāhitā. Some of the religious spaces relate to Arədvī Sūrā Anāhitā the ancient Zoroastrian goddess, and some other structures connect to Anāhitā, with Mesopotamian origin. The architectural spaces indicate various religious attitude for different reason, not a development during Sassanid period. It appears that there was an attempt to diminish the latter, for their non-Zoroastrian origin during late Sassanid phase. Present paper potentially is Important for suggesting a new structure of the sanctuaries of Anāhitā, in addition to revising earlier theories and assigned structure to Anāhitā, which explain various religious attitude within Zoroastrian framework during Late Antiquity of Iranian history.

آتشکده‌ی آذرفرنبغ که براساس متون تاریخی به روحانیان زرتشتی تعلق دارد، در کنار نیایشگاه‌های آذرگشنسپ و آذربرزین‌مهر، به‌عنوان یکی از سه آتشکده‌ی بزرگ دوره‌ی ساسانی به‌شمار می‌رود. شرق‌شناسان و باستان‌شناسانی که تاکنون در زمینه‌ی سازه‌های مذهبی دوره‌ی ساسانی به پژوهش پرداخته‌اند، بر این موضوع اتفاق‌نظر داشته‌اند که مکان احتمالی این نیایشگاه از اوایل دوره‌ی ساسانی در کاریان فارس قرار داشته است. از مطالعه‌ی متون مرتبط با مکان آتشکده‌ی آذرفرنبغ می‌توان به این نکته پی‌برد که باوجود اشارات منابع دوران اسلامی به وجود آتشکده‌ای مهم در کاریان، غالب آن‌ها به‌صراحت از یکسان بودن آتشکده‌های کاریان صدر اسلام و آذرفرنبغ دوره‌ی ساسانی سخن نگفته‌اند. در این پژوهش سعی گردیده تا به این پرسش که مکان نیایشگاه آذرفرنبغ در دوره‌ی ساسانی در کجا قرار داشته و در صورت جابه‌جایی در چه بازه‌ی زمانی جابه‌جا شده، پاسخ داده شود. تحقیق پیش‌رو براساس هدف، از نوع تحقیقات بنیادی و از نظر ماهیت و روش، از نوع تحقیقات تاریخی و توصیفی-تحلیلی می‌باشد؛ برای گردآوری داده‌ها در ابتدا به‌صورت کتابخانه‌ای منابع مکتوب تاریخی مرتبط با مکان این نیایشگاه که عموماً سده‌های سوم تا هفتم هـ.ق. را دربر می‌گیرند، مورد مطالعه و از سنجش و آن‌ها با یکدیگر محدوده‌ی احتمالی مکان آذرفرنبغ مشخص گردیده، سپس به‌صورت میدانی-کتابخانه‌ای و با بررسی‌های باستان‌شناختی سازه‌های مذهبی حائز شرایط، مورد مشاهده و مطالعه قرارگرفته‌اند تا درنهایت با تطبیق و مقایسه‌ی نتایج به‌دست‌ آمده، مکان احتمالی نیایشگاه آذرفرنبغ و هم‌چنین تاریخ احتمالی تغییر مکان آن مورد تحلیل و سنجش واقع گردد. این پژوهش از این منظر، می‌تواند مورد اهمیت باشد که احتمالات نوینی را در رابطه با مکان آتشکده‌ی آذرفرنبغ معرفی می‌نماید. نتایج این پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که مکان احتمالی آتشکده‌ی آذرفرنبغ در مدت طولانی از حکومت ساسانیان در نزدیکی دارابگرد بوده و احتمالاً در اواخر این عصر و یا حتی در زمانی پس از دوره‌ی ساسانی، شاید به مناطق دیگری مانند کاریان منتقل‌شده است.
