Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism

This article deals with an important festival in Tibet dedicated to the future Buddha Maitreya. It was held on three days in summer when three giant thangkas showing Buddhas Amitābha, Śākyamuni and Maitreya were put on public display. Introduced in the seventeenth century, it became a defining feature of the monastic life in the Dge lugs monastery of Bkra shis lhun po, the seat of the Panchen Lamas. It attained a supra-regional importance, which even extended to Mongolia. Based on a number of textual sources, this essay examines various aspects of this festival, how it was funded, who participated, and which rituals and ceremonies were conducted. It also analyses the history and iconography of the three giant textile thangkas by discussing in detail the contributions made during the reign of each respective Panchen Lama from the past to the present. In sum, the article argues that this festival has to be seen in the context of a special bond the Dge lugs school of Tibetan Buddhism maintained to have with the future Buddha Maitreya

Milk and milk tea occupy a special place in Mongolian hearts. Historical writings of Roman Catholic missionaries confirm the sacredness of milk and its abundant use for Mongolians. Milk offerings, sprinkled into the air, are offered to Tenger (Sky/ Sky God), Buddha, ancestors or nature spirits, and are an everyday part of traditional Mongolian worship, nearly always in the morning. This ceremony traditionally is performed alone by women, mothers praying in a supplication of blessing and protection for their families. Yet in recent times a few men have been doing this ancient ritual. Are possible Mongolian Christian responses to reject this traditional custom as being syncretistic, or to see it as being a potential form of Christian expression of devotion to God? May there be analogies from milk offerings to better engage in discipleship or worship? If this ancient practice is not addressed, there is the risk, especially for women, of this ritual being driven underground, of split-level living among Christians.

[From the introduction].
The Reb gong Vale  is a densely populated high-altitude agricultural oasis that runs north-to-south for approximately twenty kilometers through the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, surrounded by barren pastoral hills that rise to rocky snow-capped peaks. The majority of the vale's residents self-identify as Tibetan, but this population contains considerable diversity along religious, sectarian, and linguistic lines. We explore how the linguistic diversity of the region might have been maintained despite communities sharing a common identity, being engaged in inter-communal ritual networks, sharing common trade and pilgrimage sites, and living in close proximity in the absence of geographical barriers. Given their contiguity and interconnectedness, what enabled certain communities to remain distinct from nearby populations? Under such circumstances, how did relatively small communities maintain distinct languages? What prevented them from being linguistically assimilated into the Tibetan population?

This article looks at how the changing relationship between science and religion from the fin de siècle to the present period continues to influence healing practices in Mongolia. It explores how science and religion, rather than being congenitally antithetical to one another, are frequently co-constitutive. By following a few key historical lineages of spiritualism in their dialogue with the Mongolian cultural region, the article illustrates how ongoing exchanges between science and religion have contributed to changes in contemporary Mongolian urban religious practices. As the article illustrates, science, and/or the idea of science, has resulted in changes to lay religious epistemologies and methodologies. At the same time the prestige of science can be utilised as a means of underlining the strength of ritual efficacy, particularly within Buddhism. Yet when science or allopathic medicine fails to explain or to heal, science is utilised as a yardstick against which the transcendent power of ritual becomes evident.

This article, originally published years ago in the Laughing Man, a journal of contemporary spirituality, examines accounts of the extraordinary manners of death attributed to mystics, saints and sages of numerous spiritual traditions, including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism.

The Krotkov collection from IOM, RAS preserves amount of the Old Uighur manuscripts identified with the Huayan jing in forty scrolls. These manuscripts belong to the same copy set with the manuscripts of the Ōtani collection.
In this paper, I would like to reconstruct the colophon of the Huayan jing in Old Uighur, which explains that Antsang from Beš Balïq translated the Huayan jing in Old Uighur by the order of Arïq Böke.

Walther Heissig (1913–2005) was certainly one of the most influential researchers on Mongolian, well thought of by his fellows and esteemed by his students. This edition of archive materials concerning Heissig's life and work (cited below as WH) is a good opportunity for this author to discuss some aspects of a future, possibly all-embracing biography of Heissig.

