Vultures

Nótulas Nótulas RESUMEN. En este estudio se proporcionan nuevos registros de nidificación del jote cabeza negra (Coragyps atratus) y del jote cabeza colorada (Cathartes aura) para la provincia de Río Negro. Jotes cabeza colorada ubicaron nidos en arbustos y en cavidades de roquedales, mientras que los de cabeza negra lo hicieron en arbustos, en un hueco de acantilado y en una construcción humana. Los jotes cabeza colorada nidificaron de forma solitaria, pero en algunos casos, los nidos estaban ubicados con menos de 100 metros de separación. Los jotes cabeza negra nidificaron tanto de forma solitaria como agrupada. Ambas especies de jotes nidificaron asociadas con gavilanes cenicientos (Circus cinereus) y chimangos (Milvago chimango) en el A.N.P. Bahía San Antonio y una agrupación reproductiva de jotes cabeza negra lo hizo en una colonia mixta de aves en el Parque Nacional Islote Lobos. Este último sitio se constituye en el registro de nidificación más sudoriental de reproducción de este jote, a escala global. ABSTRACT. BREEING OF THE TURKEY VULTURE (Cathartes aura) AND BLACK VULTURE (Coragyps atratus) IN THE GULF OF SAN MATIAS, RIO NEGRO, PATAGONIA, ARGENTINA. In the present article we provide new breeding records for the black vulture (Coragyps atratus) and turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) for Rio Negro province. Turkey vultures placed their nests in thickets and between rocks in rocky outcrops, while black vultures used thickets, a hole on a seacliff and a man-made structure. Turkey vultures were solitary nesters but in some cases nests were placed less than 100 meters apart. Black vultures were solitary nesters but also were seen breeding in a group. Both vulture species nested in association with cinereus harriers (Circus cinereus) and chimango caracaras (Milvago chimango) in the A.N.P. Bahía San Antonio, and a loose colony of black vultures in a mixed bird colony at National Park Islote Lobos. This last site seems to be the southeasternmost breeding record worldwide for the species.

On the Italian island of Sardinia at the beginning of the 20th century there was still an established population of the Bearded Vulture (about 35 pairs), Black Vulture (about 150 pairs) and the Griffon Vulture was “very common”. However, in the early decades of the 20th century there was a rapid and catastrophic reduction of the vulture populations on Sardinia, with the extinction of Bearded Vulture (1968-69) and the Black Vulture (1961), and the contraction of the population of Griffon Vulture (1000-1400 birds in 1945 to 100-140 birds in 1975 and 12 breeding pairs in 2007). The collection of skins and eggs, followed by hunting, poaching, killing and the use of poisoned baits for pest control were the main causes of the decline of the vultures on Sardinia. These causes were accompanied by an increase of disturbance at the breeding sites, and by a gradual decrease of pastoralism, which has led to a reduction in food availability. More recently, there have been unsuccessful attempts to reintroduce Bearded Vultures and Black Vultures, whereas after various restocking and greater protection projects, the Griffon Vulture population has increased (to 57 pairs and 230-250 birds in 2019). The Egyptian Vulture bred in Sardinia for the first time in 2019. Currently, collection and killing of vultures, and the legal use of poisoned baits have all been removed in Sardinia and the environmental situation now seems appropriate for new attempts to reintroduce the two extinct species.

