School Feeding

School Food Politics: The Complex Ecology of Hunger and Feeding in Schools Around the World (P. Lang, 2011) compares struggles over what at first glance appears to be benign programming to feed children. The essays in School Food Politics explore the intersections of food and politics on all six of the inhabited continents of the world. Including electoral fights over universally free school meals in Korea, nutritional reforms to school dinners in England and canteens in Australia, teachers’ and doctors’ work on school feeding in Argentina, and more, the volume provides key illustrations of the many contexts that have witnessed intense struggles defining which children will eat; why; what and how they are served; and who will pay for and prepare the food. Contributors include reformers writing from their own perspectives, from the farm-to-school program in Burlington, Vermont, to efforts to apply principles of critical pedagogy in cooking programs for urban teens, to animal rights curriculum. Later chapters shift their focus to possibilities and hope for a different future for school food, one that is friendlier to students, 'lunch ladies,' society, other creatures, and the planet.

School Food Politics won the 2012 Critics’ Choice Book Award of the American Educational Studies Association for making an outstanding contribution to scholarship in the Social Foundations of Education. See reviews in Teachers College Record and Food, Culture, & Society in the Papers section.

International institutions and agencies from the Global North are no longer the sole initiators of development norms and best practices. The proliferation of exports and imports of social, economic and policy management models have called for a rethinking of South–South relations. To date, most studies have focused on the drivers and strategies of international initiatives made by emerging powers; none have analysed the impact of these initiatives on the receiving country’s institutions, and on the structures of international organisations. In this book, Carolina Milhorance examines the content, process and consequences of the internationalisation of Brazil’s rural public policy instruments. Brazil earned wide international recognition in the early 2000s for its agricultural modernisation and social policies; its increasing influence illustrated the specific political interests of coalitions that are embedded in domestic and international struggles. Drawing on extensive field research – including more than 280 interviews – conducted in Brazil, Mozambique, South Africa, Malawi, France and Italy, Milhorance analyses the effects of the internationalisation of Brazilian policy solutions on national and local political systems in recipient countries, highlighting specifically the case of Mozambique. Relying on a new theoretical approach to International Relations – one based on public policy analysis and international political sociology – she moves beyond a debate about conventional notions of international power.

New Geographies of Global Policy-Making will be of interest to scholars and researchers of international relations, public policy analysis, political sociology, comparative politics, and Latin American studies.　

Despite an increasing recognition of the importance of a conducive and aligned public procurement policy and regulatory frameworks for the implementation of public food procurement initiatives that target smallholder farmers, very little has been said about how such an alignment can be achieved, or about the various tools and legal mechanisms that can be used to do this. This publication aims to contribute to this discussion, bringing an analysis of four country experiences and of the various legal mechanisms that can be used to align the regulatory framework in pursuit of broader development goals by means of public procurement in the form of home-grown school feeding programmes.

While much of the historical literature on FAO has adopted a headquarter perspective, this article examines FAO's nutrition activities in Central America from the vantage point of a field worker stationed in the region during the 1950s. Emma Reh's professional background broadens our understanding of the careers of staff members in international organizations and makes visible the connections between the US Indian Bureau and development work. Correspondence and field reports shed light on FAO's difficulties in establishing a strong presence in Central America. Moreover, the article shows that dietary surveys with their socio-economic perspectives on nutrition were underfunded as well as marginalized in the processes of knowledge production and diffusion while a medicalized approach to nutrition took hold at the FAO Nutrition Division. In the early1960s, the FAO Nutrition Division returned to a less reductive view on nutrition.

This paper uses National Income Dynamic Survey (NIDS) data from Waves 1-5 to populate both a Linear Probabilities Model (LPM) and a Probit model in order to estimate the effect of the National School Nutrition Programme (NSNP) on secondary school attendance in South Africa, holding other individual-, household-and school-level characteristics constant.