[From the English summary]
The book describes the history of theocratic statehood in 20th Century Mongolia from the establishment of theocratic structures to the demise of the Mongolian Buddhist church in late 1930s.
The Introduction contains an overview of the studies undertaken, the main sources and an outline of the different research approaches.
Part I. Preconditions and the Formation of Theocracy.
Chapter 1. World-View Systems in China, the Yuan and the Qing Empires: Religion, the Problem of Legitimization and the Legacy of States contains a comparative analysis of the traditional Chinese, Yuan, and Qing world-view systems, data on the formation and history of the Qing Empire, legitimization of the Qing power for Chinese and Mongolian people, the crisis in the Qing, the problem of the legacy from the Qing Empire for republican China. The Qing Empire was not the same as China; its world-forming view in many aspects was fundamentally different from that of China. It is argued that Republican China has no historical legacy from the Qing Empire and that Mongols were subjected to the Manchu emperors of the Qing state and not to China.
Chapter 2. The Formation of the Mongolian Theocracy describes the origin and early formation of Mongolian Theocracy after the dispersal of the Gelug sect in Mongolia, as well as a the clerical hierarchy, theocracy and monasteries. I argue that higher lamas were not “clerical feudal lords,” and their disciples who worked for them (Mo: shavi) were not serfs.
Chapter 3. The 'New Policy' of the Qing and the National Liberation Movement of the Mongols analyses the roots of the movement of Mongols for their independence. This movement was inspired but by the 'new policy' of the late Qing that was aimed at sinicizing the Mongols and the colonization of their land by the Hans. The history of the colonization of Barga, Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia is described using data from archives and published reports of witnesses. The 13th Dalai Lama’s stay in Khalkha in 1904–1906 is described.
Part II. The Realization of the Concept of Theocratic Statehood.
Chapter 4. Proclamation of Independence of Mongolia contains the description of how the Khalkha Mongols proclaimed their independence in 1911. After the collapse of the Qing Empire, Mongols acquired an additional legal basis for creating their nation-state, because the Republic of China, despite her declarations of the “five races”, was effectively a nation-state of only Han people.
Chapter 5. Absolute Theocratic Monarchy describes the system existed in Mongolia in 1911–1921. Outer Mongolia is considered the center of Mongolian statehood. The attempts by the Mongols to co-opt Barga, Inner Mongolia and Kukunor into the state, the illegitimate occupation of Outer Mongolia by the Chinese and her liberation in 1921 by Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg are all described. The main events of the liberation arising from the activities of Ungern's troops were: the freeing of the Bogdo Gegen from domestic arrest; the capture of Mongolian capital Niislel Khure, Choiryn, Zamyn-Ud and the victory at Ulan-Khad. It was only the capture of northern Maimacheng that was done by the Red Mongolian troops. Special sections are devoted to the population of Mongolia and its social structure, administrative and territorial division, and their changes in different periods. Brief information on the economy, defense and education, as well as anti-feudal movements is provided.
As the newly declared monarch, the 8th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu acquired the power of an emperor in relation to ruling the territory, taxing his subjects, his legislative and judicial authority, approval of officials, granting titles and honorary awards etc. This power had its roots in two profound traditions: the great khans', with its Mongolian origin, and the theocratic tradition with Indian and Tibetan Buddhist origins. The Russian-Mongolian treaty on November 3, 1912, in reality had significant differences between its meaning in equivalent Russian and Mongolian versions: for the former it meant autonomy and for the latter independence. As such, Mongols considered this treaty to be an international recognition of their state. In fact, the unambiguous recognition of the autonomy of Outer Mongolia under the suzerainty of China was done in the tripartite Kyakhta Agreement on June 7, 1915. However, this autonomous status did not mean that Outer Mongolia had become inalienable part of China, but that the latter held only formal suzerain rights over Mongolia. Indeed Outer Mongolia maintained the key characteristics of statehood.
Chapter 6. Theocracies on Other Territories Inhabited by Mongols contains a brief description of the attempt of Dambijantsan (“Ja Lama”) to establish his personal principality in Western Mongolia, the histories of Pan-Mongolian (Buryatia, Barga and Inner Mongolia) and Balagat (Buryatia) movements, as well as data on theocratic structures in Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia.