It is widely known that traditional northern hunter–gatherers such as the Inuit included putrid meat, fish, and fat in their diet, although the ubiquity and dietary importance of decomposing animal foods seem often to have been underappreciated. There is no evidence that these arctic and subarctic foragers suffered from major outbreaks of botulism (Clostridium botulinum), or from the toxic metabolites of other pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes or Salmonella spp., until the 1970s and 1980s when Euroamericans introduced more "sanitary" methods for putrefying native foods. While many ethnologists, nutritionists, and public health officials working in these high-latitude regions are generally aware of the importance of putrefied foods among such peoples, most scholars, regardless of discipline, would not expect similar practices to have been commonplace in the tropics, especially in hot, humid environments like the lowland rainforests of the Congo Basin. And yet a "deep dive" into the ethnohistoric literature of sub-Saharan Africa, and elsewhere in the tropics and sub-tropics of the Old and New World, shows that both hunter–gatherers and traditional small-scale rural farmers commonly ate thoroughly putrefied meat, fish, and fat with relative impunity, consuming some of it raw, frequently cooking it, but often barely so. Not only did tropical peoples regularly eat putrefied animal foods, these ethnohistoric accounts make it clear that, at least in many regions, the Indigenous populations generally preferred it that way. Equally surprising, perhaps, is the fact that this preference for putrid meat remained widespread in equatorial Africa and in many other tropical and sub-tropical regions well into the first quarter of the 20th century, only fading from view around the time of WWI or thereabouts. Combining the insights gained by looking at the consumption of putrid meat in both northern and tropical environments, several interesting implications become evident. First, it is clear that the disgust response with regard to the taste, smell, and sight of rotten meat and maggots is not a hardwired human universal, but more likely a learned cultural response, one that is closely linked to European colonization, Westernization, urbanization, and industrialization. Second, the capacity for both northern and tropical peoples to consume putrid meat with impunity suggests that their ability to resist the toxic effects of the metabolites of C. botulinum and other pathogens most likely stems in large part from the environmental priming of their gut floras and immune systems through early childhood exposure to pathogens rather than from genetic factors. This conclusion fits well with findings from recent microbiome studies, including studies of the gut floras of monozygotic twins living in different households. Third, putrefaction provides many of the same benefits that one gets by cooking, because it effectively "pre-digests" meat and fat prior to ingesting them. Moreover, in tropical environments putrefaction occurs very rapidly and automatically, and requires little investment of time and energy on the part of the consumer. Finally, we suggest that, by eating putrid meat and fat, early hominins could have acquired many of the benefits of cooking, but at much lower cost, and quite likely long before they gained control of fire.

Intentional poisoning is a global wildlife problem and an overlooked risk factor for public health. Managing poisoning requires unbiased and high-quality data through wildlife monitoring protocols, which are largely lacking. We herein evaluated the biases associated with current monitoring programmes of wildlife poisoning in Spain. We compared the national poisoning database for the 1990–2015 period with information obtained from a field experiment during which we used camera-traps to detect the species that consumed non-poisoned baits. Our findings suggest that the detection rate of poisoned animals is species-dependent: Several animal groups (e.g., domestic mammalian carnivores and vultures) tended to be over-represented in the poisoning national database, while others (e.g., corvids and small mammals) were underrepresented. As revealed by the GLMM analyses, the probability of a given species being overrepresented was higher for heaviest, aerial, and cryptic species. In conclusion...

The diet of six Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus breeding pairs has been studied in E Bulgaria
since the sharp decline of livestock husbandry. The feeding range was based on 1694 remains and included
mainly mammals (67.5% ± 7.3), birds (15.6% ± 4.9) and reptiles (14.3% ± 5.6). Domesticated mammals
comprised 46.7 % ± 10.5 (range 31.8–58.2%) of the total diet, and wild mammals 20.8 % ± 14.7 (range 9.0–
44.9%). When livestock numbers decreased in the Strandzha Mountains, the share of livestock carrion and
carnivore prey remains dropped in the vultures’ diet. Vultures feeding shifted to scale reptiles. The
occurrence of wild animals in vulture's diets differed between years, but the importance of domestic animals
remained relatively constant (range 53.5–67.2%). Human food remains were the main origin of livestock’s
bones (up to 87.5%). By contrast, in the open habitats of Mt Sakar and nearby the town of Varna, Egyptian
vultures took more frequently carnivores and wild birds, and less ungulates and scale reptiles. An important
part of the diet is formed by the small and medium sized wild animals, but overall their utilization was low.
Young tortoises were taken alive to only one nest. The changes in the food availability and subsequent
changes in diets were not the decisive factor for the extinction of the Egyptian vulture in the Strandzha
Mountains and Mt Sakar.