Despite the drawbacks of using an imperfect proxy for school feeding, the results from these estimations are suggestive of a positive, statistically significant effect of school feeding on secondary school attendance. The effect of school feeding is most strongly associated with improved attendance of girls in quintile 3 secondary schools, presumably because the benefits of free meal at school provides sufficient incentive to lower-middle income households to outweigh the opportunity cost of consistently sending their children to school.

The paper explores the early history and significance of school milk in Britain. As a food for children, milk was not attractive at the beginning of the twentieth century. It had an image problem of being both expensive and potentially infected. In addition, successive governments were wary of creating expectations of the delivery of welfare items such as free or cheap milk. How is
it then that by 1934 milk represented nearly two-thirds of the “meals” served in schools? The answer lies partly in the efforts of the trade to extend its market beyond the home, and partly in the scientific finding that milk is a balanced and nutritious food. Both the local and the central state were eventually persuaded
of the logic of a “Milk in Schools Scheme”, which, after the end of the period covered in the paper, did become official and was extended nationwide.

In October 1934 the National Government took over what had previously been a commercial initiative to encourage milk-drinking in schools. By the outbreak of war the Milk in Schools Scheme had reached 87 per cent of elementary schools in England and Wales and 56 per cent of pupils were drinking one-third of a pint daily. This paper investigates the motivations behind this scheme and the problems associated with its implementation. There was resistance from within government and a number of objections were raised around the country, particularly to the strategy of the Board of Education. The conclusions are, first, that the
economic necessity of providing a market for liquid milk was more important in the mind of policy-makers than nutritional supplements for undernourished children and, second, that the
evolution of the policy itself was highly contingent upon the network of power and influence within which it operated. In 1933 it would have been difficult to predict with any degree of
certainty how a Milk in Schools Scheme would have operated, but in time it was to become one of the government’s most robust and universally supported food policies.

This study aimed to determine the relationship between balanced diet and health improvement among primary pupils. Descriptive type of research was utilized in the study. Results showed that there is significant relationship between school feeding and health improvement among primary school pupil in Yobe State, Nigeria. There is significant relationship between food Hygiene and health improvement among Primary school pupils.

The basic idea of the school feeding programme is to provide children in public primary schools and kindergartens in the poorest areas of the country with one hot, nutritious meal per day, using locally-grown foodstuffs. This study seeks to assess the impact of the school feeding programme in the Abura Asebu Kwamankese District in the Central Region of Ghana from the perspective of teachers including head teachers. A descriptive survey design was used for the study, and data were obtained from eighty teachers and head teachers in the beneficiary schools in the district. The study revealed that the school feeding programme has improved the nutritional status of pupils in the beneficiary schools in the district to some extent; even though it could not improve the body mass index and height of some pupils. Also, the programme has helped to improve the academic performance of some pupils in terms of pass rates, thinking ability, understanding, concentration in class and discipline. The ...

This policy brief discuss the importance of a conducive regulatory framework for the implementation of public food procurement initiatives that target smallholder farmers. It builds on the legal literature dedicated to the analysis of the promotion of socio-economic or ‘horizontal’ policies through public procurement and on the analysis of three country experiences in the context of their school feeding programmes.

Few studies explore teachers' involvement in school feeding, questioning gendered implications within a feminine and feminized profession. Ethnographic data from one public high school in Metropolitan Buenos Aires suggest that teachers' efforts to address student hunger added new work roles: food advocates/activists, food managers, and service providers/caregivers. The data illustrate the collision of gendered roles (feeding and teaching) as well as how the gendered nature of policy shapes teachers' work.

Resumo: Este estudo teve por objetivo analisar a percepção e a interlocução de nutricionistas em relação à compra de produtos de agricultores familiares para a alimentação escolar em municípios do litoral do Rio Grande do Sul. Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo, realizado em seis municípios, que contou com a participação de nutricionistas responsáveis pela alimentação escolar. Todas relataram uma percepção positiva referente ao Programa Nacional de Alimentação Escolar (Pnae), tanto para o agricultor quanto para o município. A articulação frequentemente ocorre por meio da Empresa de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural, Secretaria de Educação e Secretaria de Agricultura. Citado como uma fonte de alimentos de procedência e inclusão social, o Programa também desenvolve a economia local. As principais dificuldades enfrentadas foram a pequena carga horária para trabalhar no município, a agricultura não ser característica no litoral e a falta de diálogo entre as partes. Assim, para que o Programa seja efetivo, é necessária a colaboração de todos os atores envolvidos, de incentivos e apoio local com atuação ativa e permanente.

