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Circuit Analysis II Using MATLAB Simulation

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Circuit Analysis II

with MATLAB Computing and

Simulink/SimPowerSystems Modeling
Steven T. Karris
Orchard Publications
www.orchardpublications.com
Circuit Analysis II
with MATLAB Computing and
Simulink / SimPowerSystems
Modeling
Steven T. Karris
Orchard Publications, Fremont, California
www.orchardpublications.com
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems Modeling
Copyright 2009 Orchard Publications. All rights reserved. Printed in USA. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior
written permission of the publisher.
Direct all inquiries to Orchard Publications, 39510 Paseo Padre Parkway, Fremont, California 94538, U.S.A.
URL: http://www.orchardpublications.com
Product and corporate names are trademarks or registered trademarks of the MathWorks, Inc., and Microsoft
Corporation. They are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Library of Congress Control Number: 2009930247
ISBN10: 1934404201
ISBN13: 9781934404209
TX 5745064
Disclaimer
The author has made every effort to make this text as complete and accurate as possible, but no warranty is implied.
The author and publisher shall have neither liability nor responsibility to any person or entity with respect to any loss
or damages arising from the information contained in this text.
This book was created electronically using Adobe Framemaker.
Preface
This text is written for use in a second course in circuit analysis. It encompasses a spectrum of
subjects ranging from the most abstract to the most practical, and the material can be covered in
one semester or two quarters.The reader of this book should have the traditional undergraduate
knowledge of an introductory circuit analysis material such as Circuit Analysis I with
MATLABComputing and Simulink/ SimPowerSystemsModeling, ISBN 978-1-934404-17-1.
Another prerequisite would be a basic knowledge of differential equations, and in most cases,
engineering students at this level have taken all required mathematics courses. Appendix H serves
as a review of differential equations with emphasis on engineering related topics and it is
recommended for readers who may need a review of this subject.
There are several textbooks on the subject that have been used for years. The material of this
book is not new, and this author claims no originality of its content. This book was written to fit
the needs of the average student. Moreover, it is not restricted to computer oriented circuit
analysis. While it is true that there is a great demand for electrical and computer engineers,
especially in the internet field, the demand also exists for power engineers to work in electric
utility companies, and facility engineers to work in the industrial areas.
Chapter 1 is an introduction to second order circuits and it is essentially a sequel to first order
circuits discussed in the last chapter of Circuit Analysis I with MATLABComputing and
Simulink/ SimPowerSystemsModeling, ISBN 978-1-934404-17-1. Chapter 2 is devoted to
resonance, and Chapter 3 presents practical methods of expressing signals in terms of the
elementary functions, i.e., unit step, unit ramp, and unit impulse functions. Accordingly, any
signal can be represented in the complex frequency domain using the Laplace transformation.
Chapters 4 and 5 are introductions to the unilateral Laplace transform and Inverse Laplace
transform respectively, while Chapter 6 presents several examples of analyzing electric circuits
using Laplace transformation methods. Chapter 7 is an introduction to state space and state
equations. Chapter 8 begins with the frequency response concept and Bode magnitude and
frequency plots. Chapter 9 is devoted to transformers with an introduction to self and mutual
inductances. Chapter 10 is an introduction to one- and two-terminal devices and presents several
practical examples. Chapters 11 and 12 are introductions to three-phase circuits.
It is not necessary that the reader has previous knowledge of MATLAB. The material of this
text can be learned without MATLAB. However, this author highly recommends that the reader
studies this material in conjunction with the inexpensive MATLAB Student Version package that
is available at most college and university bookstores. Appendix A of this text provides a practical
introduction to MATLAB, Appendix B is an introduction to Simulink, and Appendix C
introduces SimPowerSystems. The pages where MATLAB scripts, Simulink / SimPowerSystems
models appear are indicated in the Table of Contents.
The author highly recommends that the reader studies this material in conjunction with the
inexpensive Student Versions of The MathWorks Inc., the developers of these outstanding
products, available from:
The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA, 01760
Phone: 508-647-7000,
www.mathworks.com
info@mathworks.com.
Appendix D is a review of complex numbers, Appendix E is an introduction to matrices,
Appendix F discusses scaling methods, Appendix G introduces the per unit system used
extensively in power systems and in SimPwerSystems examples and demos. As stated above,
Appendix H is a review of differential equations. Appendix I provides instructions for
constructing semilog templates to be used with Bode plots.
In addition to numerous examples, this text contains several exercises at the end of each
chapter. Detailed solutions of all exercises are provided at the end of each chapter. The
rationale is to encourage the reader to solve all exercises and check his effort for correct
solutions and appropriate steps in obtaining the correct solution. And since this text was
written to serve as a self-study or supplementary textbook, it provides the reader with a
resource to test his knowledge.
The author is indebted to several readers who have brought some errors to our attention.
Additional feedback with other errors, advice, and comments will be most welcomed and
greatly appreciated.
Orchard Publications
39510 Paseo Padre Parkway
Suite 315
Fremont, California 94538
www.orchardpublications.com
info@orchardpublications.com
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling i
Copyright Orchard Publications
Table of Contents
1 Second Order Circuits 1-1
1.1 Response of a Second Order Circuit ....................................................................1-1
1.2 Series RLC Circuit with DC Excitation ...............................................................1-2
1.2.1 Response of Series RLC Circuits with DC Excitation...............................1-3
1.2.2 Response of Series RLC Circuits with AC Excitation.............................1-11
1.3 Parallel RLC Circuit ...........................................................................................1-15
1.3.1 Response of Parallel RLC Circuits with DC Excitation..........................1-17
1.3.2 Response of Parallel RLC Circuits with AC Excitation..........................1-26
1.4 Other Second Order Circuits .............................................................................1-30
1.5 Summary .............................................................................................................1-36
1.6 Exercises..............................................................................................................1-38
1.7 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises .............................................................1-40
MATLAB Computing: Pages 1-6, 1-7, 1-9, 1-13, 1-19, 1-21 through 1-23,
1-25, 1-26, 1-28, 1-29, 1-32 through 1-34, 1-42,
1-44, 1-45
Simulink/SimPowerSystems Models: Pages 1-10, 1-14, 1-29, 1-53
2 Resonance 2-1
2.1 Series Resonance.................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2 Quality Factor Q
0s
in Series Resonance .............................................................. 2-4
2.3 Parallel Resonance ............................................................................................... 2-6
2.4 Quality Factor Q
0P
in Parallel Resonance........................................................... 2-9
2.5 General Definition of Q....................................................................................... 2-9
2.6 Energy in L and C at Resonance........................................................................ 2-10
2.7 Half-Power Frequencies - Bandwidth ............................................................... 2-11
2.8 A Practical Parallel Resonant Circuit................................................................ 2-16
2.9 Radio and Television Receivers......................................................................... 2-18
2.10 Summary ............................................................................................................ 2-21
2.11 Exercises ............................................................................................................. 2-23
2.12 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises............................................................. 2-25
MATLAB Computing: Pages 2-5, 2-6, 2-25, 2-27, 2-30, 2-31
Simulink / SimPowerSystems models: Pages 2-15, 2-16
3 Elementary Signals 3-1
3.1 Signals Described in Math Form...........................................................................3-1

ii Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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3.2 The Unit Step Function........................................................................................ 3-2
3.3 The Unit Ramp Function ..................................................................................... 3-9
3.4 The Delta Function ............................................................................................ 3-11
3.4.1 The Sampling Property of the Delta Function.......................................... 3-11
3.4.2 The Sifting Property of the Delta Function .............................................. 3-12
3.5 Higher Order Delta Functions............................................................................ 3-13
3.6 Summary ............................................................................................................. 3-19
3.7 Exercises .............................................................................................................. 3-20
3.8 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises.............................................................. 3-21
Simulink model: Pages 3-17, 3-18
4 The Laplace Transformation 4-1
4.1 Definition of the Laplace Transformation.............................................................. 4-1
4.2 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform............................................... 4-2
4.2.1 Linearity Property........................................................................................ 4-2
4.2.2 Time Shifting Property................................................................................. 4-3
4.2.3 Frequency Shifting Property........................................................................ 4-3
4.2.4 Scaling Property........................................................................................... 4-4
4.2.5 Differentiation in Time Domain Property .................................................. 4-4
4.2.6 Differentiation in Complex Frequency Domain Property........................... 4-5
4.2.7 Integration in Time Domain Property ........................................................ 4-6
4.2.8 Integration in Complex Frequency Domain Property ................................ 4-7
4.2.9 Time Periodicity Property ........................................................................... 4-8
4.2.10 Initial Value Theorem................................................................................. 4-9
4.2.11 Final Value Theorem ................................................................................ 4-10
4.2.12 Convolution in Time Domain Property.................................................... 4-11
4.2.13 Convolution in Complex Frequency Domain Property ............................ 4-11
4.3 Laplace Transform of Common Functions of Time.............................................. 4-12
4.3.1 Laplace Transform of the Unit Step Function ................................. 4-12
4.3.2 Laplace Transform of the Ramp Function ....................................... 4-12
4.3.3 Laplace Transform of .................................................................... 4-14
4.3.4 Laplace Transform of the Delta Function ......................................... 4-17
4.3.5 Laplace Transform of the Delayed Delta Function ...................... 4-17
4.3.6 Laplace Transform of .................................................................. 4-18
4.3.7 Laplace Transform of ............................................................... 4-18
4.3.8 Laplace Transform of ................................................................. 4-19
4.3.9 Laplace Transform of ................................................................ 4-19
4.3.10 Laplace Transform of ......................................................... 4-20
4.3.11 Laplace Transform of ........................................................ 4-20
4.4 Laplace Transform of Common Waveforms......................................................... 4-21
u
0
t ( )
u
1
t ( )
t
n
u
0
t ( )
o t ( )
o t a ( )
e
at
u
0
t ( )
t
n
e
at
u
0
t ( )
ct u
0
t sin
c cos t u
0
t
e
at
ct u
0
sin t ( )
e
at
c cos t u
0
t ( )
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling iii
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4.4.1 Laplace Transform of a Pulse.......................................................................4-22
4.4.2 Laplace Transform of a Linear Segment ......................................................4-22
4.4.3 Laplace Transform of a Triangular Waveform.............................................4-23
4.4.4 Laplace Transform of a Rectangular Periodic Waveform............................4-24
4.4.5 Laplace Transform of a Half-Rectified Sine Waveform..............................4-25
4.5 Using MATLAB for Finding the Laplace Transforms of Time Functions.............4-26
4.6 Summary .................................................................................................................4-27
4.7 Exercises .................................................................................................................4-30
Laplace Transform of a Sawtooth Periodic Waveform .......................................4-31
Laplace Transform of a Full-Rectified Sine Waveform......................................4-31
4.8 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises .................................................................4-32
MATLAB Computing: Page 4-37
Simulink Model: Page 4-38
5 The Inverse Laplace Transformation 5-1
5.1 The Inverse Laplace Transform Integral ................................................................ 5-1
5.2 Partial Fraction Expansion ..................................................................................... 5-1
5.2.1 Distinct Poles ............................................................................................... 5-2
5.2.2 Complex Poles.............................................................................................. 5-5
5.2.3 Multiple (Repeated) Poles............................................................................ 5-8
5.3 Case where F(s) is Improper Rational Function................................................... 5-13
5.4 Alternate Method of Partial Fraction Expansion................................................. 5-14
5.5 Summary............................................................................................................... 5-18
5.6 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 5-19
5.7 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises ............................................................... 5-20
MATLAB Computing: Pages 5-3 through 5-6, 5-8, 5-10
5-12 through 5-14, 5-20
6 Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms 6-1
6.1 Circuit Transformation from Time to Complex Frequency .................................. 6-1
6.1.1 Resistive Network Transformation............................................................. 6-1
6.1.2 Inductive Network Transformation............................................................ 6-1
6.1.3 Capacitive Network Transformation.......................................................... 6-2
6.2 Complex Impedance Z(s)..................................................................................... 6-11
6.3 Complex Admittance Y(s)................................................................................... 6-13
6.4 Transfer Functions ............................................................................................... 6-16
6.5 Using the Simulink Transfer Fcn Block............................................................... 6-20
6.6 Summary .............................................................................................................. 6-23
6.7 Exercises ............................................................................................................... 6-24

