Emotional Labour

Stress studies are becoming more and more attention nowadays, the financial crisis and recession of 2008 around the world further contributed in increasing higher levels of stress among employees, particularly in the corporate context. The organizations, to make themselves efficient in utilization of resources, have gone through entire restructuring, layoffs, downsizing, and mergers. This has resulted in unstable employee-employer relationship which has caused a great deal of stress among employees. There is no such thing as a stress-free job in the world. Everyone in his/her work is exposed to tension, frustration and anxiety as he/she gets through the duties assigned to him/her. In order to make our work experience and environment as pleasant as possible, it is better that we learn the technique of moderating and modulating our personal stress levels. Hence the research has shown that high level of stress seriously affect the performance of employees as well as their health condition. This article reviews and summarizes three decades of empirical literature concerned with stress in general and occupational stress in particular with major coping strategies.

Organizational Behaviour is the only text to use a running case study to demonstrate the application of organizational behaviour in the real world, helping students with limited or no real-life experience of the business world to engage critically and effectively with the subject.

Background. Emotional competencies of individuals are evaluated as a form of capital today. Emotional capital has gained prominence in literature in the last decades. In this regard, qualitative and quantitative studies on emotional capital concept have been conducted. Objectives. The purpose of this study is to analyses the effect of emotional capital on job satisfaction and life satisfaction in terms of women basketball players in Turkey. Methods. The research method of this study is descriptive. The statistical population consisted of 135 women basketball players who were reached via using convenience sampling method. Survey was conducted on athletes between 6 th October, 2019 and 30th November, 2019. Emotional Capital Inventory developed by Newman et al. (2015), Job Satisfaction Scale developed by Brayfield and Rothe (1951), shortened by Yoon and Thye (2002), and Life Satisfaction Scale developed by Diener et al. (1985) was used for data collection. SPSS-22 computer program was used in data analysis. The internal consistencies of the questionnaires were obtained by Cronbach's which were 0.81, 0.81 and 0.83, respectively. After exploratory factor analysis conducted on emotional capital inventory, seven factors were found as social awareness, self-management, self-awareness, self-reliance, relationship management, adaptability, and apathy. Results. The analysis of data revealed that self-reliance factor of emotional capital has significant and positive effect on job satisfaction, and self-management and personal awareness factors of emotional capital have significant and positive effects on life satisfaction. Conclusion. Finally, it can be concluded that emotional capital has partial effect on both job satisfaction and life satisfaction of women basketball players in Turkey's Super League.

Theorizing a sociology of emotion that links micro-level resources to macro-level forces, this article extends previous work on emotional capital in relation to emotional experiences and management. Emerging from Bourdieu's theory of social practice, emotional capital is a form of cultural capital that includes the emotion-specific, trans-situational resources that individuals activate and embody in distinct fields. Contrary to prior conceptualizations, I argue that emotional capital is neither wholly gender-neutral nor exclusively feminine. Men may lay claim to emotional capital as a valued resource within particular fields. The concept of emotional capital should be seen as distinct from emotion management and felt emotional experience and distinctions between primary and secondary sources of capital clarify the simultaneously durable and evolving nature of capital and the habitus. To illustrate these conceptual refinements, I use interview and diary data from male nurses. Men bring primary emotional capital, developed during primary socialization, to the nursing profession while also developing secondary capital through occupational socialization centered on empathy and compassion. The construct of emotional capital is refined as a structured yet dynamic resource developed through primary and secondary socialization and activated and embodied in everyday emotion practice.

Employee's autonomous motivation and emotional labor have received insufficient attention in the service co-creation literature. This study proposes a model linking frontliners' autonomous motivation, deep acting with customer co-creation and frontliners' innovation. The model was tested by the data collected from 202 dyads of salespersons and customers in the automotive retail service. Results show that frontliner's autonomous motivation has direct and indirect (through deep acting) impacts on customer co-creation and frontliner innovative behavior. Moreover, customer co-creation stimulates frontliner innovation. These findings contribute to the development of a testable and applicable theory of service co-creation and to consolidate the self-determination theory.