Topics related to religion and religious structures are a major focus on the debates concerning Sasanian Iran. The best sources of research are archeological evidences and written documents in the first centuries of the Islamic conquest. Since the late 19th century, finding the location of the three major fire temples of Ādur Farnbāg, Ādur Burzēn-Mihr and Ādur Gušnasp became an important aspect of study concerning the religions of Ancient Iran and the Sasanian period. In the mid-20th century, German archeologists found the exact location of Ādur Gušnasp, presenting important findings about religious architecture of Sasanian Iran. However, the other two fire temples have not yet been found. Ādur Farnbāg, belonging to the Zoroastrian priests according to historical texts, is one of these three. Archeologists and Orientalists focusing on Sasanian religious structures have concurred that the possible location of this fire temple is Kāriyān in Fars. In this study, examining the historical texts covering 3rd -7th A.H. that mention Ādur Farnbāg and comparing the findings to the archeological results concerning Sasanian religious structures, especially those located in Fars, the proposed locations have been examined and possible new sites have been offered as well. As a fundamental research, present study naturally and methodically is historic - descriptive. Required information collected bibliographically and from field surveys which analyzed and interpreted combining using “historic approach” comparatively. The importance of this study is the presentation of these possible new sites. Studying various historical documents shows that Kāriyān was part of Ardashir-Khwarrah during the late-Sasanian and early Islamic period, while most of the documents do not mention the name of Ādur Farnbāg and of  the four  Arabic text that mention the fire temple, three place it in Darabgird. Study and examination of written Islamic texts present this possibility that the original place of Ādur Farnbāg was not in Kāriyān during early Sasanian times and was in Darabgird near Fars instead. The studied text of the three places in Khwarezm, Darabgird and Kāriyān is mentioned as the location of the Ādur Farnbāg. It can be said that the naming of Khwarezm as the first location of the Ādur Farnbāg has mythological aspects and probably should be consistent with historical reality. While the name of Peroz I in the and other written sources referring to Khosrow I as transferring Ādur Farnbāg to Kāriyān could prove the fact that probably the site of the Ādur Farnbāg of the covenant Khosrow I in Darabgird and during or subsequent time he moved to Kāriyān. By exploring the Takht-e Soleymān actually a major part of this collection belonged to the Temple of Anahita and considering the fact that the goddess Anahita probably due importance to the Sassanid Empire and also accept Ādur Gušnasp as a Royal Dastgird, so it can be said that perhaps Ādur Gušnasp Fire Temple was larger than the other Fire temples, So it can be much smaller area, such as the possible location of two other temples considered. The plausible extent of Azarjou fire temple and its surrounding areas that probably had e defensive function to protect the fire temple, its proximity to the Sasanian city of Darabgird, the similarity of the name “karsiāh” with “kar” and also the similarity of the salt domes around the fire temple to “the shining mountain of Xwarrahomand” as described in the Greater Bundahišn, all give us this possibility that the location of Ādur Farnbāg was in this area up to the late Sasanian period. The suggestion of Azarjou fire temple as Ādur Farnbāg can be the closest candidate for the description of Ādur Farnbāg described in historical texts of 3rd-7th A.H documents. Moreover, by examining the overlap of historical texts, it can be deduced that the ambiguous description of Bundahišn possibly refers to the physical characteristics of an area near Darabgird, making the possible dating of this text in Bundahišn to be at the time of Khosrow I or a time before his reign.