iv Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
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6.8 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises............................................................... 6-27
MATLAB Computing: Pages 6-6, 6-8, 6-15, 6-19 through 6-21,
6-29 through 6-32, 6-37
Simulink / SimPowerSystems models: Pages 6-8 through 6-11, 6-20 through 6-22
7 State Variables and State Equations 7-1
7.1 Expressing Differential Equations in State Equation Form................................... 7-1
7.2 Solution of Single State Equations ........................................................................ 7-6
7.3 The State Transition Matrix ................................................................................. 7-8
7.4 Computation of the State Transition Matrix...................................................... 7-10
7.4.1 Distinct Eigenvalues (Real of Complex)................................................... 7-11
7.4.2 Multiple (Repeated) Eigenvalues.............................................................. 7-15
7.5 Eigenvectors......................................................................................................... 7-18
7.6 Circuit Analysis with State Variables.................................................................. 7-22
7.7 Relationship between State Equations and Laplace Transform.......................... 7-29
7.8 Summary.............................................................................................................. 7-37
7.9 Exercises .............................................................................................................. 7-40
7.10 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises .............................................................. 7-42
MATLAB Computing: Pages 7-4, 7-6, 7-8, 7-12, 7-13, 7-15, 7-17, 7-21
7-30, 7-44, 7-45, 7-46, 7-48, 7-50
Simulink models: Pages 7-9, 7-10
8 Frequency Response and Bode Plots 8-1
8.1 Decibel Defined .................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2 Bandwidth and Frequency Response..................................................................... 8-3
8.3 Octave and Decade ............................................................................................... 8-4
8.4 Bode Plot Scales and Asymptotic Approximations............................................... 8-5
8.5 Construction of Bode Plots when the Zeros and Poles are Real ........................... 8-6
8.6 Construction of Bode Plots when the Zeros and Poles are Complex.................. 8-12
8.7 Corrected Amplitude Plots.................................................................................. 8-24
8.8 Summary.............................................................................................................. 8-35
8.9 Exercises .............................................................................................................. 8-37
8.10 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises .............................................................. 8-38
MATLAB Computing: Pages 8-19, 8-20, 8-22, 8-23, 8-33, 8-40, 8-43, 8-45
9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers 9-1
9.1 Self-Inductance .......................................................................................................9-1
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling v
Copyright Orchard Publications
9.2 The Nature of Inductance..................................................................................... 9-1
9.3 Lenzs Law.............................................................................................................. 9-3
9.4 Mutually Coupled Coils......................................................................................... 9-3
9.5 Establishing Polarity Markings ............................................................................ 9-11
9.6 Energy Stored in a Pair of Mutually Coupled Inductors ..................................... 9-14
9.7 Circuits with Linear Transformers....................................................................... 9-19
9.8 Reflected Impedance in Transformers................................................................. 9-24
9.9 The Ideal Transformer......................................................................................... 9-27
9.10 Impedance Matching........................................................................................... 9-30
9.11 Simplified Transformer Equivalent Circuit ......................................................... 9-31
9.12 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit............................................................................... 9-32
9.13 Autotransformer .................................................................................................. 9-36
9.14 Transformers with Multiple Secondary Windings............................................... 9-37
9.15 Transformer Tests................................................................................................ 9-37
9.16 Efficiency.............................................................................................................. 9-42
9.17 Voltage Regulation.............................................................................................. 9-46
9.18 Transformer Modeling with Simulink / SimPowerSystems ................................. 9-49
9.19 Summary .............................................................................................................. 9-57
9.20 Exercises............................................................................................................... 9-62
9.21 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises .............................................................. 9-65
MATLAB Computing: Page 9-13, 9-14, 9-22, 9-44
Simulink / SimPowerSystems model: Page 9-49 through 9-56
10 One- and Two-Port Networks 10-1
10.1 Introduction and Definitions............................................................................... 10-1
10.2 One-Port Driving-Point and Transfer Admittances........................................... 10-2
10.3 One-Port Driving-Point and Transfer Impedances ............................................. 10-7
10.4 Two-Port Networks ........................................................................................... 10-11
10.4.1 The y Parameters................................................................................... 10-11
10.4.2 The z parameters ................................................................................... 10-17
10.4.3 The h Parameters .................................................................................. 10-22
10.4.4 The g Parameters................................................................................... 10-26
10.5 Reciprocal Two-Port Networks ......................................................................... 10-31
10.6 Summary ............................................................................................................ 10-35
10.7 Exercises............................................................................................................. 10-40
10.8 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises ............................................................ 10-42
MATLAB Computing: Page 10-49
Simulink / SimPowerSystems model: Page 10-50

vi Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
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11 Balanced Three-Phase Systems 11-1
11.1 Advantages of Three-Phase Systems ................................................................ 11-1
11.2 Three-Phase Connections................................................................................. 11-1
11.3 Transformer Connections in Three-Phase Systems ......................................... 11-4
11.4 Line-to-Line and Line-to-Neutral Voltages and Currents............................. 11-5
11.5 Equivalent Y and A Loads.................................................................................. 11-9
11.6 Computation by Reduction to Single Phase.................................................... 11-19
11.7 Three-Phase Power .......................................................................................... 11-20
11.8 Instantaneous Power in Three-Phase Systems ................................................ 11-22
11.9 Measuring Three-Phase Power ....................................................................... 11-25
11.10 Practical Three-Phase Transformer Connections .......................................... 11-28
11.11 Transformers Operated in Open A Configuration .......................................... 11-29
11.12 Three-Phase Systems Modeling with Simulink / SimPowerSystems .............. 11-31
11.13 Summary .......................................................................................................... 11-36
11.14 Exercises........................................................................................................... 11-38
11.15 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises .......................................................... 11-41
MATLAB Computing: Pages 11-46, 11-51
Simulink / SimPowerSystems models: Pages 11-32, 11-43
12 Unbalanced Three-Phase Systems 12-1
12.1 Unbalanced Loads.............................................................................................. 12-1
12.2 Voltage Computations ....................................................................................... 12-3
12.3 Phase-Sequence Indicator ................................................................................. 12-4
12.4 A-Y Transformation........................................................................................... 12-7
12.5 Practical and Impractical Connections.............................................................. 12-8
12.6 Symmetrical Components................................................................................ 12-10
12.7 Cases where Zero-Sequence Components are Zero........................................ 12-16
12.8 Summary .......................................................................................................... 12-20
12.9 Exercises ........................................................................................................... 12-22
12.10 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises........................................................... 12-23
MATLAB Computing: Page 12-27
Simulink / SimPowerSystems models: Page 12-28
A Introduction to MATLAB A-1
A.1 Command Window .............................................................................................. A-1
A.2 Roots of Polynomials ............................................................................................ A-3
A.3 Polynomial Construction from Known Roots ...................................................... A-4
A.4 Evaluation of a Polynomial at Specified Values .................................................. A-5
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling vii
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A.5 Rational Polynomials ...........................................................................................A-8
A.6 Using MATLAB to Make Plots ..........................................................................A-9
A.7 Subplots .............................................................................................................A-18
A.8 Multiplication, Division and Exponentiation ...................................................A-19
A.9 Script and Function Files ..................................................................................A-26
A.10 Display Formats .................................................................................................A-31
MATLAB Computations: Entire Appendix A
B Introduction to Simulink B-1
B.1 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB ............................................................... B-1
B.2 Simulink Demos ................................................................................................. B-20
Simulink Modeling: Entire Appendix B
C Introduction to SimPowerSystems C-1
C.1 Simulation of Electric Circuits with SimPowerSystems ...................................... C-1
SimPowerSystems Modeling: Entire Appendix C
D Review of Complex Numbers D-1
D.1 Definition of a Complex Number ........................................................................ D-1
D.2 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers ................................................ D-2
D.3 Multiplication of Complex Numbers................................................................... D-3
D.4 Division of Complex Numbers ............................................................................ D-4
D.5 Exponential and Polar Forms of Complex Numbers ........................................... D-4
MATLAB Computing: Pages D-6 through D-8
Simulink Modeling: Page D-7
E Matrices and Determinants E-1
E.1 Matrix Definition................................................................................................ E-1
E.2 Matrix Operations............................................................................................... E-2
E.3 Special Forms of Matrices ................................................................................... E-6
E.4 Determinants .................................................................................................... E-10
E.5 Minors and Cofactors........................................................................................ E-12
E.6 Cramers Rule.................................................................................................... E-17
E.7 Gaussian Elimination Method .......................................................................... E-19
E.8 The Adjoint of a Matrix ................................................................................... E-21
E.9 Singular and Non-Singular Matrices ............................................................... E-21
E.10 The Inverse of a Matrix .................................................................................... E-22

viii Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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E.11 Solution of Simultaneous Equations with Matrices .......................................... E-24
E.12 Exercises ............................................................................................................ E-31
MATLAB Computing: Pages E-3, E-4, E-5, E-7, E-8, E-9, E-10, E-12,
E-15, E-16, E-18, E-22, E-25, E-26, E-29
Simulink Modeling: Page E-3
Excel Spreadsheet: Page E-27
F Scaling F-1
F.1 Magnitude Scaling .................................................................................................. F-1
F.2 Frequency Scaling................................................................................................... F-1
F.3 Exercises.................................................................................................................. F-8
F.4 Solutions to End-of-Appendix Exercises............................................................... F-9
MATLAB Computing: Pages F-3, F-5
G Per Unit System G-1
G.1 Per Unit Defined.................................................................................................... G-1
G.2 Impedance Transformation from One Base to Another Base ............................... G-3
H Review of Differential Equations H-1
H.1 Simple Differential Equations................................................................................H-1
H.2 Classification..........................................................................................................H-3
H.3 Solutions of Ordinary Differential Equations (ODE)............................................H-6
H.4 Solution of the Homogeneous ODE......................................................................H-8
H.5 Using the Method of Undetermined Coefficients for the Forced Response .......H-10
H.6 Using the Method of Variation of Parameters for the Forced Response.............H-20
H.7 Exercises...............................................................................................................H-24
MATLAB Computing: Pages H-11, H-13, H-14, H-16, H-17, H-19, H-22, H-23
I Constructing Semilog Paper with Excel and with MATLAB I-1
I.1 Instructions for Constructing Semilog Paper with Excel.......................................... I-1
I.4 Instructions for Constructing Semilog Paper with MATLAB.................................. I-4
Excel Spreadsheet: Page I-1
MATLAB Computing: Page I-4
References R-1
Index IN-1
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink

