The Testing Effect

In addition to serving summative assessment purposes, testing has turned out to be a powerful learning tool. However, while the beneficial effect of testing on learning performances has been confirmed in a large body of literature, the question of exactly how testing influences cognitive and metacognitive processes remains unclear. We therefore set out to investigate the effect of testing on self-regulated learning (SRL) processes. We hypothesized that by recalibrating metacognitive monitoring, regular practice testing can trigger efficient SRL processes and, in turn, foster learning. To test this hypothesis, we exposed first-year undergraduates to a complex neurology module. Participants were randomly assigned to either the practice testing group or a control group. The testing group underwent multiple practice tests during the neurology module, whereas the control group only underwent the multiple practice tests after the course. To assess the impact of practice testing on SRL processes, we combined a think aloud protocol with a metacognitive monitoring self-report measure. Results showed that, compared with controls, participants in the practice testing group were significantly less overconfident in their ability to recall recently learned information and performed better on a posttest questionnaire. Furthermore, mediation analyses confirmed that enhanced learning performance was explained by the use of efficient SRL processes. Therefore, these results allow us to extend the testing effect to SRL, and empirically underscore the central role of monitoring in SRL. Contributions to the fields of practice testing and SRL are discussed.

Memory retrieval is an active process that can alter the content and accessibility of stored memories. Of potential relevance for educational practice are findings that memory retrieval fosters better retention than mere studying. This so-called testing effect has been demonstrated for different materials and populations , but there is limited consensus on the neurocognitive mechanisms involved. In this review, we relate cognitive accounts of the testing effect to findings from recent brain-imaging studies to identify neurocognitive factors that could explain the testing effect. Results indicate that testing facilitates later performance through several processes, including effects on semantic memory representations, the selective strengthening of relevant associations and inhibition of irrelevant associations, as well as po-tentiation of subsequent learning.

In 2 experiments we investigated the efficacy of self-paced study in multitrial learning. In Experiment 1, native speakers of English studied lists of Dutch–English word pairs under 1 of 4 imposed fixed presentation rate conditions (24 1 s, 12 2 s, 6 4 s, or 3 8 s) and a self-paced study condition. Total study time per list was equated for all conditions. We found that self-paced study resulted in better recall performance than did most of the fixed presentation rates, with the exception of the 12 2 s condition, which did not differ from the self-paced condition. Additional correlational analyses suggested that the allocation of more study time to difficult pairs than to easy pairs might be a beneficial strategy for self-paced learning. Experiment 2 was designed to test this hypothesis. In 1 condition, participants studied word pairs in a self-paced fashion without any restrictions. In the other condition, participants studied word pairs in a self-paced fashion but total study time per item was equated. The results showed that allowing self-paced learners to freely allocate study time over items resulted in better recall performance.

Face aux difficultés des étudiants à réussir à l'université, les technologies d'apprentissage peuvent constituer d'intéressantes solutions. En effet, grâce à leurs capacités interactives, elles ont le potentiel de guider les étudiants à mieux apprendre. Toutefois, afin d'améliorer leur efficacité, ces solutions interactives doivent être conçues sur les bases d'une compréhension explicite du fonctionnement cognitif des étudiants à l'université. Cette recherche explore, à partir de deux études, l'effet des quiz interactifs sur l'activité cognitive et métacognitive. L'étude 1 montre qu'insérer régulièrement des quiz dans un environnent numérique de travail améliore les performances d'apprentissage des étudiants. Celles-ci sont expliquées par une baisse de la surestimation de leur performance ainsi que par la mise en oeuvre d'activités d'apprentissage plus efficaces. Toutefois, les résultats de l'étude 2 révèlent que les effets positifs des quiz peuvent disparaitre dans certaines conditions. En effet, en proposant des quiz trop simples, les étudiants ont maintenu d'une part une surestimation de la qualité de leur apprentissage et d'autre part une activité cognitive et métacognitive inadaptée à la tâche.

Grounded theory methodology was utilized to investigate the process of memorization of the Quran in India from a psychological perspective as it occurs in the absence of semantic comprehension of the Arabic language. Data collection methods included participant observation in a seminary, semi-structured interviews with students and teachers of memorization, study of documents employed during the learning process, and practical demonstrations. Sample comprised of thirteen individuals including students and teachers. Data coding and analyses resulted in a large number of open codes, and eleven axial code categories besides a selective code that gave a comprehensive summation of the research study and facilitated in the generation of a substantive theory of memorization of the Quran in India. Different methods of data display were construction of matrices and tables, diagrammatic representation of axial codes to depict the main theme, case summaries, in-vivo quotes of the subjects, and summations of practical demonstrations. The research employed five methods of implementing evaluative criteria including: triangulation, audit trail, reflexivity, prolonged engagement and persistent observation, and rich, thick description to ensure the credibility of the data, research process, and research outcomes which was to generate a comprehensive understanding of memorization as a unique learning paradigm.