تاکنون و در رابطه با پیشنهاد‌های ارائه‌شده دربارۀ کارکرد برخی عناصر یافت‌شدۀ داخل نیایشگاه‌های ساسانی به یافته‌های نواحی جنوب ایران توجه نشده و بیشتر براساس یافته‌های غرب ایران نتیجه‌گیری شده است. تا به امروز در تعدادی از محوطه‌های ساسانی جنوب ایران، علاوه‌بر یافت‌شدن تعدادی پایۀ سنگی و گچی که معمولاً به‌نام «پایۀ آتشدان» تفسیر شده‌اند، تعدادی سکوهای سنگی-گچی نیز یافت‌شده که می‌تواند در کنار این پایه‌ها تحلیلی نوین از فرهنگ مذهبی دورۀ ساسانی در جنوب ایران ارائه دهد. در این پژوهش سعی گردیده تا براساس شواهد باستان‌شناختی مناطق جنوبی ایران، به‌ویژه نواحی شرقی فارس و غرب کرمان و مقایسه و سنجش آن‌ها با یافته‌های سایر مناطق، منابع مکتوب و رسومات مرتبط با زرتشتی‌گری، به نحوۀ کارکرد این عناصر پی‌برد. مهم‌ترین پرسش پژوهش عبارتنداز: سکوهای مورد مطالعه چه کاربردی داشته اند؟ فرضیه‌ای که می‌توان برای این پرسش درنظر گرفت کاربری مذهبی عناصر یاد شده است. تحقیق پیشِ‌رو از منظر ماهیت و روش از نوع تحقیقات تاریخی و توصیفی-تحلیلی بوده و روش گردآوری اطلاعات در آن، بدین‌ترتیب است که در مرحلۀ نخست، به‌صورت میدانی-کتابخانه‌ای یافته‌های مرتبط با موضوع پژوهش موردمطالعه و سنجش با سایر سازه‌های مشابه و هم‌راستا قرارگرفته و سپس سعی‌شده تا به‌صورت کتابخانه‌ای نتایج به‌دست‌آمده از نخستین مرحله با منابع مکتوب و رسومات آیین زرتشتی منطبق‌سازی شوند. برآیند حاصل از این پژوهش این نکته را مطرح می‌کند که احتمالاً کاربرد سکوهای سنگی-گچی به‌دست‌آمده از برخی محوطه‌های مذهبی دورۀ ساسانی در جنوب ایران با سکوها و پایه‌های گچی موجود در برخی نیایشگاه‌های ساسانی به‌ویژه در غرب ایران که به «سکوی Tشکل» معروفند، یکسان بوده و می‌توان کارکرد این‌گونه عناصر را در رابطه با مراسمی هم‌چون «یزشن» و فضاهای دربرگیرندۀ این عناصر را نیز به‌عنوان «یزشنگاه» یا «اورویسگاه» تفسیر نمود. این نوشتار از این منظر می‌تواند موردتوجه و اهمیت باشد که سعی در ایجاد رابطه میان شواهد باستان‌شناختی و منابع مکتوب به‌منظور تعیین کارکرد برخی عناصر داخلی نیایشگاه‌های ساسانی دارد.
The proposed functions for some of the interior elements in the Sassanid fire temples have been always based on the finds in the western regions of Iran, while the same materials from the southern Iran have been neglected. The discovered stone and plaster bases which are usually interpreted as fireplaces’ bases have been observed in some sites on southern Iran, as well as several stone-plaster platforms which can give us some insightful information about the religious culture of Sassanid empire in the southern Iran. The present study tries to uncover the function of these architectural elements based on the archeological evidences from southern Iran especially eastern Fars and western Kerman and comparing them with the results obtained in other regions, written resources and also Zoroastrian traditions. The nature of the present study is historical and analytical – descriptive and the data collection method followed the field studies and library researches methods. All of the obtained and related evidences were collected and compared with the same monuments and finally the results were matched with the written sources and Zoroastrian traditions. The results of the present research revealed that probably the stone – plaster platforms in the religious Sassanid sites in southern Iran are the equivalent of the plaster bases or platforms discovered in Sassanid fire temples in western Iran, known as the T-form platforms. Their function can be related to Yazišn and their surrounding space can be interpreted as the yazišngāh or urwīsgāh. The present study attempts to make a logical connection between the archeological evidences and written resources in order to identify the function of the interior architectural elements inside Sassanid fire temples.
Keywords: Sassanid Period, Religious Structures, Fars, Kerman, Platform.