/ SimPowerSystems

Modeling 1-1
Copyright Orchard Publications
Chapter 1
Second Order Circuits
his chapter discusses the natural, forced and total responses in circuits that contain resis-
tors, inductors and capacitors. These circuits are characterized by linear second-order dif-
ferential equations whose solutions consist of the natural and the forced responses. We will
consider both DC (constant) and AC (sinusoidal) excitations.
1.1 Response of a Second Order Circuit
A circuit that contains energy storage devices (inductors and capacitors) is said to be an nth-
order circuit, and the differential equation describing the circuit is an nth-order differential equa-
tion. For example, if a circuit contains an inductor and a capacitor, or two capacitors or two
inductors, along with other devices such as resistors, it is said to be a second-order circuit and the
differential equation that describes it will be a second order differential equation. It is possible,
however, to describe a circuit having two energy storage devices with a set of two first-order dif-
ferential equations, a circuit which has three energy storage devices with a set of three first-order
differential equations and so on. These are called state equations and are discussed in Chapter 7.
As we know from previous studies,
*
the response is found from the differential equation describ-
ing the circuit, and its solution is obtained as follows:
1. We write the differential or integrodifferential (nodal or mesh) equation describing the circuit.
We differentiate, if necessary, to eliminate the integral.
2. We obtain the forced (steady-state) response. Since the excitation in our work here will be
either a constant (DC) or sinusoidal (AC) in nature, we expect the forced response to have
the same form as the excitation. We evaluate the constants of the forced response by substitu-
tion of the assumed forced response into the differential equation and equate terms of the left
side with the right side. The form of the forced response (particular solution), is described in
Appendix H.
3. We obtain the general form of the natural response by setting the right side of the differential
equation equal to zero, in other words, solve the homogeneous differential equation using the
characteristic equation.
4. We add the forced and natural responses to form the complete response.
5. Using the initial conditions, we evaluate the constants from the complete response.
* The natural and forced responses for first-order circuits are discussed in Circuit Analysis I with MATLAB
Computing and Simulink/ SimPowerSystems Modeling, ISBN 978-1-934404-17-1.
T
n

Chapter 1 Second Order Circuits
1-2 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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/ SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
1.2 Series RLC Circuit with DC Excitation
Consider the circuit of Figure 1.1 where the initial conditions are , , and
is the unit step function.
*
We want to find an expression for the current for .
Figure 1.1. Series RLC Circuit
For this circuit
(1.1)
and by differentiation
To find the forced response, we must first specify the nature of the excitation , that is DC or
AC.
If is DC ( ), the right side of (1.1) will be zero and thus the forced response com-
ponent . If is AC ( , the right side of (1.1) will be another sinusoid
and therefore . Since in this section we are concerned with DC excitations, the
right side will be zero and thus the total response will be just the natural response.
The natural response is found from the homogeneous equation of (1.1), that is,
(1.2)
whose characteristic equation is
or
from which
* The unit step function and other elementary functions used in science and engineering are discussed in Chapter
3.
i
L
0 ( ) I
0
= v
C
0 ( ) V
0
=
u
0
t ( ) i t ( ) t 0 >
R
+
-
v
S
u
0
t ( )
i t ( )
L
C
Ri L
di
dt
-----
1
C
---- i t d
0
t
}
V
0
+ + + v
S
= t 0 >
R
di
dt
----- L
d
2
i
dt
2
-------
i
C
---- + +
dv
S
dt
-------- = t 0 > ,
v
S
v
S
v
S
cons t tan =
i
f
0 = v
S
v
S
V ct 0 + ( ) cos =
i
f
I ct + ( ) cos =
R
di
dt
----- L
d
2
i
dt
2
-------
i
C
---- + + 0 =
Ls
2
Rs
1
C
---- + + 0 =
s
2 R
L
----s
1
LC
-------- + + 0 =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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100
6
---------10
3

dv
C
2
dt
2
--------- v
C
+ + 15 = u
0
t ( )
dv
C
2
dt
2
--------- 500
dv
C
dt
--------- 60000v
C
+ + 9 10
5
= u
0
t ( )
v
Cn
t ( ) k
1
e
s
1
t
k
2
e
s
2
t
+ k
1
e
200 t
k
2
e
300 t
+ = =
v
Cf
k
3
=
0 0 60000k
3
+ + 900000 =
v
Cf
k
3
15 = =
v
C
t ( ) v
Cn
t ( ) v
Cf
+ = k
1
e
200 t
k
2
e
300 t
15 + + =
k
1
k
2
v
C
0 ( ) 2.5 V = t 0 =
v
C
0 ( ) k
1
e
0
k
2
e
0
15 + + 2.5 = =
k
1
k
2
+ 12.5 =
i
L
i
C
C
dv
C
dt
--------- = =
dv
C
dt
---------
i
L
C
---- and
dv
C
dt
---------
t 0 =
i
L
0 ( )
C
------------
5
100 6 ' 10
3

-------------------------------- 300 = = = = ,
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Modeling 1-9
Copyright Orchard Publications
Series RLC Circuit with DC Excitation
Next, we differentiate (1.23), we evaluate it at and equate it with (1.25). Then,
(1.26)
Equating the right sides of (1.25) and (1.26) we obtain
or
(1.27)
From (1.24) and (1.27), we obtain and . By substitution into (1.23), we obtain
the total solution as
(1.28)
Check with MATLAB:
syms t % Define symbolic variable t. Must have Symbolic Math Toolbox installed
y0=22*exp(-300*t)-34.5*exp(-200*t)+15; % The total solution y(t)
y1=diff(y0) % The first derivative of y(t)
y1 = -6600*exp(-300*t)+6900*exp(-200*t)
y2=diff(y0,2) % The second derivative of y(t)
y2 = 1980000*exp(-300*t)-1380000*exp(-200*t)
y=y2+500*y1+60000*y0 % Summation of y and its derivatives
y = 900000
Using the expression for we can find the current as
(1.29)
We observe that (1.29) is the same as (1.17). The plot for (1.28) is shown in Figure 1.7.
The same results are obtained with the Simulink/SimPowerSystems
*
model shown in Figure 1.8.
The waveforms for the current and the voltage across the capacitor are shown in Figure 1.9.
* For an introduction to Simulink SimPowerSystems please refer to Appendices B and C respectively.
t 0 =
dv
C
dt
--------- 200k
1
e
200 t
300k
2
e
300 t
and
dv
C
dt
---------
t 0 =
200k
1
300k
2
= =
200k
1
300k
2
300 =
k
1
1.5k
2
1.5 =
k
1
34.5 = k
2
22 =
v
C
t ( ) 22e
300 t
34.5 e
200 t
15 + ( )u
0
t ( ) =
v
C
t ( )
i i
L
= i
C
C
dv
C
dt
---------
100
6
--------- 10
3
6900e
200t
6600 e
300t
( ) 115e
200t
110 e
300t
A = = = =
Chapter 1 Second Order Circuits
1-10 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Figure 1.7. Plot for of Example 1.1
Figure 1.8. Simulink/SimPowerSystems model for the circuit in Figure 1.5
Figure 1.9. Waveforms produced by the Simulink/SimPowerSystems model in Figure 1.8
v
C
t ( ) 22e
300 t
34.5 e
200 t
15 + ( )u
0
t ( ) =
Time (sec)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
v
C
t ( )
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Modeling 1-11
Copyright Orchard Publications
Series RLC Circuit with DC Excitation
1.2.2 Response of Series RLC Circuits with AC Excitation
The total response of a series RLC circuit, which is excited by a sinusoidal source, will also consist
of the natural and forced response components. As we found in the previous section, the natural
response can be overdamped, or critically damped, or underdamped. The forced component will
be a sinusoid of the same frequency as that of the excitation, and since it represents the AC
steady-state condition, we can use phasor analysis to find it. The following example illustrates the
procedure.
Example 1.2
For the circuit in Figure 1.10, , , and the resistor represents the
resistance of the inductor. Compute and sketch for .
Figure 1.10. Circuit for Example 1.2
Solution:
This circuit is the same as that in Example 1.1 except that the circuit is excited by a sinusoidal
source; therefore it can be represented by the integrodifferential equation
(1.30)
whose solution consists of the summation of the natural and forced responses. We know its natu-
ral response from the previous example. We begin with
(1.31)
where the constants and will be evaluated from the initial conditions after has been
found. The steady state (or forced) response will have the form in the
time domain ( ) and the form in the frequency domain ( ).
To find we will use the phasor analysis relation where is the phasor current, is
the phasor voltage, and is the impedance of the phasor circuit which, as we know, is
i
L
0 ( ) 5 A = v
C
0 ( ) 2.5 V = 0.5 O
i t ( ) t 0 >
v
S
200 10000t cos ( )u
0
t ( ) V =
i t ( )
0.5 O 1 mH
100 6 mF '
v
S
Ri L
di
dt
-----
1
C
---- i t d
0
t
}
v
C
0 ( ) + + + 200 10000t cos = t 0 >
i t ( ) i
n
t ( ) i
f
t ( ) + k
1
e
200 t
k
2
e
300 t
i
f
t ( ) + + = =
k
1
k
2
i
f
t ( )
i
f
t ( ) k
3
10 000t 0 + , ( ) cos =
t domain k
3
0 Z jc domain
i
f
t ( ) I V Z ' = I V
Z
Chapter 1 Second Order Circuits
1-12 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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(1.32)
The inductive and capacitive reactances are
and
Then,
Also,
and this yields . Then, by substitution into (1.32),
and thus
The total solution is
(1.33)
As before, the constants and are evaluated from the initial conditions. From (1.33) and the
first initial condition we obtain
or
or
(1.34)
We need another equation in order to compute the values of and . This equation will make
use of the second initial condition, that is, . Since , we differ-
entiate (1.33), we evaluate it at , and we equate it with this initial condition. Then,
(1.35)
Z R j cL
1
cC
--------
\ .
| |
+ R
2
cL
1
cC
--------
\ .
| |
2
+ cL
1
cC
--------
\ .
| |
R '
1
tan Z = =
X
L
cL 10
4
10
3
10 O = = =
X
C
1
cC
--------
1
10
4
100 6 ' ( )10
3