The twenty-first century has seen the emergence of a new style of man: the metrosexual. Overwhelmingly straight, white, and wealthy, these impeccably coiffed urban professionals spend big money on everything from facials to pedicures, all part of a multi-billion-dollar male grooming industry. Yet as this innovative study reveals, even as the industry encourages men to invest more in their appearance, it still relies on women to do much of the work.

Styling Masculinity investigates how men’s beauty salons have persuaded their clientele to regard them as masculine spaces. To answer this question, sociologist Kristen Barber goes inside Adonis and The Executive, two upscale men’s salons in Southern California. Conducting detailed observations and extensive interviews with both customers and employees, she shows how female salon workers not only perform the physical labor of snipping, tweezing, waxing, and exfoliating, but also perform the emotional labor of pampering their clients and pumping up their masculine egos.

Letting salon employees tell their own stories, Barber not only documents occasions when these workers are objectified and demeaned, but also explores how their jobs allow for creativity and confer a degree of professional dignity. In the process, she traces the vast network of economic and social relations that undergird the burgeoning male beauty industry.

Nicolas Wasser critically examines how sexual and racial identities are currently being articulated through capitalist brands and labor. On the basis of an ethnographic case study about a Brazilian fashion enterprise, he shows how young – lesbian, gay and black – sales employees take part in the ambivalent promises put forward by diversity management. Their affective labor, the study argues, is at the center of new and global- ly unfolding regimes of the precarious. Readers will thus find a rich sociological ac- count from the Global South on how neoliberal logics of self-optimization both tra- verse and charge the aspirations of the minoritized.

Many studies have shown the importance of low income mothers sustaining the moral identities both as good mothers and as reliable workers. Discovering how low-income mothers sustain this duality, when caring crises or caring emergencies prevent employment requires mapping of their social worlds. To carry out such a mapping we used an Institutional Ethnographic approach, focusing on mothers' experiences with various aspects of child care and schooling. Interviews with 48 Israeli breadwinning mothers revealed that emotions are salient to the mapping of the discoveries women make when operating in relation to these institutions. Once caring crises blocked their participation in the labor market, mothers justified their moral fitness both as good mothers and good citizens by using emotion management: they expressed an emotional attachment to their paid job while care was perceived as a necessity. We argue that emotion management is particularly revealing of mothers’ embeddedness in social relations.

This article examines the Game of Thrones (GoT) fan phenomena in the Arab world. Although I contextualize GoT as a commodity within HBO’s global ambitions to attract a global audience, I study GoT Arab fans as an organized interpretive online community. I examine the Arabic fan Facebook page “Game of Thrones‒Official Arabic Page” (GoT-OAP), which has over 240,000 followers, as a case study of cultural production and consumption by fans. Based on interviews with members of the administration staff of the GoT-OAP Facebook page, as well as textual analysis of the page’s posts, I ask: How is fan culture around GoT produced in the Arab world? How are the boundaries between being fans, media producers, and consumers negotiated? Are there connections between the themes of GoT and the current unrest across the Arab region? If so, how are they articulated? Through emotional realism and hybridity, I show that Arab fans find ways to negotiate their fandom of GoT with their local context and li...

Emotions constitute a large part in our daily lives, particularly in these challenging times. They not only help us feel certain sensations, perceive the reality and express our diverse emotions and feelings, but also support in analyzing the outward situation, hence becoming a part of higher cognitive processes. Here, emotional intelligence comes to the forefront and directs you in taking diverse decisions. We have also considered the concept of WeQ. It is our firm belief that emotions contribute to the success and quality of your daily life, your interpersonal relations, as well as the development of your business. The present case study has sought for ways to enlighten the awareness of EQ, both in our private lives and in the business world.