Part III. The Demise of Theocracy
Chapter 7. Formation of the Revolutionary Authority period may be subdivided into several stages with regard to changes in the situation of theocracy: from the formation of underground Mongolian circles in Niislel Khure and their transition under the influence of Bolsheviks to the formation of the Mongolian People's Party with the People's Government and their rise to power, with a short period of the limited monarchy (1921–1924).
Chapter 8. Dismantling of Buddhist Church Structures (1924–1939) started in the first years of Mongolian People's Republic (after 1924), became more intensive in the periods of the “right deviation”, “left deviation” and the “new course”, and ended with total destruction of Buddhist church in Mongolian People's Republic. Its methods and the rates of change are analyzed with statistical data being shown on the waning numbers of clergy, monasteries, temples, and clerical property to illustrate the process of the demise of the Buddhist church and theocracy during this period.
Chapter 9. Attempts at the Conservation of the Theocracy are described in detail: attempts at the restoration of the absolute monarchy in the period (1921–1924); the searches for the reincarnation of the 8th Bogdo Gegen, and other Khutuktus and Khubilgans; conspiracies and rebellions after 1924. Detailed data on trials and repressions are provided.
Conclusion draws out generalizations from the chapters. It concludes that Tibetan theocracy served as a model for the development of Mongolian theocracy. The theocratic structures promoted by the Manchu emperors, became alternative centers of influence and authority in Mongolia. All popular movements among Mongols at that time were directed at the removal of the injustice of officials and aristocrats (not clergy) but were not promoting a change of the social system. Proclamation of independence as a theocratic monarchy of Jebtsundamba Khutuktu reflected the legacy of great khan authority which was transferred by the kinship from Genghis Khan to the 1st Bogdo Gegen, and then in the line of reincarnations to the 8th Bogdo Gegen. The enthronement of the 8th Bogdo Gegen combined the tradition of proclaiming great khans from Genghis with the tradition of Buddhist monarchs and reincarnating great lamas.
The supreme authority in both Mongolia and Tibet were similarly designated: with religious and lay authority combined together. This combination corresponded to the new perception of the legitimization of the supreme authority experienced by the Mongols from the 16th Century onwards. Analysis of the situation in Mongolia revealed that there were no preconditions for social revolution, and there was no anti-clerical mood among people. Neither socialism, nor democracy but traditionalism under the theocratic authority of the Bogdo Gegen was the choice of people in Outer Mongolia.
However, with regard to China, Outer Mongolia could not keep its independence without external support. In contrast to the Russian Tsar's Government that assisted Mongols to maintain their traditionalism, the Soviet leadership was ready to help them only on the condition of social revolution aimed at building communism.
The weakening of Buddhist clerical structures in early years of the MPP rule consisted mainly in limitating the authority of the aristocracy and higher theocratic structures. After the death of the 8th Bogdo Gegen in 1924 and the proclamation of MPR, the Party conducted a policy of gradual expulsion of aristocrats and theocrats from the ruling structures, some control over the church and splitting up of the clergy.
The “left deviation” (1929–1932), imposed on the Mongols by the Comintern and the Bolshevik Party, led to an acceleration of socialist reforms. This was accompanied by an unprecedented number of conspiracies and uprisings thus creating a challenge to the rule of MPRP. As a result, the “new course” was proclaimed in 1932 with some alleviation for Buddhism for a few years.
At this point the Mongolian leader, Kh. Choibalsan, followed J. Stalin's advice and took the most effective way to eliminate theocracy and the church: the existence of the clergy was made impossible economically, which was accompanied with propaganda against “public enemies” and with repressions. The documents studied show that highest and most educated lamas were the most common victims of repressions. Most of charges at their trials can be shown to be falsified.
Despite all the conflicts of the 20th Century and the changes in the social systems, all the leaders of the State of Mongolia including the Bogdo Khan, the revolutionaries and the democrats all followed the fundamental tenet of Mongolia's independence from China and the idea of uniting the Mongolian nation. This is reflected in the political succession of the modern State of Mongolia from the theocratic monarchy of the 8th Bogdo Gegen.