--------------------------------------------- 6 10
3
O = = =
R
2
0.5 ( )
2
0.25 and cL
1
cC
--------
\ .
| |
2
10 6 10
3
( )
2
99.88 = = = =
cL
1
cC
--------
\ .
| |
R '
1
tan
10 6 10
3
( )
0.5
------------------------------------
1
tan
9.994
0.5
-------------
\ .
| |
1
tan = =
0 1.52 rads 87.15 = =
Z 0.25 99.88 + 0
o
Z 10 87.15
o
Z = =
I
V
Z
----
200 0
o
Z
10 87.15
o
Z
--------------------------- 20 87.15
o
Z = = = 20 10000t 87.15
o
( ) cos = i
f
t ( ) =
i t ( ) i
n
t ( ) i
f
t ( ) + k
1
e
200 t
k
2
e
300 t
20 10000t 87.15
o
( ) cos + + = =
k
1
k
2
i
L
0 ( ) 5 A =
i 0 ( ) k
1
e
0
k
2
e
0
20 87.15
o
( ) cos + + = 5 =
i 0 ( ) k
1
k
2
20 0.05 + + = 5 =
k
1
k
2
+ 4 =
k
1
k
2
v
C
0 ( ) 2.5 V = i
C
t ( ) i t ( ) C
dv
C
dt
--------- = =
t 0 =
di
dt
----- 200k
1
e
200 t
300k
2
e
300 t
2 10
5
10000t 87.15
o
( ) sin =
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Modeling 1-13
Copyright Orchard Publications
Series RLC Circuit with DC Excitation
and at ,
(1.36)
Also, at
and solving for we obtain
(1.37)
Next, equating (1.36) with (1.37) we obtain
or
(1.38)
Simultaneous solution of (1.34) and (1.38) yields and . Then, by substitution
into (1.31), the total response is
(1.39)
The plot is shown in Figure 1.11 and it was created with the following MATLAB script:
t=0:0.005:0.25; t1=-38.*exp(-200.*t); t2=42.*exp(-300.*t); t3=20.*cos(10000.*t-87.5*pi/180);
x=t1+t2+t3; plot(t,t1,t,t2,t,t3,t,x); grid
Figure 1.11. Plot for of Example 1.2
t 0 =
di
dt
-----
t 0 =
200k
1
300k
2
2 10
6
87.15
o
( ) sin = 200k
1
300k
2
2 10
5
+ =
t 0
+
=
Ri 0
+
( ) L
di
dt
-----
t 0
+
=
v
c
0
+
( ) + + 200 0 ( ) cos 200 = =
di
dt
-----
t 0
+
=
di
dt
-----
t 0
+
=
200 0.5 5 2.5
10
3
------------------------------------------ 195000 = =
200k
1
300 k
2
5000 =
k
1
1.5k
2
+ 25 =
k
1
38 = k
2
42 =
i t ( ) 38 e
200 t
42e
300 t
20 10000t 87.15
o
( ) A cos + + =
i t ( )
i
2
t ( ) 42e
300t
=
i
1
t ( ) 38e
200t
=
Time (sec)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
i t ( )
Chapter 1 Second Order Circuits
1-14 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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The same results are obtained with the Simulink/SimPowerSystems model shown in Figure 1.12.
Figure 1.12. Simulink/SimPowerSystems model for the circuit in Figure 1.10
The waveforms for the current and the voltage across the capacitor are shown in Figures 1.13 and
1.14 respectively. We observe that the steady-state current is consistent with the waveform shown
in Figure 1.11, and the steady state voltage across the capacitor is small since the magnitude of
the capacitive reactance is .
Figure 1.13. Waveform displayed in Scope 1 for the Simulink/SimPowerSystems model in Figure 1.12
X
C
6 10
3
O =
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Modeling 1-15
Copyright Orchard Publications
Parallel RLC Circuit
Figure 1.14. Waveform displayed in Scope 2 for the Simulink/SimPowerSystems model in Figure 1.12
1.3 Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider the circuit of Figure 1.10 where the initial conditions are , , and
is the unit step function. We want to find an expression for the voltage for .
Figure 1.15. Parallel RLC circuit
For this circuit
or
By differentiation,
(1.40)
To find the forced response, we must first specify the nature of the excitation , that is DC or AC.
If is DC ( ), the right side of (1.40) will be zero and thus the forced response com-
ponent . If is AC ( , the right side of (1.40) will be another sinusoid and
therefore . Since in this section we are concerned with DC excitations, the
right side will be zero and thus the total response will be just the natural response.
The natural response is found from the homogeneous equation of (1.40), that is,
i
L
0 ( ) I
0
= v
C
0 ( ) V
0
=
u
0
t ( ) v t ( ) t 0 >
i
S
u
0
t ( )
v t ( ) G L
C
i
C
i
L
i
G
i
G
t ( ) i
L
t ( ) i
C
t ( ) + + i
S
t ( ) =
Gv
1
L
--- v t d
0
t
}
I
0
+ + C
dv
dt
------ + i
S
= t 0 >
C
dv
2
dt
2
-------- G
dv
dt
------
v
L
--- + +
di
S
dt
------- = t 0 >
i
S
i
S
v
S
cons t tan =
v
f
0 = i
S
i
S
I ct 0 + ( ) cos =
v
f
V ct + ( ) cos =
Chapter 1 Second Order Circuits
1-16 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Copyright Orchard Publications
(1.41)
whose characteristic equation is
or
from which
(1.42)
and with the following notations,
(1.43)
where the subscript stands for parallel circuit, we can express (1.42) as
(1.44)
or
(1.45)
Note: From (1.4), Page 1-3, and (1.43), Page 1-14, we observe that
As in the series circuit, the natural response can be overdamped, critically damped, or
underdamped.
Case I: If , the roots and are real, negative, and unequal. This results in the over-
damped natural response and has the form
(1.46)
Case II: If , the roots and are real, negative, and equal. This results in the criti-
cally damped natural response and has the form
(1.47)
Case III: If , the roots and are complex conjugates. This results in the under-
damped or oscillatory natural response and has the form
C
dv
2
dt
2
-------- G
dv
dt
------
v
L
--- + + 0 =
Cs
2
Gs
1
L
--- + + 0 =
s
2 G
C
----s
i
LC
-------- + + 0 =
s
1
s
2
,
G
2C
-------
G
2
4C
2
---------
1
LC
-------- =
o
P
G
2C
------- =
o or Damping
Coefficient

c
0
1
LC
------------ =
Resonant
Frequency

/ SimPowerSystems

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Figure 1.25. Waveform displayed by the Scope block in Figure 1.24
1.4 Other Second Order Circuits
Second order circuits are not restricted to RLC circuits. They include amplifiers and filter among
others, and since it is beyond the scope of this text to analyze such circuits in detail, we will illus-
trate the transient analysis of a second order active low-pass filter.
Example 1.7
The circuit of Figure 1.26 a known as a Multiple Feed Back (MFB) active low-pass filter. For this
circuit, the initial conditions are . Compute and sketch for .
Figure 1.26. Circuit for Example 1.7
Solution:
At node :
(1.82)
At node :
(1.83)
v
C1
v
C2
0 = = v
out
t ( ) t 0 >
v
in
v
out
40 kO
200 kO
50 kO
25 nF
10 nF
R
1
C
1
v
1
v
2
+
+
-
-
v
in
(t)= (6.25 cos 6280t)u(t) V
R
3
R
2
C
2
V
1
v
1
v
i n

R
1
----------------- C
1
dv
1
dt
--------
v
1
v
out

R
2
-------------------
v
1
v
2

R
3
---------------- + + + 0 t 0 > =
V
2
v
2
v
1

R
3
---------------- C
2
dv
out
dt
------------ =
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Modeling 1-31
Copyright Orchard Publications
Other Second Order Circuits
We observe that (virtual ground).
Collecting like terms and rearranging (1.83) and (1.84) we obtain
(1.84)
and
(1.85)
Differentiation of (1.86) yields
(1.86)
and by substitution of given numerical values into (1.85) through (1.87), we obtain
or
(1.87)
(1.88)
(1.89)
Next, substitution of (1.89) and (1.90) into (1.88) yields
(1.90)
or
and division by yields
or
(1.91)
v
2
0 =
1
R
1
------
1
R
2
------
1
R
3
------ + +
\ .
| |
v
1
C
1
dv
1
dt
--------
1
R
2
------v
out
+
1
R
1
------v
i n
=
v
1
R
3
C
2
dv
out
dt
------------ =
dv
1
dt
-------- R
3
C
2
dv
2
out
dt
2
-------------- =
1
2 10
5

------------------
1
4 10
4

------------------
1
5 10
4

------------------ + +
\ .
| |
v
1
25 10
9

dv
1
dt
--------
1
4 10
4

------------------v
out
+
1
2 10
5

------------------v
i n
=
0.05 10
3
( )v
1
25 10
9

dv
1
dt
-------- 0.25 10
4
( )v
out
+ 0.5 10
5
( )v
in
=
v
1
5 10
4

dv
out
dt
------------ =
dv
1
dt
-------- 5 10
4 d
2
v
out
dt
2
-------------- =
0.05 10
3
5 10
4
dv
out
dt
------------
\ .
| |
25 10
9
5 10
4
( )
d
2
v
out
dt
2
--------------
0.25 10
4
( )v
out

+
0.5 10
5
( )v
i n
=
125 10
13

d
2
v
out
dt
2
-------------- 0.25 10
7
dv
out
dt
------------ 0.25 10
4
( )v
out
10
4
v
in
=
125 10
13

d
2
v
out
dt
2
--------------- 2 10
3
dv
out
dt
------------ 2 10
6
v
out
+ + 1.6 10
5
( )v
i n
=
d
2
v
out
dt
2
--------------- 2 10
3
dv
out
dt
------------ 2 10
6
v
out
+ + 10
6
6280t cos =
Chapter 1 Second Order Circuits
1-32 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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We use MATLAB to find the roots of the characteristic equation of (1.92).
syms s; y0=solve('s^2+2*10^3*s+2*10^6') % Must have Symbolic Math Toolbox installed
y0 =
[-1000+1000*i]
[-1000-1000*i]
that is,
We cannot classify the given circuit as series or parallel and therefore, we should not use the
damping ratio or . Instead, for the natural response we will use the general expression
(1.92)
where
Therefore, the natural response is oscillatory and has the form
(1.93)
Since the right side of (1.92) is a sinusoid, the forced response has the form
(1.94)
Of course, for the derivation of the forced response we could use phasor analysis but we must first
derive an expression for the impedance or admittance, since the expressions we used earlier were
for series and parallel circuits only.
The coefficients and will be found by substitution of (1.95) into (1.92) and then by equat-
ing like terms. Using MATLAB we obtain:
syms t k3 k4; y0=k3*cos(6280*t)+k4*sin(6280*t); y1=diff(y0)
y1 =
-6280*k3*sin(6280*t)+6280*k4*cos(6280*t)
y2=diff(y0,2)
y2 =
-39438400*k3*cos(6280*t)-39438400*k4*sin(6280*t)
y=y2+2*10^3*y1+2*10^6*y0
y =
-37438400*k3*cos(6280*t)-37438400*k4*sin(6280*t)-
12560000*k3*sin(6280*t)+12560000*k4*cos(6280*t)
Equating like terms with (1.92) we obtain
s
1
s
2
, o j 1000 j1000 1000 1 j1 ( ) = = =
o
S
o
P
v
n
t ( )
v
n
t ( ) Ae
s
1
t
= Be
s
2
t
+ e
ot
k
1
t cos k
2
t sin + ( ) =
s
1
s
2
, o j 1000 j1000 = =
v
n
t ( ) e
1000t
k
1
1000t cos k
2
1000t sin + ( ) =
v
f
t ( ) k
3
6280t cos k
4
6280t sin + =
k
3
k
4
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Modeling 1-33
Copyright Orchard Publications
Other Second Order Circuits
(1.95)
Simultaneous solution of the equations of (1.96) is done with MATLAB.
syms k3 k4
eq1=-37438400*k3+12560000*k4+10^6;
eq2=-12560000*k3-37438400*k4+0;
y=solve(eq1,eq2)
y =
k3: [1x1 sym]
k4: [1x1 sym]
y.k3
ans =
0.0240
y.k4
ans =
-0.0081
that is, and . Then, by substitution into (1.95)
(1.96)
The total response is
(1.97)
We will use the initial conditions to evaluate and . We observe that
and at relation (1.98) becomes
or and thus (1.98) simplifies to
(1.98)
To evaluate the constant , we make use of the initial condition . We observe that
and by KCL at node we have:
37438400 k
3
12560000 k
4
+ ( ) 6280t cos 10
6
6280t cos =
12560000 k
3
37438400 k
4
( ) 6280t sin 0 =
k
3
0.024 = k
4
0.008 =
v
f
t ( ) 0.024 6280t cos 0.008 6280t sin =
v
out
t ( ) v
n
t ( ) v
f
t ( ) + e
1000t
k
1
1000t cos k
2
1000t sin + ( )
0.024 6280t cos 0.008 6280t sin +
= =
v
C1
v
C2
0 = = k
1
k
2
v
C2
v
out
= t 0 =
v
out
0 ( ) e
0
k
1
0 cos 0 + ( ) 0.024 0 cos 0 + 0 = =
k
1
0.024 =
v
out
t ( ) e
1000t
0.024 1000t cos k
2
1000t sin + ( )
0.024 6280t cos 0.008 6280t sin +
=
k
2
v
C1
0 ( ) 0 =
v
C1
v
1
= v
1
v
1
v
2

