The Sociology Of Citizenship

Foreword, by Prof. Joseph P. Farrell Acknowledgements Introduction PART ONE: ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF TRANSFORMING THE FUTURE The Precedents of World Scouting (1907-1920) An Idea, a Book, and How They Came About Scouting in Britain and its Spontaneous Internationalization Peace and the Ideal of the League of Nations The Historical Development of Scouting Worldwide The Period Under the Leadership of Robert Baden-Powell The Globalization of Scouting Evolution of the WOSM Censuses (1924-2004) Scouting in the 21st Century: Some Numbers PART TWO: AN IDEAL, A MOVEMENT, AN ORGANIZATION Essential Characteristics of Scouting Definition Purpose and Principles Educational Method A Highly Intuitive Educational Movement More a Network Movement than an Organization The Educational Impact and 'the Magic' of Scouting How the Organization Works: Town, Country, and World The Local Group and the National Association When a Country Has More Than One Association World Organization(s) and Global Belo...

Historically, the distinctive core of citizenship has been the possession of the formal status of membership of a political and legal entity and having particular sorts of rights and obligations within it. This core understanding of citizenship goes back to classical times and coalesced around two broad understandings of citizenship stemming from ancient Greece and Imperial Rome respectively that later evolved into what came to be termed the ‘republican’ and ‘liberal’ accounts of citizenship. This entry first examines these two classic views, then looks at how they changed during the Renaissance and Reformation, and finally turns to the ways the two were to some extent brought together following the American and French revolutions within the liberal-democratic nation state.

Un dialogo con Lorenzo Grifone Baglioni sulla sociologia della cittadinanza. La sfida che le pressioni migratorie pongono alla sociologia della cittadinanza in Europa: comprendere il rapporto fra cittadini e democrazia in Europa triangolando tre questioni weberiane: (a) la questione dell’agire di comunita, a livello terri- toriale, con (b) i problemi di selezione e di cooptazione dell’elite (a livello locale, nazionale, europeo), con (c) le s de di political economy di oggi (sostanzialmente legate alla creazione di occupazione di qualita e integrazione progressiva degli immigrati).

Pengantar: Urbanisasi secara umum adalah fenomena perpindahan penduduk dari suatu desa ke ke kota karena alasan tertentu. Dalam perspektif sosiologis hal ini dinilai wajar sebagai akibat modernisasi yang mengharuskan manusia berhijrah ke kota untuk mencari peruntungan ataupun sekedar menuntut ilmu. Di Indonesia sendiri hal ini biasa terjadi di kota besar tak terkecuali di kota Yogyakarta. Dalam paper singkat ini penulis bermaksud mendeskripsikan fenomena gaya hidup atau life stye kaum muda perkotaan dan hubungannya dengan budaya hits kekinian yang saat ini marak terjadi di Yogyakarta. Pembahasan: Yogyakarta adalah salah satu kota di Indonesia yang terkenal dengan sebutan 'Kota Pelajar'. Tak hanya itu saja, keramahan penduduk dan keasrian kota dengan model jalan yang sangat khas ke-Yogyakartaannya juga jajanan angkringan yang menghiasi sudut kota membuat kota ini juga mendapat predikat sebagai 'Kota Wisata' dan 'Kota Budaya'. Pertambahan penduduk yang berujung pada kepadatan penduduk di Yogyakarta pun akhirnya tak dapat dihindari lagi. Hal ini kemudian memicu para pengusaha baik negeri maupun swasta tertarik untuk menanamkan saham bisnisnya di kota ini. Salah satunya adalah bisnis kuliner. Menurut data yang penulis himpun dari sebuah website yang fokus mendeskripsikan perkembangan kuliner di Yogyakarta, ditahun 2016 ini tercatat ada 517 rumah makan. Rumah makan ini apabila dilihat daftarnya berdasarkan perkembangan kuliner saat ini, maka dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi kelompok. Pertama, adalah rumah makan Angkringan, kedua adalah rumah makan keluarga atau family resto, ketiga adalah rumah makan masakan Barat dikenal dengan Western Food, keempat adalah warung kopi yang dikenal dengan coffee shop dan kelima adalah rumah makan instagramabel. Kelima jenis rumah makan ini selain menjadi tempat berkumpul makan bersama perlahan kini sudah bergeser maknanya menjadi tolak ukur hits-kekinian anak muda Yogyakarta khususnya untuk kualifikasi nomor empat dan lima.