Introduction
The Sassanid written resources do not provide many information about the religious rituals in the sanctuaries and temples. The archeological evidences are not enough to answer all the ambiguities and questions. Therefore, we decided to compare the archeological evidences with the written Zoroastrian texts during Islamic period and also matching the archeological finds with the current Zoroastrian traditions, because regardless of the differences between the today’s Zoroastrianism and Sassanid Period’s Zoroastrianism, we can witness some similarities between them. Despite all of the theories about the interior architectural elements in religious Sassanid monuments, the main religious regions during Sassanid era, i.e. Fars province and Kerman province were neglected and most of the researches in this regard were focused on the western Iran. The authors of the present study tried to focus on the recent discoveries in eastern Fars and western Kerman such as Tang-e ChakChak, Mil-e Naqareh, SoltanAbad-e Darabagh and AliAbad-e Shamshirbor, and the results of field studies and their comparison with archeological evidences from similar regions in Eslamabad-e Gharb and Takht-e Soleiman. Later all of these evidences and discoveries were studied during a library research with the written resources and Zoroastrian traditions in order to functionally interpret the discovered elements and shed lights on the inner complexities of Sassanid religious structures. The preset study focused on answering some basic questions regarding the interior elements of Sassanid Chahar-Taqi. First is the extended of overlap between the discovered architectural elements in eastern Fars and Western Kerman with the architectural elements discovered in adjacent regions; second, can we equalize them with the platform structures discovered in the western Iran from the functional point of view? And finally, in case of matching the discoveries in the two mentioned regions and considering them equivalent, what would be the function of the spaces with these types of platforms? One of the possible hypotheses is that, the stone elements discovered in the surrounding area are similar to the complementary elements of the discovered structures in the studied Chahar-Taqis or fire temples and today there is no trace of them left behind. It is also probable that the discovered platforms in the southern region of Iran have had the same functional as their discovered equivalent in western regions of Iran. And finally, they were functioning as the yazišngāh during Sassanid period.

Discussion
The common points between the discoveries in eastern Fars and western Kerman and the evidences obtained from Takht-e Soleiman and Eslamabad-e Gharb is that in all them the platform have been extended until the center of the cruciform space, therefore these structure are different from other sites such as Vigol where the platform is built beside the closed vaults.  Based on the discoveries from Eslamabad-e Gharb and those in southern Iran, we can conclude that the location and the situation of the T-shape platforms are equivalent with the rectangular platforms in Fars and Kerman which had an extended section from the vault until the middle of the Chahar-Taqi. Also the T-shape platforms of western Iran are shorter than their equivalent in southern Iran, but based on Rezvani’s report that states the bases were fixed on the platform of Shiyan fire temple, we can conclude that the plaster bases and platform were the features of a unique architectural element and they should not be considered separately. Therefore, we can consider the T-shaped platforms to be higher and with regard to the two first hypotheses of Moradi, the upper section of these platforms were flat and had a similar function to the rectangular platforms in the southern regions of Iran. Based on the shape of the current yazišngāh, we can compare their triple platforms with the rectangular or T-shape platforms with a fireplace’s base and a similar function; so that, in the rectangular platform, the Zoti Khwan and Alat khwan sections are the same and in the T-shape platforms the upper section is Zoti Khwan and the attached section to the vase of fireplace can be the Alat khwan. However, regarding the architectural differences of urwīsgāh in today’s fire temples with the architectural space B in Takht-e Soleiman, we can believe that the only reason for this difference is the evolutions of Zoroastrian traditions due to the changes in their society as the religious minorities during the first centuries of Islamic period.

Conclusion
The results of this study revealed that the architectural elements such as the platforms discovered in Fars and Kerman provinces by the authors of this study, named as rectangular platforms, have had a completely unique function similar to the T-form platforms discovered in the western Iran. We also believe that the stone cubes discovered during a field survey in southern Fars region and Persian Gulf coast, were the complementary part of the rectangular bases which probable were the platforms or ponds, already identified in the architectural space B in Takht-e Soleiman and Eslamabad-e Gharb’s sites. In order to understand and comprehend the function of the platform mentioned in this study, we matched them with the references in written resources such as the Rivayat-e Darab Hormozdyar and also the current Zoroastrian sanctuaries, as well as the comparison with the stone tables in the urwīsgāh. Finally, we concluded that, the Chahar-Taqi (fire temples) with these platforms were probably functioning as the urwīsgāh during Sassanid period. However, the current differences between the architectural structures of contemporary urwīsgāh and Sassanid Chahar-Taqi, can be attributed to the passage of time and the conducted changes in the Islamic period, when the Zoroastrians turned from the majority of the population to the minority of the population, and faced some restrictions and limitations forced by the Muslim majority.