Water Issues in the Middle East

The  political  and  diplomatic  relations  between  Turkey  and  Syria  have  often  been  characterized  by  tensions  and conflicts. Among the critical moments that have constantly occurred between these two Middle Eastern countries there is a particular common thread that is rarely subjected to critical analysis: water conflicts. In these respects, Ankara and Damascus have given rise to decades of strenuous disputes in order to obtain a geopolitical advantage in terms of hydro-hegemony.  The battlefield was the Euphrates River, one  of the most iconic  waterways  in western Asia. Dangerous tensions between Turks and Syrians occurred until 1998, when the Adana Protocol was signed. Since then, the two so-called ‘riparian’ states have inaugurated a new phase in their foreign relations, particularly concerning the common management of transboundary waters. To cement this new era of peace and stability, both governments have launched a joint project renamed ‘Friendship Dam’, a water infrastructure on the Orontes River, located on the border between Turkey and Syria. However, the crisis erupted in 2011 and the umpteenth military operation carried out by the Turkish army on Syrian soil in October 2019 have significantly thwarted the political coordination process aimed at building this mutually beneficial project.

This article addresses the conflict over the Euphrates and Tigris waters from the perspective of negotiation theories, by examining the role of power in upstream/downstream negotiations. Conceptual and empirical links are established between water, negotiation (structure, process), power (asymmetries, coalition dynamics, strategies, development of alternatives) and security (direct/indirect interests such as national security, border security, territorial claims, economic development and environmental concerns). The study concludes that asymmetries in power have favored upstream/downstream interactions towards bilateral if not basin-wide arrangements. The framework shows that traditional elements of power, such
as upstream positions, military and economic resources, do not constitute the only sources of power. Bargaining power can also determine the dynamics between respective riparians. Time constitutes an important source of power, and interests vary over time when political settings and security concerns shift. Downstream or more vulnerable riparians can invert situations of power asymmetry by acting on the basin-dominant riparian’s interests and thus reduce its alternatives. Syria’s use of ‘issue linkage’ in its interactions with Turkey over water and wider security issues serves as the primary example.

The Legacy of Iraq critically reflects on the abject failure of the 2003 intervention to turn Iraq into a liberal democracy, underpinned by free-market capitalism, its citizens free to live in peace and prosperity. It argues that mistakes made by the coalition and the Iraqi political elite set a sequence of events in motion that have had devastating consequences for Iraq, the Middle East and for the rest of the world.

Today, as the nation faces perhaps its greatest challenge in the wake of the devastating advance of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and another US-led coalition undertakes renewed military action in Iraq, understanding the complex and difficult legacies of the 2003 war could not be more urgent. Ignoring the legacies of the Iraq war and denying their connection to contemporary events could means that vital lessons are ignored and the same mistakes made again.

ABSTRACT

After completion of the water pipeline project to Cyprus in 2017,  bulk water transfer projects to the Middle East has drown some more attention than before.Although implementation of the Red-Dead Sea Project hasn’t progressed well,  the Project has been considered as an alternative  for  bulk water transfer in the region
About 32 years ago in 1986 ,late Turkish President Turgut Özal had proposed a “Peace Water Pipeline Project” for the Midddle East water problems. The Project has drawn considerable attention and caused both negative and positive reactions.Political Feasibility and financing of the project had been argued more than it’s technical feasibility.
Preliminary studies on the project were initiated in 1986 .The ultimate aim of the Project was much beyond of the supplying  some water to the countries. The Project proposal mainly  aimed to create a process of confidence building and a cooperation environment on water that will help to contrubute to the stability and security of the region
During past  32 years after the Peace Water Pipeline Project proposed  ,  water demand has increased ,while the water management has been worse under the political and climatological effects in the region.
As many areas in the Middle East, Jordan is struggling with scarcity of rainfall, diminishing of water resources and increase in population . It is not ceratin yet if  the current water management  strategies and the suggested Red Sea- Dead Sea project will be enough to solve this problem.Therefore among the other new water resources alternatives , Turkey’s  Peace Pipeline Project proposal can be worthwile to be considered  again with different lenght and  route . 
The Original Project would divert  the water from Seyhan and Ceyhan Rivers ,both national rivers of Turkey ,to the Arab Countries in the Middle East. Daily water transfer capacity of the Project was 6 MCM  that is only a small part of mean  total daily flows of the rivers after Turkey’s use .

The water would deliver through the peace pipeline is not intented to replace,but rather supplement current water supplies in the countries served.The Project had an estimated cost of US $ 20 billion about three decades ago.
In this article ,focusing on Jordan water problems, what risks and challenges associated in the region  any alternative water transfer option  and regional innovative hydro diplomacy  is investigated.


Keywords: Peace Pipeline Project,Middle East,

Inequitable access to water has caused much conflict, especially when water is embedded in larger conflicts of a high-politics nature or where limited economic diversification restricts the range of policy options open to governments. Potential solutions tend to involve agreements on volumetric water allocations rather than focusing on the sharing of more broadly conceived potential mutual benefits. Located
in the volatile Middle East, the Euphrates and Tigris river basins are examples of this. Moreover, because this region has one of the highest population growth rates in the world, the potential for conflict is increased.