Little research has identified issues faced by tour guiding professionals and investigations of tour guide experiences have been neglected in favor of tourist experience and behavior studies. Even less research has focused on adventure guiding experiences and potential sources of stress and emotions in this context. Studies that have investigated adventure guide experiences generally focused on guide-client interactions and sociological accounts of these experiences. Due to these gaps in the literature, and the recognised potential of psychological theories to enhance studies of stress and emotions in tourism settings, this study explored stress and emotions resulting from employer-guide interactions in an adventure tourism context from a psychological perspective. Longitudinal autoethnographical data was recorded during a river guiding season in South America. A reversal theory framework guided data analyses of key motivational states, sources of stress, and resulting emotions. Analyses identified potential transactional sources of stress and negative emotions for adventure tourism guides, and motivational states associated with stress and emotional outcomes in the employer-guide relationship. Results are discussed in relation to psychological theory and stress and coping research. Recommendations for practice, that could alleviate stressful experiences between employers and guides, are also discussed.

Emotional labor concerns emotions in organizational life and organizational attempts to control and direct how employees display emotions to customers. Teaching is a profession that requires almost constant interaction with students involving a high level of emotional labor. This includes such behavior as surface acting, deep acting and suppression of emotion. This paper reviews literature on emotional labor and aims to study the different constructs of emotional labor in the teaching profession. Data was collected from teachers teaching at the graduate and postgraduate level in reputed colleges. It discusses the association between the variables of emotional labor, emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction.

Farah Naqvi This paper describes the development and validation of the Emotional Labour Scale (ELS for teachers. The development of the ELS was based on the need for an instrument to assess emotional labour for teachers. The first phase of the study consisted of pilot testing on a sample of 118 teachers teaching in management colleges in India focused on condensing the instrument and exploring the underlying factor structure. The second phase of the research comprised of confirmatory factor analysis to confirm the factor structure and examine the convergent and discriminate validity done on a sample of 396 management teachers in higher education. Various statistical analyses showed that the scale has both high reliability and validity as a measure of emotional labour. Confirmatory factor analysis results provided support to the two facets of ELS. The implications and future scope of the study are discussed in detail. The final analysis resulted in a six item self-report questionnaire that measures the two key components of emotional labour viz. surface acting and deep acting.

The  activist use  of  Facebook  p ages  in the  2011  movements  of  the  Egyptian  revolution  and  the  Spanish  Indignados  saw phases  of  exponential  growth  in user  engagement  in  proximity to key protest events,  signaled  by  spikes  in  likes  and  comments.  This  article  analyzes  these  episodes  as  momen ts  of  digital  enthusiasm facilitated  by  emotional  communication on  political  Facebook  pages.  Drawing  on  quantitative  and  qualitative  analysis  of  Facebook  data,  I  argue  that  two  elements  concurred  to  build  moments  of  digital  enthusiasm:  (a)  the  hopeful  narr ative  produced  by  activist  admins  managing  political  Facebook  pages,  and  (b)  the  receptivity  and  cooperation  of  ordinary  Internet  users who overwhelmingly reinforced the message  put forward by activist admins. This  emotional  dialogue  between  admins  and  use rs  generated  a  process  of emotional  contagion  that  helped  establish  propitious  psychological  conditions  for  mass  protest  participation. Moments of digital enthusiasm demonstrate the power of social media and  emotional communication in mass protest mobiliza tion. However, they also highlight the  risk of evanescence  of collective action in a digital age.

Rouge, the new low-cost subsidiary of Air Canada, recruits workers with the promise of a fashionable lifestyle, advertising stylish uniforms and layovers in far-flung destinations.  The airline explicitly aims to hire young, physically attractive people as flight attendants.  Those qualifications are evident in the “look book,” a document that describes Rouge’s grooming standards with photographs and written text. 

Despite the hip workplace that Air Canada markets, the policies described in the “look book” have been a contentious issue for rouge flight attendants. Many workers view the uniform and grooming standards as excessive, intrusive, and punitive. Some senior flight attendants at Air Canada mainline view the “look book” as a reversal to historic gains by flight attendants to be viewed as safety professionals rather than sexualized service workers. 

Rouge flight attendants are also critical of the methods the company uses to regulate their behaviour; methods that they believe erode their credibility as safety professionals. For example initial customer service training is delivered by the Disney Institute, and is heavily weighted toward use of techniques such as ``peer pressure`` to ensure conformity and the subordination of workers` personal needs and identity to customer satisfaction.  In other words, similar to the “look book”, initial customer service training favors fashionable customer service over a safe, economically sustainable workplace.