Scavenging is a key ecological process controlling energy flow in ecosystems and providing valuable ecosystem services worldwide. As long-lived species, the demographic dynamics of vultures can be disrupted by spatio-temporal fluctuations in food availability, with dramatic impacts on their population viability and the ecosystem services provided. In Europe, the outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) in 2001 prompted a restrictive sanitary legislation banning the presence of livestock carcasses in the wild at a continental scale. In long-lived vertebrate species the buffering hypothesis predicts that the demographic traits with the largest contribution to population growth rate should be less temporally variable. The BSE outbreak provides a unique opportunity to test for the impact of demographic buffering in a keystone scavenger suffering abrupt but transient food shortages. We study the 42-year dynamics (1978-2020) of one of the world's largest breeding colonies of Eurasian griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus). We fitted an inverse Bayesian state-space model with density-dependent demographic rates to the time-series of stage-structured abundances to investigate shifts in vital rates and population dynamics before, during and after the implementation of a restrictive sanitary regulation. Prior to the BSE outbreak the dynamics was mainly driven by adult survival: 83% of temporal variance in abundance was explained by variability in this rate. Moreover, during this period the regulation of population size operated through density-dependent fecundity and sub-adult survival. However, after the onset of the European ban, a one-month delay in average laying date, a drop in fecundity and a reduction in the number of fledglings induced a transient increase in the impact of fledgling and sub-adult recruitment on dynamics. Although adult survival rate remained constantly high, as predicted by the buffering hypothesis, its relative impact on the temporal variance in abundance dropped to 71% during the sanitary legislation and to 54% after the ban was lifted. A significant increase in the relative impact of environmental stochasticity on dynamics was modeled after the BSE outbreak. These results provide empirical evidence on how abrupt environmental deterioration may induce dramatic demographic and dynamic changes in the populations of keystone scavengers, with far-reaching impacts on ecosystem functioning worldwide.

In recent decades, intensive techniques of livestock raising have flourished, which has largely replaced traditional farming practices such as transhumance. These changes may have affected scavengers' behaviour and ecology, as extensive livestock is a key source of carrion. This study evaluates the spatial responses of avian scavengers to the seasonal movements of transhumant herds in southeastern Spain. We surveyed the abundance of avian scavengers and ungulates, and analysed the factors affecting the space use by 30 GPS-tracked griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus). Griffons' foraging activity increased in the pasturelands occupied by transhumant herds, which implied greater vulture abundance at the landscape level during the livestock season. In contrast, facultative scavengers were more abundant without transhumant livestock herds, and the abundance of wild ungulates did not change in relation to livestock presence. We conclude that fostering transhumance and other traditional farming systems, to the detriment of farming intensification, could favour vulture conservation.

Vultures are the keystone species and very important scavengers responsible for the maintenance of balance of ecosystem. Diclofenac is the main reason of mass decline in the population of vultures in India but there are other factors too that are adversely affecting the vultures, like the shortage of food after the change in lifestyle of people, the closure of slaughterhouses in Uttar Pradesh, indiscriminate cutting of trees as a part of urbanization, and the unawareness regarding the importance of vultures. Due to rapid urbanization and deforestation the whole natural equilibrium has changed. It has displaced vultures from their habitats. The present study aimed at showing the drastic decline in the population of Egyptian Vultures in Rae Bareli district of Uttar Pradesh. Repeated surveys show that there has been a decline in individuals from an average 171 individuals to only 02 individuals. Strict measures and proper awareness with comprehensive education regarding the environment helps people to understand how important these species are and there is the necessity to keep these species alive from the brink of extinction.

El quebrantahuesos (Gypaetus barbatus barbatus), como parte de su dieta, es un importante acumulador de restos óseos de mamíferos en sus nidos. Recientemente, su comportamiento etológico ha llevado a la confusión con las actividades económicas llevadas a cabo en contextos kársticos tanto por otras especies animales como por los grupos humanos durante la Prehistoria.