In the Middle East “no war is possible without Egypt, and no peace is possible without Syria,” as suggested by former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in the 1970s. From 1991 to 2000, Syria entered into extensive peace negotiations with Israel, another key actor in the Middle East. The objective of this article is to understand these negotiations, which involved periods of intense discord as well as
moments of rapprochement. Spectacular progress was made, for instance, between 1993 and 1995, when the “Rabin deposit,” Israel’s promise to withdraw from the Golan Heights to the 4 June 1967 border and thus allow Syria to recover access to Lake Tiberias, was proposed to the U.S. mediator. The two actors came close to an agreement but failed to put an end to the Israeli-Syrian conflict at the Shepherdstown negotiations in January 2000 and the Asad-Clinton summit on 26
March 2000 in Geneva. What lessons can be drawn from the process which took place between 1991 and 2000 in terms of the actors’ objectives, motivations and perceptions of each other? Why did the talks fail to produce an agreement? What was the weight of water in stimulating or blocking the process?

Climate change cause instability for conflict zones in the coming years with potential socioeconomic consequences in addition to environmental impacts. Decreasing water resources and rural land usage force people to migrate from rural to urban areas due to low productivity in agriculture and animal husbandry, rising food prices, and decreasing wealth levels. This study evaluates climate change impacts on northeast Syria, relatively a wetter climate zone of Syria. Within the scope of the study, it was determined to what extent land use changes and agricultural patterns throughout the region affect water use (mainly groundwater) in addition to addressing the effects of climate change on the scale of drought. Just like in this study, revealing the possible relations between the previous regional conflicts and the changes in land use, drought, and water use will be beneficial in terms of evaluating the possible threats in the future. Obviously, the changes in land use, the increase in irrigated agricultural areas, and the intensive groundwater use make the experienced situation worse. Additionally, it will be undeniable that the effects of climate change are one of the most pressing political and economic challenges in the region since the drought has also exacerbated these problems. Therefore, it is worthwhile to evaluate the potential future threat of the spread of conflicts experienced before. In entire Syria and the northeast region, it is required more attention to adapt climate change effects on water resources to peace and security.

This paper is written within the framework of the Lund University project on "Hydropolitics in the Jordan River Basin". The Jordan River Basin is likely the most stressed watershed on our planet both physically and politically. Domination and control over the waters of the Jordan River are central to the conflict between the riparian countries Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Palestine and Israel (Jagerskog, 2003; Kramer, 2008; Zeitoun, 2008). The perpetual regional conflict has prevented effective cooperation on sustainable Transboundary Water Management (TWM) between the five different riparians (Jagerskog, 2003). Livelihoods of rural communities in all riparian countries are affected at regional level. The local level as a crucial component in TWM is often overlooked and the current empirical body of research into hydropolitics at local level is limited. An analysis is given how a history of inter-state conflicts about water management at discourse level is reflected in rural co...

Instead of international agreement between Syria, Iraq, and Turkey, the best hope for sustainable water conservation in the Euphrates-Tigris river basin lies with policies that can be justified on individual and local grounds within Turkey: reducing water run-off and accompanied pollution; reducing soil salinity; developing drought resistant strains of crops; and storing water as an insurance against future droughts that are likely to increase in occurrence and intensity as a result of climate change induced extreme weather.
After reviewing the predictions on climate change for the region, irrigation related problems including out-migration, I evaluate policy options for water conservation: i) agricultural training and extension services, ii) escalating user fees for water to encourage conservation at micro level, iii) reforming of Water User Associations (WUAs). The least controversial policy to pursue is on-the-ground agricultural training and extension. Unfortunately, implementing escalating user fees for water – the most advocated solution – cannot be separated from democratizing WUAs – the most vexing problem – to open board seats and management to ordinary members.

Water and sanitation is defined as the provision and maintenance of hygiene conditions through services such as garbage collection and waste water disposal (United Nations Development Program, 2006). Access to clean water and adequate sanitation has various challenges in parts of Africa and the Middle East. Due to the unavailability of clean water sources and poor sanitation, vulnerable inhabitants across Africa and the Middle East are threatened with the spread of water borne diseases among other challenges. Poor sanitation accounts for a major cause of diseases from which millions in low-income countries / communities suffer. The increased need for reclaimed water in arid and semi arid environments has encouraged the development of new wastewater reclamation technologies. No society can do without access to potable water and sanitation, hence it is essential to always think of ways of dealing with problems of poor water supply and sanitation. It is therefore, pertinent to develop strategies that will ensure access to potable water supply and sanitation services for sustainable clean environment.

Water is life. Over 70% of the human body is made up of water. Water is also an integral part of our habitat and man’s immediate environment. On the other hand, cleanliness they say is next to Godliness. Cleanliness cannot be achieved without proper sanitation and sanitation is made possible through water supply and usage. Some of these problems were addressed during The African Academy of Sciences and the Bibliotheca Alexandrina (BA) recently organized Conference themed Water and Sanitation in Africa and the Middle East held from 28 to 29 October 2013 at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Alexandria, Egypt.