In tema di diritti fondamentali, il concetto tradizionale di cittadinanza ha storicamente rappresentato un elemento in bilico tra l'inclusione e l'esclusione. A partire dalle critiche mosse da Hannah Arendt riguardo i diritti umani e, in particolare, l'identificazione della cittadinanza come 'diritto di avere diritti', la questione che ruota attorno al rapporto tra cittadinanza e diritti umani ha acquisito notevole importanza nel dibattito socio-politico.

This article analyzes the ways in which Canadian and Australian immigration policies represent causes and consequences of neoliberal restructuring. Interrogating neoliberalism as a series of political-economic and moral changes derived from the marketization of societal and governmental arrangements, it illustrates how numerically-based ‘points systems’ have been employed as mechanisms for: gauging human capital; establishing indices of risk and undesirability; and promoting the ‘responsibilization’ of incoming migrants. In doing so the points systems' historical trajectory is traced through a variety of administrative reforms characteristic of neoliberal government and flexible accumulation. Ultimately, this article contends that as rational, technical and economically guided systems of enumeration and assessment, both governments' policies mirror, enhance and extend neoliberal arrangements and sensibilities. In providing ostensibly objective techniques of evaluation the points systems have assisted in injecting the ideal neoliberal citizens- who are, above all, flexible, cosmopolitan, entrepreneurial and autonomous- from abroad. Overall this paper contributes to studies of state restructuring by providing new insights into the links between the neglected domain of immigration control and emergent techniques of societal regulation and citizen-making.

Il saggio propone un aggiornamento della definizione del concetto di cittadinanza. A questo scopo, e seguendo un percorso cumulativo nel segno della lezione di Marshall, a fianco dei vecchi e dei nuovi diritti si ritiene di dover inserire i capitali individuati da Bourdieu, indispensabili, gli uni e gli altri, per dare fondamento e alimento alle pratiche di cittadinanza. È dall’intuizione di Turner che nasce questa idea di collegare azione e diritti, e quindi di rintracciare veri e propri atti di cittadinanza, come sottolineano Isin e Nielsen. È quindi con l’intento di valorizzare l’azione della persona, e perciò di far risaltare quello che si ritiene essere il senso sociologico della cittadinanza, che appare fruttuoso coniugare la teoria dei diritti di Rawls con l’approccio delle capacità di Sen e Nussbaum. Questo il percorso del saggio, introdotto dalla presentazione dei caratteri e delle dimensioni della cittadinanza, dalla descrizione delle sue tappe e delle sue risorse, così da garantire un inquadramento efficace della questione e giungere ad una definizione del concetto capace di tenere insieme il piano formale e quello materiale. In questa lettura genuinamente sociologica della cittadinanza, alla questione dello status si affianca la riflessione sui capitali connettendo la teoria dei diritti con l’approccio delle capacità allo scopo di valorizzare il tema delle pratiche individuali

Recent years have seen a revival of civic education. Advocates of this policy have cited the alleged declining normative political participation of young people as a primary reason for its need. This paper builds on the findings of a recent systematic review that examined the effect of civic education on young people’s level of normative political engagement. The review found little evidence for civic education having a clear effect on voting/registering to vote, but did identify modest positive effects on forms of political expression (e.g. signing petitions). Hence, it seems civic education has broadly ‘failed’ in its specified aim. We argue here that this ‘failure’ reflects a mechanistic approach to policy and a naïve notion that ‘knowledge will result in action’, neglecting insights from sociological literature that shows structural barriers to young people’s political participation and the displacement of electoral politics by new hybrid and creative forms of participation.