El objetivo de este trabajo es el estudio de los materiales encontrados en nidos históricos, pertenecientes a esta especie recuperados en el sureste peninsular, mediante un análisis de los restos óseos animales acumulados, tanto desde un punto de vista taxonómico, anatómico como tafonómico. A través del estudio de su comportamiento alimenticio se podrán identificar tanto sus pausas de consumo, como el procesado que realiza con los restos óseos como parte de su dieta
La comparativa con otros agentes biológicos no humanos (carnívoros y otras aves), proporcionará una identificación clara que permitirá identificar el responsable de dichas acumulaciones óseas.

1. Concerns over CO2 emissions during energy generation and its effect on climate change have led to increases in the use of renewables, such as wind energy. However, there are also
serious environmental concerns over this type of energy production due to its impacts on bats
and birds.
2. In southern Africa, bearded vultures have declined by >30% during recent decades. They are now regionally critically endangered with only around 100 active pairs remaining. This
species is considered vulnerable to collision with wind turbines which are planned within their
southern African range.
3. In this study, we develop habitat use models using data obtained from 21 bearded vultures
of different ages fitted with GPS tags from 2009 to 2013. We further refined these models by incorporating flying heights at risk of collision to predict important areas of use that may
conflict with wind turbines.
4. Adult and non-adult bearded vultures mostly used areas with high elevations and steep
and rugged topography in the core area; adults tended to use areas in relatively close proximity to their nest sites, whereas non-adult birds used areas dispersed over the entire species
range and were more likely to fly at risk-height in areas that were less used by adults. Altitudes
of fixes of adults and non-adults showed that they spent 55% and 66% of their time, respectively, at heights that placed them at risk of collision.
5. Examining the locations of two proposed wind farms in relation to our model of predicted
‘at risk’ usage suggested poor positioning. Indeed, one of these wind farms was located within the 1% of ‘worst’ (most heavily used) sites for non-adult bearded vultures suggesting that its
current location should be reconsidered to reduce the impact on this vulnerable species.
6. Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate the value of habitat use models for identifying
intensively used areas, in order to greatly reduce conflicts with developments such as wind
turbines. This tool is operable at the scale of regional and national development plans informed by the habitat use of potentially vulnerable species. Such models should provide
important supplementary assessments of site-specific development proposals.

1. Interspecific social information transfer can play a key role in many aspects of animal ecology from foraging to habitat selection to predator avoidance. 2. Within scavenging communities, avian scavengers often act as producers and mammalian scavengers act as scroungers, but we predict that species-specific cueing will allow for mam-malian scavengers to utilize particular avian scavenger species using preferred food sources similar to their own preferences. 3. We use empirical and theoretic approaches to assess interactions between mammalian and avian scavengers in one of the most diverse scavenging guilds in Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. 4. Using a spatially explicit model and data from experimental carcasses, we found evidence that mammals benefit from local enhancement provided by vultures and that mammalian-avian following patterns are consistent with the idea that species-specific cueing is occurring. 5. Results suggest that ongoing population declines in avian scavengers may have significant impacts on mammalian scavengers and potentially create trophic cascades.

Vulture declines are uniquely problematic for socioecological systems because they are nature's most important scavengers. Intentional and unintentional poisoning, human-wildlife conflict, energy infrastructure, belief-based use, and illegal hunting activities remain threats to vulture populations across Africa. Conservation stakeholders have identified evidence that a number of vulture species in particular ecosystems are being systematically targeted by poisoning with potentially significant effects on human, wildlife and ecosystem health. We explored the extent to which an interdisciplinary expert-team approach linking conservation and criminology could help inform efforts to prevent poisoning of Africa's vultures. We used the case of illegal vulture poisoning and conservation in the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area (GLTFCA), a known poisoning site, as an exemplar. We used an interdisciplinary framework, conservation criminology, to guide a desk assessment of how the local environment may create opportunities for illegal poisoning. Our assessment was conducted as a science team and included multiple iterations and structured discourse. The assessment identifies different elements of vulture poisoning and the opportunity factors that can both underly the problem and inform prevention strategies and tactics. We discuss controlling tools and weapons, extending local guardianship, denying benefits, reducing frustration and stress, and assisting compliance to help prevent illegal poisoning. Results provide insights into harm prevention using evidence-based theory and illustrate the positive potential of interdisciplinary team science for vulture conservation. With additional application, monitoring and evaluation, strategies and tactics explored in this desk assessment may be revised and implemented and portend other benefits for vulture conservation beyond poisoning; the spread of beneficial influence could be a welcome force multiplier for this important scavenger guild.