R
3
---------------- C
2
dv
out
dt
------------ + 0 =
Chapter 1 Second Order Circuits
1-34 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Figure 2.2. The components of in a series RLC circuit
or
(2.5)
and
(2.6)
We observe that at resonance where denotes the impedance value at resonance, and
. In our subsequent discussion the subscript zero will be used to indicate that the circuit
variables are at resonance.
Example 2.1
For the circuit shown in Figure 2.3, compute , , C, , , and . Then, draw a
phasor diagram showing , , and .
Figure 2.3. Circuit for Example 2.1
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

o
f

I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
Radian Frequency c ( )
Z
R
cL
1
cC
--------
cL
1
cC
--------
Series Resonance Curves
Z
c
0
2 1
LC
-------- =
c
0
1
LC
------------ =
f
0
1
2r LC
------------------ =
Z
0
R = Z
0
0
Z
0 =
I
0
c
0
V
R0
V
L0
V
C0
V
R0
V
L0
V
C0
V
S
I
L=0.2 mH
C
j X
C
120 0 V Z
1.2 O jX
L
j10 O =
R
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Modeling 2-3
Copyright Orchard Publications
Series Resonance
Solution:
At resonance,
and thus
Then,
Since
it follows that
Therefore,
or
Now,
and
The phasor diagram showing , , and is shown in Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4. Phasor diagram for Example 2.1
Figure 2.4 reveals that and these voltages are much higher than the
applied voltage of . This illustrates the useful property of resonant circuits to develop high
voltages across capacitors and inductors.
jX
L
jX
C
=
Z
0
R 1.2 O = =
I
0
120 V
1.2 O
--------------- 100 A = =
X
L0
c
0
L 10 O = =
c
0
10
L
------
10
0.2 10
3

------------------------ 50000 rad s ' = = =

X
C0
X
L0
10
1
c
0
C
---------- = = =
C
1
10 50000
--------------------------- 2 F = =
V
R0
RI
0
1.2 100 120 V = = =
V
L0
c
0
LI
0
50000 0.2 10
3
100 1000 = = =
V
C0
1
c
0
C
----------I
0
1
50000 2 10
6

----------------------------------------- 100 1000 V = = =
V
R0
V
L0
V
C0
V
R0
= 120 V
|V
L0
| = 1000 V
|V
C0
| = 1000 V
V
L0
V
C0
1000 V = =
120 V
Chapter 2 Resonance
2-4 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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2.2 Quality Factor Q
0
s
in Series Resonance
The quality factor
*
is an important parameter in resonant circuits. Its definition is derived from
the following relations:
At resonance,
and
Then
(2.7)
and
(2.8)
At series resonance the left sides of (2.7) and (2.8) are equal and therefore,
Then, by definition
(2.9)
In a practical circuit, the resistance in the definition of above, represents the resistance of
the inductor and thus the quality factor is a measure of the energy storage property of the induc-
tance in relation to the energy dissipation property of the resistance of that inductance.
In terms of , the magnitude of the voltages across the inductor and capacitor are
(2.10)
and therefore, we say that there is a resonant rise in the voltage across the reactive devices and
it is equal to the times the applied voltage. Thus in Example 2.1,
* We denote the quality factor for series resonant circuits as , and the quality factor for parallel resonant cir-
cuits as .
Q
0S
Q
0P
c
0
L
1
c
0
C
---------- =
I
0
V
S
R
--------- =
V
L0
c
0
LI
0
c
0
L
V
S
R
---------
c
0
L
R
---------- V
S
= = =
V
C0
1
c
0
C
----------I
0
1
c
0
C
----------
V
S
R
---------
1
c
0
RC
-------------- V
S
= = =
c
0
L
R
----------
1
c
0
RC
-------------- =
Q
0S
c
0
L
R
----------
1
c
0
RC
-------------- = =
Quality Factor at Series Resonance
R Q
0S
Q
0S
L R
Q
0S
V
L0
V
C0
Q
0S
V
S
= =
Q
0S
Q
0S
V
L0
V
S
------------
V
C0
V
S
------------
1000
120
------------
25
3
------ = = = =
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Modeling 2-5
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Quality Factor Q
0s
in Series Resonance
The quality factor is also a measure of frequency selectivity. Thus, we say that a circuit with a
high has a high selectivity, whereas a low circuit has low selectivity. The high frequency
selectivity is more desirable in parallel circuits as we will see in the next section.
We will see later that
(2.11)
Figure 2.5 shows the relative response versus for , and where we observe that
highest provides the best frequency selectivity, i.e., higher rejection of signal components out-
side the bandwidth which is the difference in the frequencies. The curves
were created with the MATLAB script below.
w=450:1:550; x1=1./(1+25.^2*(w./500-500./w).^2); plot(w,x1);...
x2=1./(1+50.^2*(w./500-500./w).^2); plot(w,x2);...
x3=1./(1+100.^2*(w./500-500./w).^2); plot(w,x3);...
plot(w,x1,w,x2,w,x3); grid
We also observe from (2.9) that selectivity depends on and this dependence is shown on the
plot of Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.5. Selectivity curves with , and
The curves in Figure 2.6 were created with the MATLAB script below.
w=0:10:6000; R1=0.5; R2=1; L=10^(-3); C=10^(-4); Y1=1./sqrt(R1.^2+(w.*L-1./(w.*C)).^2);...
Y2=1./sqrt(R2.^2+(w.*L-1./(w.*C)).^2); plot(w,Y1,w,Y2)
Q
Q Q
Q
c
0
c
2
c
1

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Modeling 2-13
Copyright Orchard Publications
Half-Power Frequencies - Bandwidth
Recalling that for parallel resonance
by substitution we obtain
(2.30)
and if , then
Next, we want to find the bandwidth in terms of the quality factor . At the half-
power points, the magnitude of the admittance is and, if we use the half-power
points as reference, then to obtain the admittance value of
we must set
for .
We must also set
for .
Recalling that and solving the above expressions for and , we obtain
(2.31)
and
(2.32)
Subtraction of (2.32) from (2.31) yields
(2.33)
or
(2.34)
As mentioned earlier, and are not equidistant from . In fact, the resonant frequency
Q
0P
c
0
C
G
----------
1
c
0
LG
-------------- = =
Y G 1 jQ
0P
c
c
0
------
c
0
c
------

+ =
c c
0
=
Y G =
c
2
c
1
Q
0P
2 2 ' ( ) Y
p
|Y
max
2G =
Q
0P
c
2
c
0
------
c
0
c
2
------

1 =
c c
2
=
Q
0P
c
1
c
0
------
c
0
c
1
------

1 =
c c
1
=
1 j1 ( ) 2 = c
1
c
2
c
2
1
1
2Q
0P
------------

2
+
1
2Q
0P
------------ + =
c
1
1
1
2Q
0P
------------

2
+
1
2Q
0P
------------ =
BW c
2
c
1

c
0
Q
0P
--------- = =
BW f
2
f
1

--------------------------- = = = =
V
740 KHz
I
Y
740 KHz
------------------------ =
Y
740 KHz
G
2
cC
1
cL
-------

2
+ =
Y
740 KHz
5.24 10
6
( )
2
2r 740 10
3
77.2 10
12

1
2r 740 10
3
0.5 10
3

-------------------------------------------------------------------

2
+ =
Y
740 KHz
71.2 O
1
=
V
740 KHz
I
71.2 10
6

--------------------------- =
V
810 KHz
V
740 KHz
-------------------------
I 5.24 10
6
'
I 71.2 10
6
'
---------------------------------
71.2 10
6

5.24 10
6

--------------------------- 13.6 = = =
f 810 KHz =
13.6 f 740 KHz =
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Modeling 2-21
Copyright Orchard Publications
Summary
2.10 Summary
- In a series circuit, the frequency at which the capacitive reactance and the
inductive reactance are equal, is called the resonant frequency.
- The resonant frequency is denoted as or where
and
- The quality factor at series resonance is defined as
- In a parallel circuit, the frequency at which the inductive susceptance and
the capacitive susceptance are equal is, again, called the resonant frequency and it
is also denoted as . As in a series circuit, the resonant frequency is
- The quality factor at parallel resonance is defined as
- The general definition of is
- In a parallel circuit, the half-power frequencies and are the frequencies at which
the magnitude of the input admittance of a parallel resonant circuit, is greater than the magni-
tude at resonance by a factor of , or equivalently, the frequencies at which the magnitude
of the input impedance of a parallel resonant circuit, is less than the magnitude at resonance
by a factor of .
RLC X
C
1 cC ' =
X
L
cL =
c
0
f
0
c
0
1
LC
------------ =
f
0
1
2r LC
------------------ =
Q
0S
Q
0S
c
0
L
R
----------
1
c
0
RC
-------------- = =
GLC B
L
1 cL ' =
B
C
cC =
c
0
RLC
c
0
1
LC
------------ =
Q
0P
Q
0P
c
0
C
G
----------
1
c
0
GL
-------------- = =
Q
Q 2r
Maximum Energy Stored
Energy Dissipated per Cycle
------------------------------------------------------------------------------ =
RLC c
1
c
2
2
2
Chapter 2 Resonance
2-22 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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- We call the lower half-power point, and the upper half-power point. The difference
is the half-power bandwidth , that is,
- The bandwidth can also be expressed in terms of the quality factor as
or
c
1
c
2
c
2
c
1
BW
Bandwidth BW c
2
c
1
= =
BW Q
BW c
2
c
1

c
0
Q
0P
--------- = =
BW f
2
f
1

f
0
Q
0P
--------- = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 2-23
Copyright Orchard Publications
Exercises
2.11 Exercises
1. A series circuit is resonant at with and its half-power band-
width is . Find , , and for this circuit.
2. For the network below the impedance is variable, and . To what
value should be adjusted so that the network will operate at resonant frequency?
3. For the circuit below with the capacitance adjusted to , the half-power frequencies are
and .
a. Compute the approximate resonant frequency.
b. Compute the exact resonant frequency.
c. Using the approximate value of the resonant frequency, compute the values of , ,
and .
4. The circuit below is resonant at with and its half-power
bandwidth is .
a. Compute , , and for this circuit.
b. Compute the magnitude of the admittances and corresponding to the half-
power frequencies and . Use MATLAB to plot in the
range.
RLC f
0
1 MHz = Z
0
100 O =
BW 20 KHz = R L C
Z
1
Z
2
3 j4 + = Z
3
4 j3 =
Z
1
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3 Z
IN
C 1 F
f
1
925 KHz = f
2
1075 KHz =
Q
op
G
L
G L
C

GLC f
0
500 KHz = V
0
20 V =
BW 20 KHz =
L C I
0
Y
1
Y
2
f
1
f
2
Y 100 KHz f s 1000 KHz s
G L
C
+
-
V

Chapter 2 Resonance
2-24 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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5. For the circuit below and . Find:
a.
b.
c.

and
d.
6. The series-parallel circuit below will behave as a filter if the parallel part is made resonant to
the frequency we want to suppress, and the series part is made resonant to the frequency we
wish to pass. Accordingly, we can adjust capacitor to achieve parallel resonance which will
reject the unwanted frequency by limiting the current through the resistive load to its mini-
mum value. Afterwards, we can adjust to make the entire circuit series resonant at the
desired frequency thus making the total impedance minimum so that maximum current will
flow into the load.
For this circuit, we want to set the values of capacitors so that will be maximum at
and minimum at . Compute the values of and that will
achieve these values. It is suggested that you use MATLAB to plot versus frequency
in the interval to verify your answers.
v
s
170 ct cos = Q
0
50 =
c
0
BW
c
1
c
2
V
C0
1 mH