Der Beitrag geht der Frage nach, wie soziale Schließung von Klassen, Kulturen und gesellschaftlichen Teilbereichen her gedacht werden kann. Dabei wird ein besonderer Akzent auf solche Schließungseffekte gelegt, die sich nicht aus der jeweiligen Binnenlogik dieser Einheiten allein, sondern gerade aus ihren Wechselwirkungen ergeben, was hier mit dem Begriff der „Schließungsverhältnisse“ bezeichnet wird. Ausgehend von einem modifizierten Feldbegriff wird dabei zunächst gefragt, wie sich Klasseneffekte auf die Schließung sozialer Felder und umgekehrt Feldeffekte auf die Schließung sozialer Klassen auswirken. In einem nächsten Schritt wird die Frage aufgeworfen, wie und in welchem Sinne „Kultur“ als eine distinkte Dimension gesellschaftlicher Differenzierung in den bis hier vorgeschlagenen Rahmen integriert werden kann. Damit trägt die Leitfrage nach Formen des sozialen Ausschlusses auch zur Präzisierung der Diskussion darüber bei, auf welche Weise stratifikatorische, sachliche und kulturelle Differenzierung jenseits von Primatsthesen als miteinander verknüpft gedacht werden können.

Die daraus resultierende Kombinatorik führt zu der Annahme, dass sich für diese Relationierung von Differenzierungsprinzipien und die damit einhergehenden Schließungseffekte im Vergleich unterschiedlicher gesellschaftlicher Formationen ganz verschiedenartige Logiken identifizieren lassen. In diesem Sinne lassen sich nicht nur Schichtungs- bzw. Klassenstrukturen sowie kulturelle Differenzierungsmuster komparativ beleuchten, sondern auch das Prinzip sachlicher Differenzierung sowie die unterschiedlichen Verknüpfungsprofile der drei Differenzierungsformen werden für eine gesellschaftsvergleichende Perspektive geöffnet. Hierzu wird in einem dritten Schritt der Begriff der „Differenzierungskulturen“ vorgeschlagen und die angedeutete Vielfalt von Schließungsverhältnissen in einen allgemeineren gesellschaftstheoretischen Rahmen einstellt. In dieser komparativen Perspektive rückt schließlich der Nationalstaat als ein – noch immer – zentraler Ort der Verknüpfung und Variation von Schließungsmechanismen in den Blick.

The path of citizenship is continually trodden and is traced on every map, though not always clearly, nor is its destination always certain. Thus we often speak of citizenship, although in the majority of cases we mean by it something else: civic virtue, belonging, participation or collectivity. Undoubtedly these are all related to it, by they do not clinch its meaning. The risk is that of abusing a concept that is capable of great suggestion, evocative and monumental, but behind whose façade, if theoretical and empirical foundations be lacking, there may be bold but futile architecture – like a new Tower of Babel.
Through the interviews and many examples of theory and research gathered here, this special issue presents citizenship not merely as a datum but as a process, one that sees in the top-down aspect a crucial variable and in the social context an absolutely vital framework, but one that every day acquires meaning through being an individual and collective practice, a practice that arises from below, and in respect of which each one of us – as Thomas H. Marshall says – possesses an image of an ideal citizenship against which achievements can be measured and towards which aspirations can be directed.

Social rights are crucial for the exercise of civil and political rights, thus for the realization of political membership and of social solidarity. However, the new structural conditions of economic liberalization are transforming the social citizenship and the institutional framework that it relies on. As one of the main pillars of social citizenship, health care services have started to be marketized in almost every country. In this article, through analyzing the changes in Turkish health care policies, it is argued that public policies and the responsibilities of the state have been transforming with respect to social citi-zenship conceptualization of different periods characterized with specific de-velopment models. Privatization and marketization attempts in the health care system have in one way or another been included in all reform proposals since 1980s and gradually implemented. Within this process, while the role and the responsibilities of the state are re-defined, the content of social citizenship started to be re-shaped. As a consequence, a new model of privatized and indi-vidualized citizenship is under construction.

Il libro propone una lettura critica del concetto di cittadinanza nel segno del dibattito teorico che percorre la sociologia contemporanea a partire dai temi della soggettività, della sfera pubblica e della società globale. L’aggiornamento del significato della cittadinanza, nella sua duplice qualità di status e di pratica, proietta nella quotidianità dello spazio sociale europeo una risorsa individuale dotata di un forte potenziale inclusivo.
Il complessificarsi della società e l’incalzare della crisi economica mettono però in luce la crescente difficoltà che alcuni settori sociali – in specie le donne, i giovani e i migranti – incontrano oggi nel loro rapporto con la cittadinanza. Una possibile risposta a questo stato di cose pare venire dalla valorizzazione del ruolo propulsivo della città, laboratorio della convivenza e dei contrasti, in cui la capacità del soggetto di rendersi autonomo e di realizzarsi indica i contorni di una «cittadinanza materiale» che coglie a pieno il senso dell’approccio sociologico al tema.
La riflessione teorica sulla cittadinanza nella prospettiva sociologica è poco frequentata, ancor meno numerose sono le proposte di rilevazione empirica. Attraverso un contributo denso e aggiornato il testo si propone di colmare questa lacuna presente non solo nelle scienze sociali italiane, ma anche nel panorama sociologico internazionale.