Winner of the 2018 Edward Cameron Dimock Jr. Prize in the Indian Humanities

"A profoundly innovative and engaging study of cosmological thinking in texts, rituals, imagery, and architecture across the Buddhist world of the Himalayas."
-Catherine Becker, author of Shifting Stones, Shaping the Past: Sculpture from the Buddhist Stupas of Andhra Pradesh

"Offers a new perspective on the depictions of cosmological imagery. A timely topic that makes major contributions to the field of art history."
-Christian Luczanits, David L. Snellgrove Senior Lecturer in Tibetan and Buddhist Art, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

Buddhist representations of the cosmos across nearly two thousand years of history in Tibet, Nepal, and India show that cosmology is a rich language for the expression of diverse religious ideas, with cosmological thinking at the center of Buddhist thought, art, and practice.

In Creating the Universe, Eric Huntington presents examples of visual art and architecture, primary texts, ritual ideologies, and material practices—accompanied by extensive explanatory diagrams—to reveal the immense complexity of cosmological thinking in Himalayan Buddhism. Employing comparisons across function, medium, culture, and history, he exposes cosmology as a fundamental mode of engagement with numerous aspects of religion, from preliminary lessons to the highest rituals for enlightenment. This wide-ranging work will interest scholars and students of many fields, including Buddhist studies, religious studies, art history, and area studies.

http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/HUNCRE.html

The gaṇḍī beam is a monastic tool which was already known to have been used in Buddhist monasteries in ancient India for the purpose of calling the monks to gather for a joint activity. With the spread of Buddhism the instrument was transmitted to the Tibetan and later Mongolian Buddhist cultures. It has been
in use in the Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhist monastic traditions till the present day. One of the most prominent cases of the gaṇḍī beam application in modern Mongolia relates to the poṣadha ritual. In this article I attempt to present the
history of the gaṇḍī beam within the framework of material culture studies. The analysis aims at the investigation of the mutual relations between the artefact and the societies that have made use of it as well as of the ways in which these
relations could have changed. In order to accomplish this task I study the testimonies of the original Sanskrit and Tibetan texts, religious images and accounts of ritual practices.

Introduction, translation & edition of Ch. 7 of the Black Pillar, root text of the Bon Phurpa tantras. Examining its indigenous deity binary, Hawks and Wolves, we consider Bon influence on Tibetan Buddhist Heruka iconography. Pages 153-170 of "From Bhakti to Bon. Festschrift for Per Kværne", ed. Charles Ramble and Hanna Havnevik. The Institute for Comparative Religion in Human Culture/ Novus Forlag, Oslo 2015.

Since the beginning of the Qing dynasty, Mongols have viewed Wutai Shan as a substitute for Tibet pilgrimages. Relying on various Mongolian, Chinese, Japanese, and Western sources (stone inscriptions, local gazetteers, travelogues, mountain guides), this paper tries to document the pilgrimage of Mongols to Wutai Shan from the late Qing dynasty to the early twentieth century. Who were the ordinary pilgrims, where did they come from, and what were their motivations? How were they informed about the pilgrimage and how did they travel to Wutai Shan? What were they particularly looking for and what were their priorities? The final section deals with a particular type of cave, the famous “Womb Cave,” and its connection to pilgrimage sites in Mongolia.

В учебном пособии представлена история распространения буддизма среди хори-бурят - одной из крупных составных частей бурятского народа. На основе различных источников освещены вопросы строительства буддийских монастырей, границы их приходов, культурно-просветительская и хозяйственно-финансовая деятельность, книгопечатание.

The cult of the Nepalese stupa of Boudhanath (Tib. Jarung khashor/Bya rung kha shor, Mo. Jarung khashar) was very popular in nineteenth-and early twentieth-century Mongolia, especially in Buryatia. Testaments to its popularity include the translation into Mongolian of a famous Tibetan guidebook to Boudhanath, a corpus of Mongolian oral narratives, the many thangkas and amulets depicting Boudhanath stupa along with a Tibetan prayer, and the existence of architectural replicas in Mongolia, probably to create surrogate pilgrimages to Boudhanath. How was Nepalese architecture transmitted to Mongolia? This article focuses on these architectural replicas in an attempt to understand whether the differences between the "original" structure and the Mongol replicas are due to local techniques and materials, the impossibility of studying the original, or distortions induced by the mode of transmission. Has the original building been reinterpreted to the point of transforming its meaning, and were the architectural replicas accompanied by the cult practices associated with it?