The Igdir Province of Turkey where is located at Eastern Anatolia is an important microclimatic area with its geologic and geographic structure and edaphic and climatic conditions. Studies on biological richness have not been enough. However, data obtained from current studies show importance of the provincefor biodiversity. It is suggested that inventory studies followed by protective measures will be helpful to contribute biodiversity which can lead nature tourism.This study is aimed to show the role of species of vulturesin ecotourism inTuzluca district of iğdir.

Lack of suitable nesting trees is an increasingly common issue for avian conservation given rampant habitat and tree destruction around the world. In the African savannah, habitat loss and particularly tree damage caused by elephants have been suggested as possible factors in the decline of large bird species. Given the recent declines of vultures and other scavenging raptors, it is critical to understand if nest availability is a limiting factor for these threatened populations. Loss of woodland, partially due to elephant populations, has been reported for the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem. Data on characteristics of trees used for nesting were collected for white-backed, lappet-faced, white-headed vulture, and tawny eagle nests in Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. Nest tree characteristics were compared with the distribution of a random subsample of trees to assess nest preferences and determine suitability of available trees. Nearest neighbor distances were estimated as well as availability of preferred nesting trees to determine if tree availability is a limiting factor for tree-nesting vultures. Tree availability was found to greatly exceed nesting needs for African vultures and tawny eagles. We thus conclude that on a landscape scale, tree availability is not a limiting factor for any of the species considered here (white-backed, lappet-faced, white-headed vultures and tawny eagles).

A state-wide survey of the Critically Endangered White-backed Vulture
Gyps bengalensis
and Long-billed or IndianVulture
Gyps indicus
in the 26 districts of Gujarat was undertaken from May 29–30, 2010. The survey was carried outthroughout the state by hundreds of volunteers and personnel of the State Forest Department to determine thepopulation of the two
Gyps
vulture species in all the districts and regions of the state, and to assess changes in theirpopulations through comparison with the earlier surveys done in 2005 and 2007. Total count method was used, and thecounts were made at resting, roosting, feeding, and nesting sites to assess the population size, number of young birds,and the nest-tree availability. The survey resulted in an estimated population of 793 White-backed Vulture (WBV) and265 Long-billed Vulture (LBV); the identity of 7 individuals was uncertain. When compared with the earlier surveys, itrevealed that there has been a 62.9% decrease (-1,342 individuals) in the population of WBV and 29.5% reduction(-111 individuals) in the population of LBV within a time span of 5 years.

La eficacia de los carroñeros, en particular de los buitres, para localizar y
consumir las carroñas en intervalos cortísimos de tiempo (generalmente horas) es un hecho que no ha dejado de sorprender. Pero, a pesar de la admiración que estos animales nos despiertan, algunas prácticas y actuaciones humanas han puesto en peligro su supervivencia y están alterando muchos de los servicios y ventajas que ofrecen a nuestra especie.

Vultures are catalysts of the decomposition process, but their scavenging is under reported in the academic literature. Moreover, forensic scientists have realized that vultures will feed on human decedents in addition to road-kill, thereby complicating forensic time since death estimations. Research from Texas State University's Forensic Anthropology Research Facility (FARF) proves in contrast to common beliefs that vultures arrive early during the decomposition process and leave few clues to indicate their prior scavenging presence. As a result, one option to aid law-enforcement during medicolegal investigations involving unidentified human remains will be to identify vultures' preferred and most likely scavenging environments. The goal of this research was to use Global Positioning System (GPS) based satellite telemetry to track vultures that were trapped, tagged, and released from FARF to test a new methodology that involved using flight altitude to identify possible vulture scavenging locations. The hourly movements of four black vultures (Coragyps atratus) and two turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) were monitored for six months during this baseline study. Geospatial analyses were conducted within a Geographic Information System (GIS), with a second research goal being to solely use open access geographic datasets for the Texas study area. During this presentation, attendees will learn about the challenges faced when using satellite telemetry to study wildlife along with the wealth of data and knew knowledge one can gain about vulture behavior.