The concept of citizenship is central to European history and has great resonance. It does however bear the weight an 'original sin', its derivation from the idea of the nation: a relationship worth reviewing in the light of the dynamics of present-day society. Furthermore, the polysemic nature of citizenship can diffuse its meaning and reduce effective analysis. With this in mind, the present paper, after having explored the origins of citizenship and reviewed its development, proposes a definition in material terms. The question of status, pre-eminent in the juridical approach, is of lesser importance in the present sociological interpretation of citizenship, concentrating as it does on individual practices. Rights allow the individual access to certain social resources (which ones?) but capitals determines the quantity of social resources the person may draw on (how many?). Together, rights and capitals shape the capabilities that each person converts into functionings in daily life – that is into the practices of citizenship, but only in those cases when the individual's behaviour is compatible with the norms of the community.

Recent years have seen a revival of civic education. Advocates of this policy have cited the alleged declining normative political participation of young people as a primary reason for its need. This paper builds on the findings of a recent systematic review that examined the effect of civic education on young people's level of normative political engagement. The review found little evidence for civic education having a clear effect on voting/registering to vote, but did identify modest positive effects on forms of political expression (e.g. signing petitions). Hence, it seems civic education has broadly ‘failed’ in its specified aim. We argue here that this ‘failure’ reflects a mechanistic approach to policy and a naive notion that ‘knowledge will result in action’, neglecting insights from sociological literature that shows structural barriers to young people's political participation and the displacement of electoral politics by new hybrid and creative forms of participat...

Aprendo una finestra sulle dinamiche di inclusione/esclusione nella città contemporanea, il saggio propone un aggiornamento teorico e una ricognizione in chiave empirica del concetto di cittadinanza, a partire dalle sue dimensioni formale e materiale. La questione dello status, prioritaria negli approcci giuridici, si colloca in secondo piano nella lettura sociologica qui proposta. L’attenzione viene focalizzata su due fattori, la residenza urbana e il lavoro, cruciali nell’attivare esperienze e interpretazioni diverse dell’essere cittadino. Se sono i diritti che consentono l’accesso alle risorse, le capacità, rese concrete dalla quotidianità delle pratiche individuali e dalla rete multiforme dei servizi e delle facilitazioni presenti a livello urbano (come i comitati cittadini o le consulte, il volontariato o i gruppi di auto-aiuto), fondano i comportamenti sociali, culturali, economici e politici della persona, costituendo una chance di «cittadinanza materiale» anche per chi non sia un cittadino de jure.

In the past several years, weblogs—frequently modified web pages containing dated entries listed in reverse chronological sequence—have gone from relative obscurity to immense popularity. Weblogs are popular in part because they enable easy, inexpensive self-publication of content for a potentially vast audience on the World Wide Web, while being more flexible and interactive than previous publication formats, print or digital (Herring, Scheidt, Bonus, & Wright, 2005). The rapid efflorescence of the blogosphere—the ...

L’article propose une définition et un repérage empirique du concept de ‘citoyenneté matérielle’. La question  du statut, prioritaire dans les approches juridiques, se situe au second plan dans cette lecture véritablement sociologique de la citoyenneté qui se concentre sur le thème des pratiques individuelles. Si les droits permettent à la personne d’avoir accès aux ressources sociales, les capitaux déterminent l’ampleur de ces ressources allouées individuellement : dans l’ensemble elles forgent les capacités que la personne met en œuvre dans l’expérience du quotidien, à savoir en pratiques de citoyenneté.  En utilisant les données Eurostat, l’attention se focalise donc sur les pratiques mises en œuvre par les ressortissants nationaux, européens et  de pays tiers en France et en Italie en mettant en relief  la persistance et la complexification d’une hiérarchie de la citoyenneté dans l’Europe contemporaine.