R
2
C
L R
1

1 O
v
s
10 O
1 F
C
2
C
1
v
LOAD
f
1
10 KHz = f
2
43 KHz = C
1
C
2
v
LOAD
f 1 KHz f 100 KH s s
2 mH

R
L
L
R
1
C
1
C
2

100 O
1 O
v
S
170 ct cos =
v
LOAD
+
+
-
-
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Modeling 2-25
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
2.12 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
1. At series resonance and thus . We find from
where . Also,
Then,
and from
Check with MATLAB:
f0=10^6; w0=2*pi*f0; Z0=100; BW=2*pi*20000; w1=w0-BW/2; w2=w0+BW/2;...
R=Z0; Qos=w0/BW; L=R*Qos/w0; C=1/(w0^2*L); fprintf(' \n');...
fprintf('R = %5.2f Ohms \t', R); fprintf('L = %5.2e H \t', L);...
fprintf('C = %5.2e F \t', C); fprintf(' \n'); fprintf(' \n');
R = 100. 00 Ohms L = 7. 96e - 004 H C = 3. 18e - 011 F
2.
where
We let and . For resonance we must have
Z
0
R 100 = = R 100 O = L Q
0S
c
0
L R ' =
c
0
2rf
0
=
Q
0S
c
0
c
2
c
1

-------------------
c
0
BW
----------
2r 10
6

2r 20 10
3

--------------------------------- 50 = = = =
L
R Q
0S

c
0
------------------
100 50
2r 10
6

--------------------- 0.796 mH = = =
c
0
2
1 LC ' =
C
1
c
0
2
L
----------
1
2r 10
6
( )
2
7.96 10
4

-------------------------------------------------------------- 31.8 pF = = =
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3 Z
IN
Z
IN
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3

+ =
Z
2
Z
3

3 j4 + ( ) 4 j3 ( )
3 j4 4 j3 + +
------------------------------------------
12 j9 j16 12 + +
7 j +
-------------------------------------------
7 j
7 j
---------- = =
168 j49 j24 7 + +
7
2
1
2
+
----------------------------------------------
175 j25 +
50
----------------------- 3.5 j0.5 + = = =
Z
IN
R
IN
jX
IN
+ = Z
1
R
1
jX
1
+ =
Z
IN
R
IN
jX
IN
+ R
1
jX
1
3.5 j0.5 + + + R
IN
0 + R
1
jX
1
3.5 j0.5 + + + = = = =
Chapter 2 Resonance
2-26 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Equating real and imaginary parts we obtain
and while can be any real number, we must have and thus
3.
a.
Then,
b. The exact value of is the geometric mean of and and thus
c.
. Also,
Then
and
4.
a.
Also, or
R
IN
R
1
3.5 + =
0 jX
1
j0.5 + =
R
1
jX
1
j0.5 =
Z
1
R
1
j0.5 O =
BW f
2
f
1
1075 925 150 KHz = = =
f
0
f
1
BW 2 ' + 925 150 2 ' + 1000 KHz = = =
f
0
f
1
f
2
f
0
f
1
f
2
925 1075 + ( )10
3
997.18 KHz = = =
Q
0P
f
0
f
2
f
1

--------------
1000
150
------------ 20 3 ' = = = Q
0P
c
0
C
G
---------- =
G
c
0
C
Q
0P
----------
2rf
0
C
Q
0P
---------------
2r 10
6
10
6

20 3 '
--------------------------------------
3r
10
------ 0.94 O
1
= = = = =
L
1
c
0
C
----------
1
4r
2
f
0
2
C
-------------------
1
4r
2
10
12
10
6

------------------------------------------- 0.025 H = = = =
Q
0P
f
0
BW
----------
500
20
--------- 25 = = =
Q
0P
c
0
C
G
---------- =
C
Q
0P
G
c
0
------------------
25 10
3

2r 5 10
5

------------------------------ 7.96 10
9
F 7.96 nF = = = =
L
1
c
0
C
----------
1
4r
2
f
0
2
C
-------------------
1
4r
2
25 10
10
7.96 10
9

------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12.73 10
6
H 12.73 H = = = = =
I
0
V
0
Y
0
V
0
G 20 10
3
A 20 mA = = = =
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Modeling 2-27
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
b. and
Likewise,
We will use MATLAB to do the computations.
G=10^(-3); BC1=2*pi*490*10^3*7.96*10^(-9);...
BL1=1/(2*pi*490*10^3*12.73*10^(-6)); Y1=G+j*(BC1-BL1);...
BC2=2*pi*510*10^3*7.96*10^(-9); BL2=1/(2*pi*510*10^3*12.73*10^(-6));...
Y2=G+j*(BC2-BL2); fprintf(' \n'); fprintf('magY1 = %5.2e mho \t', abs(Y1));...
fprintf('magY2 = %5.2e mho \t', abs(Y2)); fprintf(' \n'); fprintf(' \n')
ma gY1 = 1. 42e - 003 mho ma gY2 = 1. 41e - 003 mho
We will use the following MATLAB script for the plot
f=100*10^3: 10^3: 1000*10^3; w=2*pi*f;...
G=10^(-3); C=7.96*10^(-9); L=12.73*10^(-6);...
BC=w.*C; BL=1./(w.*L); Y=G+j*(BC-BL); plot(f,abs(Y));...
xlabel('Frequency in Hz'); ylabel('Magnitude of Admittance');grid
The plot is shown below.
f
1
f
0
BW 2 ' 500 10 490 KHz = = = f
2
f
0
BW 2 ' + 500 10 + 510 KHz = = =
Y
f f
1
=
G j c
1
C
1
c
1
L
----------

+ =
10
3
j 2r 490 10
3
7.96 10
9

1
2r 490 10
3
12.73 10
6

-------------------------------------------------------------------------

+ =
Y
f f
2
=
G j c
1
C
1
c
1
L
----------

+ =
10
3
j 2r 510 10
3
7.96 10
9

1
2r 510 10
3
12.73 10
6

-------------------------------------------------------------------------

+ =
Chapter 2 Resonance
2-28 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
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5.
a. It is important to remember that the relation applies only to series and
parallel circuits. For any other circuit we must find the input impedance , set the
imaginary part of equal to zero, and solve for . Thus, for the given circuit
1 mH

R
2
C
L R
1

1 O
Z
IN
10 O
1 F 1
jcC
----------
jcL
c
0
1 LC ' = RLC
GLC Z
IN
Z
IN
c
0
Z
IN
R
1
1
jcC
---------- R
2
jcL + ( )

+ 1
1 jcC ' 10 jcL + ( )
10 j cL 1 cC ' ( ) +
------------------------------------------------- + = =
10 j cL 1 cC ' ( ) 10 jcC ' L C ' + + +
10 j cL 1 cC ' ( ) +
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10 j cL 1 cC ' ( )
10 j cL 1 cC ' ( )
------------------------------------------------ =
100 j10 cL 1 cC ' ( ) 100 jcC ( ) ' 10L C ' j10 cL 1 cC ' ( ) + + +
100 cL 1 cC ' ( )
2
+
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
+
cL 1 cC ' ( )
2
10 cC ' ( ) cL 1 cC ' ( ) jL C ' cL 1 cC ' ( )
100 cL 1 cC ' ( )
2
+
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100 10L C ' cL 1 cC ' ( )
2
10 cC ' ( ) cL 1 cC ' ( ) + +
100 cL 1 cC ' ( )
2
+
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
+
100 jcC ( ) ' jL C ' cL 1 cC ' ( )
100 cL 1 cC ' ( )
2
+
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 2-29
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
For resonance, the imaginary part of must be zero, that is,
and thus
b.
c.
d. At resonance
and
The phasor equivalent circuit is shown below.
We let , , and . Using nodal analysis we obtain:
Z
IN
100
jc
0
C
------------
jL
C
----- c
0
L
1
c
0
C
----------

0 =
j
C
----
100
c
0
--------- L c
0
L
1
c
0
C
----------

+ 0 =
100
c
0
--------- c
0
L
2 L
c
0
C
---------- + 0 =
L
2
Cc
0
2
100C L + 0 =
c
0
2 1
LC
--------
100
L
2
---------
1
10
3
10
6

---------------------------
100
10
6
---------- 10
9
10
8
9 10
8
= = = =
c
0
9 10
8
30 000 r s ' , = =
BW c
0
Q ' 30 000 50 ' , 600 r s ' = = =
c
1
c
0
BW 2 ' 30 000 300 , 29 700 r s ' , = = =
c
2
c
0
BW 2 ' + 30 000 300 + , 30 300 r s ' , = = =
jc
0
L j3 10
4
10
3
j30 O = = 1 jc
0
C ' j10
4
10
6
3 ' j100 3 ' = =

V
S
170 0 V Z
j30 O
j100 3 ' O
1 O
10 O
V
C0
z
1
1 O = z
2
j100 3 ' O = z
3
10 j30 O + =
V
C0
V
S

z
1
-----------------------
V
C0
z
2
----------
V
C0
z
3
---------- + + 0 =
Chapter 2 Resonance
2-30 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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We will use MATLAB to obtain the value of .
Vs=170; z1=1; z2=-j*100/3; z3=10+j*30; Z=1/z1+1/z2+1/z3; Vc0=Vs/Z;...
fprintf(' \n'); fprintf('Vc0 = %6.2f', abs(Vc0)); fprintf(' \n'); fprintf(' \n')
Vc 0 = 168. 32
6.
First, we will find the appropriate value of . We recall that at parallel resonance the voltage
is maximum and the current is minimum. For this circuit the parallel resonance was found as
in (2.37), that is,
or
Next, we must find the value of that will make the entire circuit series resonant (minimum
impedance, maximum current) at . In the circuit below we let ,
, , and .
Then,
1
z
1
-----
1
z
2
-----
1
z
3
----- + +

V
C0
V
S
z
1
------ =
V
C0
C
2
c
0
1
LC
--------
R
2
L
2
------ =
2r 43 000 ,
1
2 10
3
C
2

--------------------------
10
4
4 10
6

-------------------- =
10
3
2C
2
---------
10
4
4 10
6

-------------------- 2r 4.3 10
4
( )
2
+
10
4
2r 4.3 10
4
( )
2
4 10
6
+
4 10
6

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = =
C
2
500
4 10
6

10
4
2r 4.3 10
4
( )
2
4 10
6
+
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6.62 10
9
F 6.62 nF = = =
C
1
f 10 KHz = z
1
jX
C1
=
z
2
jX
C2
= z
3
R
1
jX
L
+ = z
LD
1 =
2 mH