Classification of an ecosystem is important in understanding climate change. This paper examines and juxtaposes the existing systems used in Pakistan with the contemporary global systems and tessellates that the two are not congruent. We propose application of Holdridge life zone (HLZ) classification system in Pakistan which has not yet been determined. This opens a new outlook and helps understanding climate change in Pakistan while aligning it with the globally accepted uniform system. There is no single classification system in Pakistan that could be regarded as universally accepted. Previous classifications have done to fulfill specific objectives. It is accepted that three key factors of HLZ have to be taken into account to reach a meaningful interpretation of climate viz a viz vegetation i.e. T Bio, P Ann and PET ratio. In this paper a new biome map of Pakistan at 0.5° Spatial resolution has been extracted based on HLZ model. We investigated 38 worldwide classes and acknowledge the existence of 26 in Pakistan including 5 classes from the Tropical Zones. We find that the extracted map is in line with the ground reality as well as the previous studies done on the subject. This study opens up a new era to empirically capture impacts of climate change on shifts in vegetation zones of Pakistan. HLZ provides an opportunity for spatial modeling of the climate change influence on vegetation pattern.

The vulture populations in West Africa are undergoing dramatic decline over the last 30 years. Their particular ecology and sociality makes them vulnerable to various risks, including environmental changes, poisoning and bioaccumulation of toxic substances from agricultural products, pesticides, and veterinary drugs used in cattle livestock. In addition, these birds are subject to direct persecution for the trade of products used in traditional medicine. This manuscript analyzes the conservation status of eight vulture species in West Africa and the threats affecting their survival. In order to assess the conservation status of vultures in West Africa, this paper analyzes all the available literature that has been published in scientific peer-reviewed journals, including also technical reports and unpublished reports related to the whole West African region. Overall, and despite the high risk of extinction facing several vulture species all throughout the world, our literature surveys revealed that the scientific papers on the conservation of West African vultures are relatively few. Therefore, due to limited available literature, the main causes of vulture declines in West Africa remain relatively unclear. Apparently, all African vultures suffer from similar threats, especially poisoning, habitat alteration and conversion to agro-pastoral systems, loss of wild ungulates leading to a reduced availability of carrion, hunting for trade, for use in traditional medicine and bushmeat, persecution and human disturbance. Our review also addresses future steps that are needed for reversing the negative population trend of their free-ranging populations, including some specific conservation measures that are proposed to mitigate their decline.

OBSERVATIONS OF GRIFFON VULTURE IN VENETO (IT) IN 2019
During 2019, griffon vultures were reported in Veneto 17 times, which represents the highest number of observations in one year, exceeding last year record of 11 observations. These data come from the provinces where the species is most often reported: Belluno, Treviso, Vicenza and Verona. Individuals have been regularly seen in Veneto every year since 2003, but the positive increasing trend started in 2015.

The rank of classification that is lower than a species is known as Subspecies. Related subspecies are less distinct than species of the same genus. There are three subspecies of Egyptian vulture in the world, of which two subspecies are found in India; Neophron percnopterus percnopterus and Neophron percnopterus ginginianus.Since not much work has been done at the subspecies level of Egyptian Vulture, this review is a detailed compilation of all the information done at subspecies level across the globe. Such information is valuable to plan effective conservation actions such as adequate supplementary feeding areas and other conservational measures where both subspecies share their niche. Further studies must be taken up to study the interaction level and niche sharing between both the subspecies of Egyptian Vulture in India and hence to plan for conservation strategies.