This paper is based on the results of a membership survey and a series of in-depth qualitative conducted by four member researchers recruited and trained by the senior research officer in the CUPE airline division.

The paper will:

• Critically assess the Air Canada rouge “look book” for flight attendants within the broader context of airline deregulation and cost-cutting, specifically the hiring of very young flight attendants and the increased emphasis on physical appearance and new forms of service delivery
• Outline the resistance and historical gains by unionized flight attendants against sexual objectification and related racist, homophobic, transphobic and ableist regulation of flight attendants’ bodies
• Explore possible actions that could be taken by the union to protect rouge flight attendants from excessive managerial control of their appearance and behavior.
• Analyze how unions could appeal to younger airline workers, and how they could connect the previous generation’s struggle against appearance regulations to newer workers’ effort to win better pay and working conditions.

The purpose of this article was to explore the relationships between perceived high performance work systems, emotional labour, burnout and intention to leave among nurses in Australia. Previous studies show that emotional labour and burnout are associated with an increase in intention to leave of nurses. There is evidence that high performance work systems are in association with a decrease in turnover. There are no previous studies that examine the relationship between high performance work systems and emotional labour. A cross-sectional, correlational survey. The study was conducted in Australia in 2008 with 183 nurses. Three hypotheses were tested with validated measures of emotional labour, burnout, intention to leave, and perceived high performance work systems. Principal component analysis was used to examine the structure of the measures. The mediation hypothesis was tested using Baron and Kenny's procedure and the moderation hypothesis was tested using hierarchical regr...

In this essay, the author reflects on the importance of accepting and expressing emotion in teach-ers’ lived experiences. By centering emotion work in preservice teacher praxis, teacher educators can make emotion work visible and assign value to it.

A significant amount of emotional labor takes place during teaching. Teaching is a multitasking profession that consists of both cognitive and emotional components, with teachers engaging in emotional labor on a daily basis as an instrumental part of achieving teaching goals and positive learning outcomes. The purpose of the present review was to explore the relationship between emotional labor and burnout in school settings. The review focused specifically on teachers from elementary and high schools, between January 2006 and August 2021, and 21 studies fit the inclusion criteria. Overall, the review of the literature supports the significant associations between burnout and emotional labor with the majority of results pointing to the consistent relationship between surface acting and burnout. However, the results regarding the association of deep acting and naturally felt emotions with burnout were mixed. There is considerable scope for improvement in our study of emotional labor ...

As women move further into traditionally male dominated positions of leadership and political power, their bodies are subject to increasing pressure to conform to oppressive standards of femininity. This report aims to explore those pressures and what effect they have on workplace performances and subsequent capabilities for career advancement. Although some literature has examined the rise in aesthetic labour practices in service industries, there has been little research conducted around the gendered expectations of appearance management and how those expectations impact upon young women's abilities to actualize their leadership potential. This project will address some of the gaps in the current literature on women’s bodies at work, the effect of which will be significant for female representation in positions of power and leadership.

Empathy, a complex and multidimensional concept, has been defined in many ways within the context of nursing. Although there is general support that nurses' empathic attitude is important for patient's adherence to treatment and care satisfaction, there are still some inconsistencies in the link between empathy and nurses' well-being. The general aim of this study is to verify the role played by empathy in promoting well-being in nursing work. Therefore, 222 nurses from different hospitals in a north region of Italy, completed a self-administered questionnaire. A cross-sectional survey was conducted. Our result show that empathy is composed by two factors: a cognitive dimension (perspective taking) and an affective one (compassion). Perspective taking enhances job satisfaction, work engagement and reduces turnover intention. Compassion does not. These findings confirm that perspective taking and compassion have different impact on nurses' well-being. Further studies is required to inform education or for application in clinical settings.