R
LD
L
R
1
C
1
C
2

100 O
1 O
V
S
170 0 V Z =
v
LD
+
+
-
-
jX
C1

jX
L
jX
C2

Z
IN
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Modeling 2-31
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Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
and
(1)
where is found with the MATLAB script below.
format short g; f=10000; w=2*pi*f; C2=6.62*10^(-9); XC2=1/(w*C2); L=2*10^(-3);...
XL=w*L; R1=100; z2=-j*XC2; z3=R1+j*XL; Zp=z2*z3/(z2+z3)
Zp =
111. 12 + 127. 72i
and by substitution into (1)
(2)
The expression of (2) will be minimum if we let at . Then, the
capacitor value must be such that or
Shown below is the plot of versus frequency and the MATLAB script that produces this
plot.
f=1000: 100: 60000; w=2*pi*f; Vs=170; C1=1.25*10^(-7); C2=6.62*10^(-9); L=2.*10.^(-3);...
R1=100; Rld=1; z1=-j./(w.*C1); z2=-j./(w.*C2); z3=R1+j.*w.*L; Zld=Rld;...
Zin=z1+z2.*z3./(z2+z3); Vld=Zld.*Vs./(Zin+Zld); magVld=abs(Vld);...
plot(f,magVld); axis([1000 60000 0 2]);...
xlabel('Frequency f'); ylabel('|Vld|'); grid
Z
IN
z
1
z
2
z
3

z
LOAD
+ + =
Z
IN
f 10 KHz = ( ) z
1
z
2
z
3

f 10 KHz =
z
LOAD
+ + z
1
z
2
z
3

f 10 KHz =
+ + = =
z
2
z
3

f 10 KHz =
Z
IN
f 10 KHz = ( ) z
1
111.12 j127.72 1 + + + z
1
113.12 + j127.72 O + = =
z
1
j127.72 O = f 10 KHz =
C
1
1 cC ' 127.72 =
C
1
1
2r 10
4
127.72
-------------------------------------------- 1.25 10
7
F 0.125 F = = =
V
LD
Chapter 2 Resonance
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Modeling
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This circuit is considered to be a special type of filter that allows a specific frequency (not a
band of frequencies) to pass, and attenuates another specific frequency.
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Modeling 3-1
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Chapter 3
Elementary Signals
his chapter begins with a discussion of elementary signals that may be applied to electric
networks. The unit step, unit ramp, and delta functions are then introduced. The sampling
and sifting properties of the delta function are defined and derived. Several examples for
expressing a variety of waveforms in terms of these elementary signals are provided.
3.1 Signals Described in Math Form
Consider the network of Figure 3.1 where the switch is closed at time .
Figure 3.1. A switched network with open terminals
We wish to describe in a math form for the time interval . To do this, it is conve-
nient to divide the time interval into two parts, , and .
For the time interval , the switch is open and therefore, the output voltage is zero.
In other words,
(3.1)
For the time interval , the switch is closed. Then, the input voltage appears at the
output, i.e.,
(3.2)
Combining (3.1) and (3.2) into a single relationship, we obtain
(3.3)
We can express (3.3) by the waveform shown in Figure 3.2.
The waveform of Figure 3.2 is an example of a discontinuous function. A function is said to be dis-
continuous if it exhibits points of discontinuity, that is, the function jumps from one value to
another without taking on any intermediate values.
T
t 0 =
+
-
+
-
v
out
v
S
t 0 = R
open terminals
v
out
t + < <
t 0 < < 0 t < <
t 0 < < v
out
v
out
0 for t 0 < < =
0 t < < v
S
v
out
v
S
for 0 t < < =
v
out
0 t 0 < <
v
S
0 t < <

=

Chapter 3 Elementary Signals
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Figure 3.2. Waveform for as defined in relation (3.3)
3.2 The Unit Step Function
A well known discontinuous function is the unit step function
*
which is defined as
(3.4)
It is also represented by the waveform of Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3. Waveform for
In the waveform in Figure 3.3, the unit step function changes abruptly from to at
. But if it changes at instead, it is denoted as . In this case, its waveform and
definition are as shown in Figure 3.4 and relation (3.5) respectively.
Figure 3.4. Waveform for
(3.5)
If the unit step function changes abruptly from to at , it is denoted as . In
this case, its waveform and definition are as shown in Figure 3.5 and relation (3.6) respectively.
* In some books, the unit step function is denoted as , that is, without the subscript 0. In this text, however, we
will reserve the designation for any input when we will discuss state variables in Chapter 7.
0
v
out
v
S
t
v
out
u
0
t ( )
u
0
t ( )
u t ( )
u t ( )
u
0
t ( )
0 t 0 <
1 t 0 >

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Modeling 3-11
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The Delta Function
3.4 The Delta Function
The delta function or unit impulse, denoted as , is the derivative of the unit step . It is also
defined as
(3.33)
and
(3.34)
To better understand the delta function , let us represent the unit step as shown in Fig-
ure 3.20 (a).
Figure 3.20. Representation of the unit step as a limit
The function of Figure 3.20 (a) becomes the unit step as . Figure 3.20 (b) is the derivative of
Figure 3.20 (a), where we see that as , becomes unbounded, but the area of the rect-
angle remains . Therefore, in the limit, we can think of as approaching a very large spike or
impulse at the origin, with unbounded amplitude, zero width, and area equal to .
Two useful properties of the delta function are the sampling property and the sifting property.
3.4.1 The Sampling Property of the Delta Function
The sampling property of the delta function states that
(3.35)
or, when ,
(3.36)
that is, multiplication of any function by the delta function results in sampling the func-
tion at the time instants where the delta function is not zero. The study of discrete-time systems is
based on this property.
Proof:
Since then,
o t ( )
o t ( ) u
0
t ( )
o t ( ) t d

t
}
u
0
t ( ) =
o t ( ) 0 for all t 0 =
o t ( ) u
0
t ( )
-r r
1
2r
Figure (a)
Figure (b)
Area =1
r -r
1
t
t
0
0
r 0
r 0 1 2 ' r
1 o t ( )
1
o t ( )
f t ( )o t a ( ) f a ( )o t ( ) =
a 0 =
f t ( )o t ( ) f 0 ( )o t ( ) =
f t ( ) o t ( )
o t ( ) 0 for t 0 and t 0 > < =
Chapter 3 Elementary Signals
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(3.37)
We rewrite as
(3.38)
Integrating (3.37) over the interval and using (3.38), we obtain
(3.39)
The first integral on the right side of (3.39) contains the constant term ; this can be written
outside the integral, that is,
(3.40)
The second integral of the right side of (3.39) is always zero because
and
Therefore, (3.39) reduces to
(3.41)
Differentiating both sides of (3.41), and replacing with , we obtain
(3.42)
3.4.2 The Sifting Property of the Delta Function
The sifting property of the delta function states that
(3.43)
that is, if we multiply any function by , and integrate from , we will obtain
the value of evaluated at .
Proof:
Let us consider the integral
(3.44)
f t ( )o t ( ) 0 for t 0 and t 0 > < =
f t ( )
f t ( ) f 0 ( ) f t ( ) f 0 ( ) [ ] + =
to t
f t ( )o t ( ) t d

t
}
f 0 ( )o t ( ) t d

t
}
f t ( ) f 0 ( ) [ ]o t ( ) t d

t
}
+ =
f 0 ( )
f 0 ( )o t ( ) t d

t
}
f 0 ( ) o t ( ) t d

t
}
=
o t ( ) 0 for t 0 and t 0 > < =
f t ( ) f 0 ( ) [ ]
t 0 =
f 0 ( ) f 0 ( ) 0 = =
f t ( )o t ( ) t d

t
}
f 0 ( ) o t ( ) t d

t
}
=
t t
f t ( )o t ( ) f 0 ( )o t ( ) =
Sampling Property of o t ( )
o t ( )
f t ( )o t o ( ) t d

}
f o ( ) =
f t ( ) o t o ( ) to +
f t ( ) t o =
f t ( )o t o ( ) t where a o b < < d
a
b
}
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Modeling 3-13
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Higher Order Delta Functions
We will use integration by parts to evaluate this integral. We recall from the derivative of prod-
ucts that
(3.45)
and integrating both sides we obtain
(3.46)
Now, we let ; then, . We also let ; then, . By sub-
stitution into (3.44), we obtain
(3.47)
We have assumed that ; therefore, for , and thus the first term of the
right side of (3.47) reduces to . Also, the integral on the right side is zero for , and there-
fore, we can replace the lower limit of integration by . We can now rewrite (3.47) as
and letting , we obtain
(3.48)
3.5 Higher Order Delta Functions
An nth-order delta function is defined as the derivative of , that is,
(3.49)
The function is called doublet, is called triplet, and so on. By a procedure similar to the
derivation of the sampling property of the delta function, we can show that
(3.50)
Also, the derivation of the sifting property of the delta function can be extended to show that
(3.51)
d xy ( ) xdy ydx or xdy + d xy ( ) ydx = =
x y d
}
xy y x d
}
=
x f t ( ) = dx f t ( )

= dy o t o ( ) = y u
0
t o ( ) =
f t ( )o t o ( ) t d
a
b
}
f t ( )u
0
t o ( )
a
b
u
0
t o ( )f t ( )

t d
a
b
}
=
a o b < < u
0
t o ( ) 0 = o a <
f b ( ) o a <
a o
f t ( )o t o ( ) t d
a
b
}
f b ( ) f t ( )

t d
o
b
}
f b ( ) f b ( ) f o ( ) + = =
a and b for any o <
f t ( )o t o ( ) t d

}
f o ( ) =
Sifting Property of o t ( )
nth u
0
t ( )
o
n
t ( )
o
n
dt
----- u
0
t ( ) [ ] =
o' t ( ) o'' t ( )
f t ( )o' t a ( ) f a ( )o' t a ( ) f

' a ( )o t a ( ) =
f t ( )o
n
t o ( ) t d

}
1 ( )
n d
n
dt
n
-------- f t ( ) [ ]
t o =
=
Chapter 3 Elementary Signals
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Example 3.8
Evaluate the following expressions:
a. b. c.
Solution:
a. The sampling property states that For this example, and
. Then,
b. The sifting property states that . For this example, and
. Then,
c. The given expression contains the doublet; therefore, we use the relation
Then, for this example,
Example 3.9
a. Express the voltage waveform shown in Figure 3.21 as a sum of unit step functions for the
time interval .
b. Using the result of part (a), compute the derivative of and sketch its waveform.
Solution:
a. We begin with the derivation of the equations for the linear segments of the given waveform
as shown in Figure 3.22.
Next, we express in terms of the unit step function , and we obtain
(3.52)
3t
4
o t 1 ( ) to t 2 ( ) t d

}
t
2
o' t 3 ( )
f t ( )o t a ( ) f a ( )o t ( ) = f t ( ) 3t
4
=
a 1 =
3t
4
o t 1 ( ) 3t
4
t 1 =
{ o t 1 ( ) 3o t ( ) = =
f t ( )o t o ( ) t d

}
f o ( ) = f t ( ) t =
o 2 =
to t 2 ( ) t d

}
f 2 ( ) t
t 2 =
2 = = =
f t ( )o' t a ( ) f a ( )o' t a ( ) f

' a ( )o t a ( ) =
t
2
o' t 3 ( ) t
2
t 3 =
o' t 3 ( )
d
dt
-----t
2
t 3 =
o t 3 ( ) 9o' t 3 ( ) 6o t 3 ( ) = =
v t ( )
1 t 7 s < <
v t ( )
v t ( ) u
0
t ( )
v t ( ) 2t u
0
t 1 + ( ) u
0
t 1 ( ) [ ] 2 u
0
t 1 ( ) u
0
t 2 ( ) [ ] + =
+ t 5 + ( ) u
0
t 2 ( ) u
0
t 4 ( ) [ ] u
0
t 4 ( ) u
0
t 5 ( ) [ ] +
+ t 6 + ( ) u
0
t 5 ( ) u
0
t 7 ( ) [ ]
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Modeling 3-15
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Higher Order Delta Functions
Figure 3.21. Waveform for Example 3.9
Figure 3.22. Equations for the linear segments of Figure 3.21
Multiplying and collecting like terms in (3.52), we obtain
or
b. The derivative of is
-1
-2
-1
1
2
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
V ( )
t s ( )
v t ( )
-1
-2
-1
1
2
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
v t ( )
t 6 +
t 5 +
2t
t s ( )
V ( )
v t ( )
v t ( ) 2tu
0
t 1 + ( ) 2tu
0
t 1 ( ) 2u
0
t 1 ( ) 2u
0
t 2 ( ) tu
0
t 2 ( ) =
+ 5u
0
t 2 ( ) tu
0
t 4 ( ) 5u
0
t 4 ( ) u
0
t 4 ( ) u
0
t 5 ( ) + +
tu
0
t 5 ( ) 6u
0
t 5 ( ) tu
0
t 7 ( ) 6u
0
t 7 ( ) + +
v t ( ) 2tu
0
t 1 + ( ) 2t 2 + ( )u
0
t 1 ( ) t 3 + ( )u
0
t 2 ( ) + + =
+ t 4 ( )u
0
t 4 ( ) t 5 + ( )u
0
t 5 ( ) t 6 ( )u
0
t 7 ( ) + +
v t ( )
Chapter 3 Elementary Signals
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(3.53)
From the given waveform, we observe that discontinuities occur only at , , and
. Therefore, , , and , and the terms that contain
these delta functions vanish. Also, by application of the sampling property,
and by substitution into (3.53), we obtain
(3.54)
The plot of is shown in Figure 3.23.