Temporal lobe epilepsy a b s t r a c t While most individuals who have problems acquiring new information forget at a normal rate, there have been reports of patients who show much more rapid forgetting, particularly comprising a subsample of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Currently available tests are generally not designed to test this since it requires multiple different tests of the same material. We describe two tests that aim to fill this gap, one verbal, the Crimes Test, the other visual, the Four Doors Test. Each test involves four scenes comprising five features. In each case, this allows four tests of 20 different questions to be produced and used at four different delays. Two experiments were run, each comprising a multi-test condition in which immediate testing was followed by retesting after 24 h, one week and one month, and a second condition involving a single test after one month. Both the visual and verbal tests showed clear evidence of forgetting in the single test condition, together with little evidence of forgetting in the multi-test conditions. We suggest that the testing of individual features encourages participants to remember the whole episode which then acts as a further reminder. Further research is needed to decide whether this serendipitous lack of forgetting in healthy individuals (decelerated long-term forgetting) will provide an ideal test of accelerated long-term forgetting by avoiding the danger of floor effects, or whether it will simply prove to be a further complication. Theoretical implications are discussed, as well as possible ways ahead in further investigating the surprisingly neglected field of long-term forgetting.

We examined the effects of retrieval practice for students who varied in working memory capacity as a function of the lag between study of material and its initial test, whether or not feedback was given after the test, and the retention interval of the final test. We sought to determine whether a blend of these conditions exists that maximises benefits from retrieval practice for lower and higher working memory capacity students. College students learned general knowledge facts and then restudied the facts or were tested on them (with or without feedback) at lags of 0–9 intervening items. Final cued recall performance was better for tested items than for restudied items after both 10 minutes and 2 days, particularly for longer study–test lags. Furthermore, on the 2-day delayed test the benefits from retrieval practice with feedback were significantly greater for students with lower working memory capacity than for students with higher working memory capacity (r = −.42). Retrieval practice may be an especially effective learning strategy for lower ability students.

In this paper, we compare brain activity during restudying and testing, investigate which brain activity during practice predicts better longterm outcomes, and relate the measured brain activations to cognitive theories about the testing effect.

Abstract: Tests that require memory retrieval strongly improve long-term retention in comparison to continued studying. For example, once learners knowthe translation of a word, restudy practice, during which they see theword and its translation again, is less effective than testing practice, during which they see only the word and retrieve the translation from memory. In the present functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we investigated the neuro-cognitive mechanisms underlying this striking testing effect. Twenty-six young adults without prior knowledge of Swahili learned the translation of 100 Swahili words and then further practiced the words in an fMRI scanner by restudying or by testing. Recall of the translations on a final memory test after one week was significantly better and faster for tested words than for restudied words. Brain regions that were more active during testing than during restudying included the left inferior frontal gyrus, ventral striatum, and midbrain areas. Increased activity in the left inferior parietal and left middle temporal areas during testing but not during restudying predicted better recall on the final memory test. Together, results suggest that testing may be more beneficial than restudying due to processes related to targeted semantic elaboration and selective strengthening
of associations between retrieval cues and relevant responses, and may involve increased effortful cognitive control and modulations of memory through striatal motivation and reward circuits.

Tests in educational setting are often seen as an assessment tool. However, in the field of psychology, memory related studies have shown that being tested affects recall in a positive way. Studying on a material as testing rather than studying on it many times helps better to remember the information in the material. This phenomenon is called Testing Effect. It is stated in the literature that using testing effect in the field of education may have positive result. It is thought that one of the important skills that should be gained to learners is the Safe Internet Usage. The aim of this study is to examine whether the different learning conditions (Study-Study-Test, Study-Test-Test, Study-Study-Study-Test and Study-Test-Test-Test) are influential for middle school students to learn the topic of Safe Internet Use. The research results show that different learning conditions have an effect on the group's short-term retention performance but not on long term retention.

Elaborating a coherent mental model from complex scientific multimedia documents involves students to be engaged in deep learning activities. Several studies have shown that prompting can be used to overcome students' strategies production deficit. However, studies have shown that not all students comply with instructional prompts. We hypothesized that overconfidence could be the cause of prompts intervention failure. To test this hypothesis, we consider the practice testing technique as a monitoring recalibration tool to potentiate prompting intervention. 84 first year undergraduates were instructed to learn a complex neurology course from a multimedia lesson that included or not 1) regular practice tests 2) regular instructional prompts. Results showed that instructional prompts and testing triggered the use of effective cognitive and metacognitive processes resulting in learning gain. Furthermore, results showed an interaction between our two independent variable on cognitive and metacognitive processes use showing that practice tests have the power to potentiate instructional prompts.

Even without feedback, test practice enhances delayed performance compared to study practice, but the size of the effect is variable across studies. We investigated the benefit of testing, separating initially retrievable items from initially nonretrievable items. In two experiments, an initial test determined item retrievability. Retrievable or nonretrievable items were subsequently presented for repeated study or test practice. Collapsing across items, in Experiment 1, we obtained the typical cross-over interaction between retention interval and practice type. For retrievable items, however, the cross-over interaction was quantitatively different, with a small study benefit for an immediate test and a larger testing benefit after a delay. For nonretrievable items, there was a large study benefit for an immediate test, but one week later there was no difference between the study and test practice conditions. In Experiment 2, initially nonretrievable items were given additional study followed by either an immediate test or even more additional study, and one week later performance did not differ between the two conditions. These results indicate that the effect size of study/test practice is due to the relative contribution of retrievable and nonretrievable items.