Abstract: This study aimed to analyze the perception and dialogue among nutritionists in relation to the purchase of products from family farmers for school meals in municipalities on the coast of the state of Rio Grande do Sul. This is a qualitative study carried out in six municipalities that included participation of nutritionists in charge of school meals. All nutritionists reported a positive perception regarding the Brazilian National School Feeding Program (PNAE - Programa Nacional de Alimentação Escolar ) for both farmers and the municipality. Articulation often takes place through the Technical Assistance and Rural Extension Company, Education Office and Agriculture Office. Cited as a source of food of social origin and inclusion, PNAE also develops the local economy. The main difficulties faced were short workload to work in the municipality; agriculture not being characteristic on the coast; and lack of dialogue between all parties involved. Therefore, for PNAE to be effective, it is necessary collaboration of all actors involved, incentives and local support with active and permanent action.

Few studies explore teachers' involvement in school feeding, questioning gendered implications within a feminine and feminized profession. Ethnographic data from one public high school in Metropolitan Buenos Aires suggest that teachers' efforts to address student hunger added new work roles: food advocates/activists, food managers, and service providers/caregivers. The data illustrate the collision of gendered roles (feeding and teaching) as well as how the gendered nature of policy shapes teachers' work.

School feeding is of great importance for the development of students, contributing positively to their school
performance. This work evaluated the knowledge of the professionals directly involved in the manipulation of
food on good practices in school. The research was carried out in an administrative district of a municipality in the interior of Paraná, with lunch boxes from a state school and a municipal school. The professionals interviewed presented inconsistent knowledge on temperature of growth and death of microorganisms, and physical, chemical and biological contaminants. However, they dealt with points such as food storage, use of adornments and cosmetics, daily routines based on good practices, correctly. It was observed that no updates are performed, which may contribute negatively to the knowledge of these professionals. Thus, it is suggested that they undergo training and recycling so that they can carry out their activities with quality and safety. It can be concluded that the work reached the objective of evaluating the knowledge about good practices of the public in question, however, it is suggested to broaden the research regarding the knowledge of professionals involved in school feeding in smallmunicipalities and administrative districts, so Future training and recycling.

Malnutrition among children of school-going age is a challenge of serious concern in developing countries especially Sub-Saharan Africa. Many programs focus on mothers and under-5-year-old children, leaving the school going age unattended. It has been shown that school meals can reduce school absenteeism, improve concentration in class and reduce early dropouts. In Tanzania, successful home-grown school feeding programs are localized in few areas but have not been scaled-out. The objective of this study was to analyze the policy and organizational environment which enables or promotes home-grown school feeding approaches. The study consisted of a systematic review, key informant interviews and focus group discussions in Arumeru and Babati Districts, Tanzania. In total, 21 key informant interviews with 27 participants and 27 focus group discussions with 217 participants were conducted. The results show that Tanzania lacks a clear policy on school feeding; there are no guidelines for ...