A significant amount of emotional labor takes place during teaching. Teaching is a multitasking profession that consists of both cognitive and emotional components, with teachers engaging in emotional labor on a daily basis as an instrumental part of achieving teaching goals and positive learning outcomes. The purpose of the present review was to explore the relationship between emotional labor and burnout in school settings. The review focused specifically on teachers from elementary and high schools, between January 2006 and August 2021, and 21 studies fit the inclusion criteria. Overall, the review of the literature supports the significant associations between burnout and emotional labor with the majority of results pointing to the consistent relationship between surface acting and burnout. However, the results regarding the association of deep acting and naturally felt emotions with burnout were mixed. There is considerable scope for improvement in our study of emotional labor ...

Based on an ethnographic study amongst professional
caregivers (nurses, nursing aides and attendants) in
three medical establishments in Kolkata, this article
explores how reproductive/use-value labour when
brought into the public realm as productive/
exchange-value labour survives its association with
servile, sexual, menial, feminine labour and continues to
remain stigmatised. It examines the nursing labour
market to interrogate how the precise nature of the
labour performed, structures the perception of the
worker of herself as an inferior, performing disreputable,
stigmatised labour. Within the grids of gender, class and
caste, work and workers mutually constitute each other
to define what respectable work is. Such perceived value
of work plays a pivotal role in justifying low wages, social
recognition and identity as a worker.

Early Mediaeval monastic rules did not only provide outlines for organizing communities, behavioural norms and disciplinary measures but also aimed at controlling, repressing, and fostering emotions. They developed distinct strategies of emotional discipline based on different notions of the nature of emotions and their impact on the pursuit of salvation. I compare the emotional disciplines of three monastic rules: the Rule of Benedict, which became the guiding norm of Mediaeval monastic life; Caesarius of Arles’ Rule for Nuns, the oldest monastic rule written for a female community; and the Regula cuiusdam ad virgines, which responded to Benedict’s and Caesarius’ rules. Benedict’s emotional discipline centered on instilling fear and love and focused on repressing emotions that were harmful to the community and on fostering the motivation to submit to monastic discipline. Caesarius is primarily focused on a permanent spatial separation from the outside world and expected that enclosure and submission to the Rule made negative emotions irrelevant. The author of the Regula cuiusdam ad virgines considered emotions, rather than acts, the ultimate benchmark for attaining salvation and developed a disciplinary program that combined elements of Caesarius’ and Benedict’s rules with an elaborate system of incitement, surveillance and constant disclosure.

This article follows previous research arguing that skills of call center agents, which often include emotional labor, communication, procedural and substantive knowledge, and articulation work, are mostly invisible. Moving beyond previous analyses linking call centers to low-skilled standardized work, I draw on ethnographic fieldwork and transpositional analysis in the Philippines and the UK to show which real-world processes and written practices make agents' skills not only invisible and illegible to industry outsiders but also their managers. I argue that textualization practices such as data entry and script work are important, and that deemphasizing quantification in favor of qualitative assessment could produce better outcomes for agents and skill appreciation by others.

The internet revolution has changed the scenario of travel industry through the easily accessible of travel products to the mass consumers by their virtual presence rather than physical. The online travel Portal (OTP) is also known by Online Travel agent, E-travel agents and virtual travel agents (VTA's). The concept of travel agents immersed as a connecting link between supplier and consumer. In a last 5-10 years techno friendly visitors prefer more to buy their travel services online like the online shopping of physical goods. The OTP has served vast prospects for travellers to buy their travel directly online thereby evading the traditional travel systems i.e. travel agencies. While serving as an intermediary means between service providers and tourists, internet has reduced the significance of the traditional intermediary (travel agents) or at the large extent traditional part became very uncommon in today's practice. Web-services may eventually progress to disintermediation of travel business since the travel facility and product suppliers can sell their products and services directly to the travellers. Yet, Traditional Travel agencies still have the benefit of serving personalized services particularly in giving advice to travellers with an individual touch. This paper attempts to examine perceptions of tourists travelling from eastern Uttar Pradesh who had not only used traditional methods but also booked their itinerary through at least one travel website and Web Portals which can relate their experience in using them and their opinion upon disintermediation. The study will determine preference of tourists in choosing their services in accordance to their length of stay, demographic and socioeconomic characteristics upon their purchasing behaviour.