History of dispersal of Buddhism in Russian Buddhist republics Kalmykia, Tyva and Buryatia, as well as its doctrinal basis are analyzed. It is concluded that traditional Buddhism of Russia is the Tibetan Buddhism of Gelug. Statements of the presence of new local versions, like «Mongolian Buddhism», «Buryat Buddhism» etc. are unjustified in historical and doctrinal aspects.

Baron R.F. von Ungern-Sternberg (1885–1921) is almost a legendary figure. He was General of the Russian White Army fought against the Reds in Civil War after the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia. He participated in the Civil War in Russian Siberia, Manchuria and Mongolia. Baron Ungern, traditionalist and one of first eurasianists, became the key figure in finding the independence of modern Mongolia. This book is a full reconstruction of life and activities of Baron Ungern, based on all available materials, including those from Russian, Mongolian, Estonian, American, Japanese and other archives. These data, based in a large part of formerly unknown materials, are discussed in general context of events in Mongolia and Siberia of that time. Some legends related to Baron Ungern are also discussed. The book includes biography of the last Great Khan of Mongolia, whose power was restored by Ungern. Unpublished documents and memoirs added. The book may be interesting for historians, political scientists, ethnographers, orientalists and all interested in the history of Russia and Mongolia. English contents included.

1932 оны зэвсэгт бослого-20 дугаар зууны Монголын түүхэнд тохиолдсон хамгийн том бослого болно. Юунаас болж яагаад гарав? Босогчид хэн дээр түшиглэж байсан ба хэн тэднийг хангаж байваа? Яагаад бослого дарагдсан юм бэ?

Эдгээр асуултанд хариулахад урьд өмнө далдлагдаж мэдэгдээгүй байсан орос улсын архивын материалуудыг болон өмнө хэвлэгдсэн, хэвлэгдээгүй монголын материалуудтай хослуулан шинжилсэн судалгаа туслав.

1932 оны бослого-“гадаад түвд хүмүүсийн турхирсан” монголын дээд лам нар, феодалуудын гаргасан үймээн, Түвд улс Банчин Богдоор жуулчлан Монголын хэрэгт өнгөлзөж, мөн босогчдыг япончууд дэмжиж байсан гэх дүгнэлт баталгаагүй. Үнэн хэрэгтээ, босогчид гадаадын заалтаар биш, тэр ч байтугай тэндээс тусламж огт аваагүй бөгөөд ганцхан өөрсдийн хүч дээр тулгуурлахаас өөр аргагүй байсан билээ.

Бослого гарсны шалтгаан-түвдчууд ч, япончууд ч биш, бас дээд лам нар, феодалууд ч бишээ. Харин дотоод дахь шалтгаан нь тухайн үед МАХН-ын хэрэгжүүлсэн “зүүний нугалаа”, гадаад шалтгаан нь ЗСБНХУ-аас БХК(б)Н-ын биелүүлж байсан социализмыг Монголд экспортчилсон явдал мөн. “Зүүний курс” үнэхээр харийн хүмүүсээр – Коммунист интернационалын ба Бүх Холбоотын коммунист большевикуудын намын удирдагчдаар турхигдсан бөгөөд үүний хариуд БНМАУ-д бурхант шашнаа болон уламжлалт засаглалыг хамгаалах зорилгоор ардын бослого гарсан байна.

The program for the forthcoming 15th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies (Paris, 7-13 July 2019). Please note that this program is subject to a small number of corrections and emendations that will be posted in due time.

Electronic version of the book of papers based on presentations at the International Conference 'Baron R.F. von Ungern-Sternberg in Mongolian History', devoted to the 100-years anniversary of the restoration of Mongolia's independence by baron R.F. von Ungern-Sternberg in 1921 (Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, February 4, 2021).
Texts in Mongolian, Russian and English languages.

This paper is a study of the non-celibate Kalmyk Buddhist religious servitors of the Ural Cossack Host in the Russian Empire. To examine the issues of religious and ritual authority among these religious servitors, I use the theories developed by Martin A. Mills during his study of Gelugpa monasticism. The paper aims to show how the Ural Kalmyks managed to accommodate their Buddhist traditions to the military lifestyle expected of a Cossack in Imperial Russia.