The Purchase from Africans for Africa (PAA Africa) programme implemented pilot initiatives to procure food for school meals locally from smallholders, funded by the Brazilian government and the UK Department for International Development, in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Food Programme. In Mozambique, the programme sought to contribute to the consolidation of a national strategy of institutional food procurement, combining cross-sectoral dialogue at the national level and piloting at district level, supporting production and commercialisation. Public procurement with preferential treatment for food produced by family farmers has the potential to increase the overall access of these farmers to formal markets. In addition, when connected to social safety nets using in-kind food transfers (e.g. school meals programmes), such instruments favour the access of vulnerable populations to food produced locally. Some lessons from the experience in Mozambique are summarised here. The endorsement of the National School Feeding Programme (Projecto de Alimentação Escolar—PRONAE) by the Mozambican Council of Ministers in 2013 represented a key stage in the institutionalisation of school feeding and local purchases in the country's education system. This process was crucial, but insufficient to consolidate the strategy of purchasing from smallholders, since it was not accompanied by its inclusion in the state budget and by adjustments to the regulations of public procurement to guarantee the participation of smallholders. Despite its limitations, PAA Africa contributed to PRONAE by articulating and stressing the agricultural and value chain components within the PRONAE programme, among others. Some of its results are as follows:  Institutional changes are necessary to ensure the participation of family farmers in public food purchases. The main agricultural policies of the country are aimed at increasing peasants' access to markets; however, most of the concrete implementation is oriented towards private companies and specialised farming, disregarding the potential of peasants to supply public food procurement programmes.  Food demand needs to be aligned with supply potential. Support for production, post-harvest handling and marketing was important for the provision of quality products throughout the school year. FAO's involvement of the district agrarian services in training and planning activities also led to the technical and institutional strengthening of government capacities. These services participated in identifying and supporting producer associations, disseminating information on tenders etc. In the provinces where PRONAE did not collaborate with PAA Africa, the amount of food purchased from the local producers was marginal.  The design of procurement procedures matters. Simplified purchasing procedures, which took local institutional capacities into account, were more effective. In Changara and Cahora Bassa district authorities managed the procurement; some successful aspects observed included: i) simplified qualification requirements and pre-selection of suppliers with productive potential; (ii) quarterly tenders based on local prices; and (iii) gradual decentralisation of management and procurement. The main challenges in these two districts concerned the management of fresh food storage, the need to consider local prices and the combination of nutritional requirements and the flexibility of the menus, guaranteeing greater autonomy for schools to include seasonal products not considered initially. In Angónia, the World Food Programme managed purchases of maize, and delays and technical requirements resulted in the disruption of the marketing cycle. Operational choices should also include defining an appropriate system of coordination among implementing institutions, which was a major challenge for the initiative.  Intersectorality is not limited to coordinating operational decisions. It should be sought as an instrument for deepening coherence between national policies and the setting of political agendas. Political-institutional changes, the search for policy coherence, the building of technical and financial capacities and the integration of local purchases into governmental priorities require time and resources. The involvement of stakeholders at all levels (e.g. civil society representatives) and the creation of information and learning spaces have contributed to the strengthening of the local food procurement agenda in Mozambique.  Social participation and advocacy are also relevant in this process, and technical groups are a means of following up and including other stakeholders. Both depend on a continuous (not ad hoc) process of engagement and dissemination of information, and PAA Africa has not yet reached this point. There are different types of engagement of civil society organisations, ranging from political articulation to direct support for the implementation of activities. This definition should be made according to the expectations and capabilities of the organisations themselves. In conclusion, short-term initiatives will hardly be enough to produce the desirable effects of policy change and effective implementation. However, despite scale and time constraints, PAA Africa had a considerable demonstrative effect and enlarged the basis for the sharing of knowledge and socio-political interaction.

Using the nationwide school-feeding programme–the Mid Day Meal Scheme (MDMS)–in India as its anchor, this paper critically evaluates the use of schools as sites for discharging social policies. Data from semi structured interviews (N=26) and focus groups (N=8) conducted in a north Indian village provide evidence that the community distrusts the central and the regional governments and regards state run schools as deficient institutions. The paper argues that the MDMS, interpreted in such a social climate, had a noteworthy impact of the community representations of local schools.  On the one hand it was represented as an evil governmental design to distract poor people from education and was completely rejected by many community members. Such representations, the paper argues, further erodes the faith of the community in state run schools. Data from the study also indicate a second representational outcome where the MDMS has contributed to a shift in community representations of schools from being a site for imparting education to that of an institution providing free meals. The paper concludes by identifying two critical considerations that need to inform the use of schools as the site of social policy: (a) the symbolic environments of meaning making which inform local interpretations of policy; and (b) the representational activity surrounding the local reception and interpretation of policies. The theory of Social Representations informs the arguments made in the paper.