An online survey was conducted on a national sample of United States professors to examine emotional labor and its relationship to work outcomes. Participants were queried on genuine, faking, and suppressing emotional expression facets of emotional labor, as well as emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and affective commitment. The sample of 598 included 71 instructors, 177 assistant professors, 168 associate professors, and 182 professors. A path analysis was conducted testing two models of emotional labor. Results supported a model indicating significant direct relationships between emotional labor, emotional exhaustion, and job satisfaction. Additionally, the relationship between emotional labor and affective commitment was mediated by emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction. Genuine positive expression was the only emotional labor variable to have significant direct relationships with all outcomes. For U.S. faculty, the experience of emotional labor was related to several work attitudes.

The objective of this study was to establish Emotion Work performed by Managers, specifically those from the Manufacturing sector in India and to ascertain the relationship between Emotion Work performed and Burnout experienced. A cross-sectional survey design was used. The study population (n = 118) consisted of managers from the manufacturing industry. Six subscales from the Frankfurt Emotion Work and Pines & Andersons Burnout Scale were used as measuring instruments. Cronbach alpha coefficients, Pearson product moment correlation coefficients, regression analysis were used to analyse the data. The results revealed that the Managers reported performing a significant amount of Emotion Work. Furthermore, the analysis of the data uncovered that the correlations between the studied dimensions of Emotion Work and Burnout were statistically and practically significant. Emotion Work predicted 28% of the variance explained in the Burnout experienced by these Managers.

Some recent studies have reported how call centers employ low-skilled workers and how agents work robotically using scripts when assisting customers on the phone; other studies have focused on how they need to be “native speaker”–like in their language fluency when serving customers; and yet others talk of the repressive nature of the industry where agents become emotionally, culturally, and linguistically exhausted, exacerbated by the prescriptive and highly regulated use of scripts at work. While acknowledging that the use of scripts in call centers can result in agent disengagement and customers feeling they are talking to robots, this is not the complete story. This study aims to report on the use of scripts in the global call center industry, which may place their use in a more positive light.
After first defining what is meant by “scripting” in this context, two case studies are reported on where line managers and agents found script use to be helpful in a number of ways. The first case study uses data gathered in an offshored monolingual call center in Manila, and the second study uses data gathered in
a multilingual call center in London. How both managers and agents use scripts and how they perceive them are the focus areas of this study, and while arguably there are a number of problems with this practice, there are also self-reported benefits in supporting effective communication and positive business outcomes in the call centers.

This paper studies the role of subjectivity in the language of award-winning journalism. The paper draws on a content analysis of Pulitzer Prize-winning articles in a range of news categories between 1995 and 2011. The analysis indicates that despite the continued prominence of the ideal of objectivity in scholarly and journalistic debates, award-winning journalistic stories are in fact pervaded by subjective language in the form of what linguists refer to as ‘‘appraisals,’’ as well as the narrative construction of emotive appeals. The subjective language use of award-winning stories, however, does not straightforwardly or consistently undermine claims to objectivity. On
that basis, the paper concludes that any binary oppositions between objectivity and subjectivity and, relatedly, emotionality and rationality, may be overly simplistic and obscure the complexities of journalistic story-telling.

Gunnarsson, Lena (2014) ‘Loving him for he is: the microsociology of power’, in A.G. Jónasdóttir and A. Ferguson (eds) Love – a question for feminism in the twenty first century. London: Routledge, pp. 97-110.

The chapter theorizes the tension inherent in contemporary western heterosexual love between, on one hand, norms of gender equality and freedom to choose and, on the other, persisting gender inequality. Focusing on the empirically documented asymmetry in love ‘exchanges’ as such between women and men, I ask how this tendency comes about despite the fact that mutual love is the raison d’être of the relationship, that the ideological context prescribes gender equality and that there are no salient external factors that stop women from breaking up in case they are not satisfied.

An overview of feminist approaches to labor beginning with 1970s materialist feminism through recent conceptualizations of biological and digital labor. Written for an undergraduate audience, it provides an overview of feminist critiques of labor, as well as women of color, Black, third world and other feminist critiques of Marxist feminism.