Reflections of the Divine features the collection of Ulrich Wörz, which is comprised of twenty-two Tibetan paintings that were made from the middle of the thirteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century. Coming from the regions of Tibet, Mongolia, and China, and executed in various painting styles, they depict peaceful deities, wrathful guardians, and religious and secular leaders associated with the Buddhist and Bön religions. The iconography of all images is discussed in detail and its political and religious peculiarities are highlighted. The style of each painting is also described, emphasising the unique traits of each piece. Beautifully illustrated with 144 full-colour plates and written in a comprehensive yet accessible manner, this catalogue will be of interest for scholars and connoisseurs of Tibetan art as well as museums and auction houses.

A Study of Duke C.Jamiyan’s Request of Tibetan Buddhist Canons from King Nayant
This paper unveils the historical records about two trips to Peking by Mongolian diplomats Shanghai and Khukjehoto during 1923-1925 in the reign of the Duke O.Jamiyan. From the two visits, Duke O.Jamiyan received the Mongolian-language painted Tibetan Buddhist Cannon Tanjurfrom King Nayant in 1925. The agreement signed by the two kings is shown in the stone monument in front of today’s National Library, Ulaanbaatar. The painted Mongolian Tanjurconsisted 226 volumes and were soon printed inxylography during 1742-1749 at Peking.It is recognized as a National Treasure by the Government of Mongolia and as World Heritage by UNESCO in 2011.Later another nine sets of Tibetan Buddhist Cannon Kanjur were also awarded as World Heritage in 2013 by UNESCO.

The Monastery of the Caves (Aguiin süme, also called Lovonchimbu süme), located near Dengkou city, west of the great bend of the Yellow River, is said to be the only one Nyingmapa and the oldest monastery of Inner Mongolia. According to a local legend, Padmasambhava would have meditated in the caves in 774, and his Mongol disciple would have built the monastery several years after. Historical sources inform us that a monastic community was perhaps established on the site around 1649, and that the Fifth Noyon khutugtu Danzanravjaa, a famous Tantrist, (re)founded the monastery in the 19th century. The tulku of the monastery was said to be an incarnation of Padmasambhava. Was the Monastery of the Caves an "authentic" Nyingmapa monastery? The present article questions the presence of Nyingmapa communities in Mongol territory and discuss the practice of pilgrimage.

début du XX e siècle, plus de mille monastères bouddhiques de rite tibétain s'élevaient en Mongolie méridionale-actuelle Mongolie-Intérieure, l'une des cinq « régions autonomes » de Chine. Un siècle plus tard on en compte moins de deux cents. Si l'on ne peut que déplorer les destructions massives, les monastères épargnés constituent une partie appréciable d'un vaste ensemble architectural élaboré depuis la fin du XVI e siècle. Ce patrimoine architectural, d'une immense richesse, mérite d'être étudié aussi bien en tant qu'héritage culturel d'un peuple de pasteurs nomades qu'en raison de son poids dans l'histoire de l'architecture bouddhique d'Extrême-Orient. Placée entre deux puissants voisins, le Tibet et la Chine, la Mongolie est riche d'une histoire forgée sur le mythe d'ancêtres prestigieux, nourrie par une pratique sensible des religions et du bouddhisme en particulier, une histoire qui s'appuie sur des structures sociales écartelées entre nomadisme et sédentarisation. Ce passé se lit à travers les vestiges des monastères, dont l'éclectisme témoigne du brassage des influences et de la subtile adaptation de modèles pan-asiatiques aux besoins de communautés locales. Temples et monastères de Mongolie-Intérieure étudie, dans le cadre historique complexe de la Mongolie méridionale, les caractéristiques principales du patrimoine bouddhique mongol, tant du point de vue de ses enjeux spirituels, économiques ou stratégiques, que de celui des conceptions architecturales et des techniques de construction elles-mêmes. Il dresse une typologie de référence et présente les principaux monastères de Mongolie-Intérieure dans un CD-rom illustré : les156 monastères sont localisés sur une carte et accompagnés d'une notice décrivant leur histoire, leur plan au sol, l'architecture de leur temple principal, les sources épigraphiques éventuelles ainsi que les références bibliographiques utiles. 2

2008, Cathy Cantwell and Robert Mayer.  "The Dunhuang Phur pa Corpus: A Survey", in Almogi, Orna, ed. Contributions to Tibetan Buddhist Literature. PIATS 2006: Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Eleventh Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Königswinter 2006. Beiträge zur Zentralasienforschung 14. Halle: International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies (pp. 248-276)

In the Manchu period, Mongol herders were attached to their 'banner'-the basic territorial, administrative and military unit of Qing Mongolia. Their circuits of nomadization were reduced, and they were fined when found to cross its frontiers. While princes, great reincarnate lamas and long-distance traders (as well as some marginal categories such as badarchi/itinerant lamas and bandits) had many opportunities to travel within Mongolia and even abroad, it is generally assumed that commoners had no choice but stay in their pastures. Yet they had a main reason for undertaking long-distance travel: pilgrimage. This paper investigates the various modes of travel of these pilgrims, their equipment, organization and funding, and highlights the importance of a mode of locomotion which is rarely seen in Mongolia nowadays: walking.

This review article evaluates recent Chinese publications (5 books and 30 articles) on Mayidari Juu (Maitreya Monastery, Ch. Meidaizhao 美岱召), in Inner Mongolia, China) – a remarkable fortified Tibetan Buddhist monastery that has preserved sixteenth- to nineteenth-century mural paintings and architecture. Its study is not only important for the history of the Tümed Mongols, but also for the history of Mongol monasteries, art, architecture, religion, society, economy, and funerary practices. The recent books reviewed here, correspond to a new campaign of restoration of the monastery, and reflect the modern revalorisation of Inner Mongol tangible heritage. Besides introducing recently discovered archives, they provide excellent quality photographs of the murals and framework décor, as well as new hypotheses on the dating and function of buildings, and on the dating, iconography and authors of mural paintings. By synthesizing the main debates on history, architecture and painting of Mayidari Juu, the present review essay aims at helping global scholarship on this major part of the Mongol heritage move on to a new stage.

The cult of the warrior Buddhist deity Pe har of Central Asian origin was introduced among the Tümed during the Buddhist revival of the late 16th century. Several monasteries founded at that period in and around Hohhot (capital city of Inner Mongolia, China) had a Nayicung (gNas chung) temple with images of the Five Kings—five manifestations of Pe har, symbolizing his body, speech, mind, qualities and activities. Here I propose to study the mural decoration of the Nayicung Temple of Yeke juu, the main monastery of Hohhot, which preserves the most complete interior of a temple dedicated to protector deities in Inner Mongolia. Besides iconography and style, this article will illustrate the transformation of a Tibetan oracle deity into one of the popular deities of the Mongols in 18th and 19th century Mongolia.

In order to have a better understanding of the history of the Qing dynasty, it is necessary to get a better picture of the historical function and the status of Tibetan Buddhism. Even though Qing made use of Tibetan Buddhism politically for its Tibetan and Mongolian relation, it is also a fact that the Qing imperial house including its emperors had their sincere religious faith in Tibetan Buddhism. Changkya Rölpédorjé (Lcang skya Rol pa’i rdo rje) is the very person who can represent this multi-faceted aspect of Tibetan Buddhism in the history of the Qing dynasty. This paper attempts to understand the role of Tibetan Buddhism through tracking and analyzing the activities of Changkya Rölpédorjé based mainly on the contents of his Tibetan biographies. First, Rol pa’i rdo rje was chosen as a new Changkya incarnation because of his non-affiliated status of ethnic identity to prevent Mongolian monopoly of the system. Afterwards, he was educated and raised as a person who epitomizes the level of development of Tibetan Buddhism in the capital area. Second, Changkya Rölpédorjé’s activities related to the Dalai Lamas show that he was not a puppet-like figure orchestrated only by Qing but had his own voice and agenda for the benefit of the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism when necessary. Third, Changkya Rölpédorjé’s religious and scholarly activities indicate that he always obliged the Qing government with high-level results which made Tibetan Buddhism as a part of the big machine of the Qing dynasty. In sum, Changkya Rölpédorjé was a symbol of coexistence of Qing and Tibet with his independent mind as well as his cooperative attitude towards Qing.