Figure 3.23. Plot of the derivative of the waveform of Figure 3.21
We observe that a negative spike of magnitude occurs at , and two positive spikes of
magnitude occur at , and . These spikes occur because of the discontinuities at
these points.
dv
dt
------ 2u
0
t 1 + ( ) 2to t 1 + ( ) 2u
0
t 1 ( ) 2t 2 + ( )o t 1 ( ) + + =
u
0
t 2 ( ) t 3 + ( )o t 2 ( ) u
0
t 4 ( ) t 4 ( )o t 4 ( ) + + +
u
0
t 5 ( ) t 5 + ( )o t 5 ( ) u
0
t 7 ( ) t 6 ( )o t 7 ( ) + + +
t 1 = t 2 =
t 7 = o t 1 ( ) 0 = o t 4 ( ) 0 = o t 5 ( ) 0 =
2to t 1 + ( ) 2t
t 1 =
{ o t 1 + ( ) 2o t 1 + ( ) = =
t 3 + ( )o t 2 ( ) t 3 + ( )
t 2 =
{ o t 2 ( ) o t 2 ( ) = =
t 6 ( )o t 7 ( ) t 6 ( )
t 7 =
{ o t 7 ( ) o t 7 ( ) = =
dv
dt
------ 2u
0
t 1 + ( ) 2 o t 1 + ( ) 2u
0
t 1 ( ) u
0
t 2 ( ) =
o t 2 ( ) u
0
t 4 ( ) u
0
t 5 ( ) u
0
t 7 ( ) o t 7 ( ) + + + +
dv dt '
-1
-1
1
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
2o t 1 + ( )
dv
dt
------
V s ' ( )
o t 2 ( )
o t 7 ( )
t s ( )
2 t 1 =
1 t 2 = t 7 =
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To determine the conditions that will ensure us that the integral of (4.3) converges, we rewrite
(4.5) as
(4.6)
The term in the integral of (4.6) has magnitude of unity, i.e., , and thus the con-
dition for convergence becomes
(4.7)
Fortunately, in most engineering applications the functions are of exponential order
*
. Then,
we can express (4.7) as,
(4.8)
and we see that the integral on the right side of the inequality sign in (4.8), converges if .
Therefore, we conclude that if is of exponential order, exists if
(4.9)
where denotes the real part of the complex variable .
Evaluation of the integral of (4.4) involves contour integration in the complex plane, and thus, it
will not be attempted in this chapter. We will see in the next chapter that many Laplace trans-
forms can be inverted with the use of a few standard pairs, and thus there is no need to use (4.4)
to obtain the Inverse Laplace transform.
In our subsequent discussion, we will denote transformation from the time domain to the com-
plex frequency domain, and vice versa, as
(4.10)
4.2 Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform
The most common properties and theorems of the Laplace transform are presented in Subsec-
tions 4.2.1 through 4.2.13 below.
4.2.1 Linearity Property
The linearity property states that if the functions
* A function is said to be of exponential order if .
f t ( )e
ot
0

}
e
jct
dt <
e
jct
e
jct
1 =
f t ( )e
ot
0

}
dt <
f t ( )
f t ( ) f t ( ) ke
o
0
t
for all t 0 <
f t ( )e
ot
0

}
dt ke
o
0
t
e
ot
0

}
dt <
o o
0
>
f t ( ) L f t ( ) {
Re s { o o
0
> =
Re s { s
f t ( ) F s ( ) =
f
1
t ( ) f
2
t ( ) . f
n
t ( ) , , ,
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Modeling 4-3
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Properties and Theorems of the Laplace Transform
have Laplace transforms
respectively, and
are arbitrary constants, then,
(4.11)
Proof:
Note 1:
It is desirable to multiply by the unit step function to eliminate any unwanted non-
zero values of for .
4.2.2 Time Shifting Property
The time shifting property states that a right shift in the time domain by units, corresponds to
multiplication by in the complex frequency domain. Thus,
(4.12)
Proof:
(4.13)
Now, we let ; then, and . With these substitutions and with ,
the second integral on the right side of (4.13) is expressed as
4.2.3 Frequency Shifting Property
The frequency shifting property states that if we multiply a time domain function by an expo-
nential function where is an arbitrary positive constant, this multiplication will produce a
F
1
s ( ) F
2
s ( ) . F
n
s ( ) , , ,
c
1
c
2
. c
n
, , ,
c
1
f
1
t ( ) c
2
f
2
t ( ) . c
n
f
n
t ( ) + + + c
1
F
1
s ( ) c
2
F
2
s ( ) . c
n
F
n
s ( ) + + + =
L c
1
f
1
t ( ) c
2
f
2
t ( ) . c
n
f
n
t ( ) + + + { c
1
f
1
t ( ) c
2
f
2
t ( ) . c
n
f
n
t ( ) + + + [ ]
t
0

}
dt =
c
1
f
1
t ( )
t
0

}
e
st
dt c
2
f
2
t ( )
t
0

}
e
st
dt . + c
n
f
n
t ( )
t
0

}
e
st
dt + + =
c
1
F
1
s ( ) c
2
F
2
s ( ) . c
n
F
n
s ( ) + + + =
f t ( ) u
0
t ( )
f t ( ) t 0 <
a
e
as
f t a ( )u
0
t a ( ) e
as
F s ( ) =
L f t a ( )u
0
t a ( ) { 0
0
a
}
e
st
dt f t a ( )
a

}
e
st
dt + =
t a t = t t a + = dt dt = a 0
f t ( )
0

}
e
s t a + ( )
dt e
as
f t ( )
0

}
e
st
dt e
as
F s ( ) = =
f t ( )
e
at
a
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
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shift of the s variable in the complex frequency domain by units. Thus,
(4.14)
Proof:
Note 2:
A change of scale is represented by multiplication of the time variable by a positive scaling fac-
tor . Thus, the function after scaling the time axis, becomes .
4.2.4 Scaling Property
Let be an arbitrary positive constant; then, the scaling property states that
(4.15)
Proof:
and letting , we obtain
Note 3:
Generally, the initial value of is taken at to include any discontinuity that may be
present at . If it is known that no such discontinuity exists at , we simply interpret
as .
4.2.5 Differentiation in Time Domain Property
The differentiation in time domain property states that differentiation in the time domain corre-
sponds to multiplication by in the complex frequency domain, minus the initial value of at
. Thus,
(4.16)
Proof:
Using integration by parts where
a
e
at
f t ( ) F s a + ( ) =
L e
at
f t ( ) { e
at
f t ( )
0

}
e
st
dt f t ( )
0

}
e
s a + ( )t
dt F s a + ( ) = = =
t
a f t ( ) f at ( )
a
f at ( )
1
a
-- -F
s
a
--
\ .
| |
=
L f at ( ) { f at ( )
0

}
e
st
dt =
t t a ' =
L f at ( ) { f t ( )
0

}
e
s t a ' ( )
d
t
a
--
\ .
| |
1
a
--- f t ( )
0

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Integrating both sides from to , we obtain
Next, we interchange the order of integration, i.e.,
and performing the inner integration on the right side integral with respect to , we obtain
4.2.9 Time Periodicity Property
The time periodicity property states that a periodic function of time with period corresponds to
the integral divided by in the complex frequency domain. Thus, if we let
be a periodic function with period , that is, , for we obtain
the transform pair
(4.28)
Proof:
The Laplace transform of a periodic function can be expressed as
In the first integral of the right side, we let , in the second , in the third
, and so on. The areas under each period of are equal, and thus the upper and
lower limits of integration are the same for each integral. Then,
(4.29)
Since the function is periodic, i.e., , we can express
(4.29) as
s
F s ( ) s d
s

}
f t ( )
0

}
e
st
dt s d
s

}
=
F s ( ) s d
s

}
e
st
s

}
s d f t ( ) t d
0

}
=
s
F s ( ) s d
s

}
1
t
--- e
st
s

f t ( ) t d
0

}
f t ( )
t
--------e
st
t d
0

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by substitution into (4.37), we obtain
We observe that the bracketed integral is ; therefore,
For easy reference, the Laplace transform pairs and theorems are summarized in Table 4.1.
4.3 Laplace Transform of Common Functions of Time
In this section, we will derive the Laplace transform of common functions of time. They are pre-
sented in Subsections 4.3.1 through 4.3.11 below.
4.3.1 Laplace Transform of the Unit Step Function
We begin with the definition of the Laplace transform, that is,
or
Thus, we have obtained the transform pair
(4.38)
for .
*
4.3.2 Laplace Transform of the Ramp Function
We apply the definition
* This condition was established in relation (4.9), Page 4-2.
L f
1
t ( )f
2
t ( ) {
1
2rj
-------- F
1
o jc
o jc +
}
( )e
t
d f
2
t ( )
0

}
e
st
dt
1
2rj
-------- F
1
o jc
o jc +
}
( ) f
2
t ( )
0

}
e
s ( )t
dt d = =
F
2
s ( )
L f
1
t ( )f
2
t ( ) {
1
2rj
-------- F
1
o jc
o jc +
}
( )F
2
s ( )d
1
2rj
--------F
1
s ( )*F
2
s ( ) = =
u
0
t ( )
L f t ( ) { F s ( ) f t ( )
0

}
e
st
dt = =
L u
0
t ( ) { 1
0

}
e
st
dt
e
st

s
---------
0

0
1
s
-- -
\ .
| |

1
s
-- - = = = =
u
0
t ( )
1
s
--- =
Re s { o 0 > =
u
1
t ( )
L f t ( ) { F s ( ) f t ( )
0

}
e
st
dt = =
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Modeling 4-13
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Laplace Transform of Common Functions of Time
or
TABLE 4.1 Summary of Laplace Transform Properties and Theorems
Property/Theorem Time Domain Complex Frequency Domain
1 Linearity
2 Time Shifting
3 Frequency Shifting
4 Time Scaling
5 Time Differentiation
See also (4.18) through (4.20)
6 Frequency Differentiation
See also (4.22)
7 Time Integration
8 Frequency Integration
9 Time Periodicity
10 Initial Value Theorem
11 Final Value Theorem
12 Time Convolution
13 Frequency Convolution
c
1
f
1
t ( ) c
2
f
2
t ( ) +
+ . c
n
f
n
t ( ) +
c
1
F
1
s ( ) c
2
F
2
s ( ) +
+ . c
n
F
n
s ( ) +
f t a ( )u
0
t a ( )
e
as
F s ( )
e
as
f t ( )
F s a + ( )
f at ( )
1
a
-- -F
s
a
--
\ .
| |
d
dt
----- f t ( )
sF s ( ) f 0
-
( )
tf t ( ) d
ds
----- F s ( )
f t ( )

t
}
dt F s ( )
s
----------
f 0
-
( )
s
------------- +
f t ( )
t
--------
F s ( ) s d
s

}
f t nT + ( )
f t ( )
0
T
}
e
st
dt
1 e
sT

------------------------------
f t ( )
t 0
lim
sF s ( )
s
lim f 0
-
( ) =
f t ( )
t
lim sF s ( )
s 0
lim f ( ) =
f
1
t ( )*f
2
t ( ) F
1
s ( )F
2
s ( )
f
1
t ( )f
2
t ( ) 1
2rj
-------- F
1
s ( )*F
2
s ( )
L u
1
t ( ) { L t { t
0

}
e
st
dt = =
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
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We will perform integration by parts by recalling that
(4.39)
We let
then,
By substitution into (4.39),
(4.40)
Since the upper limit of integration in (4.40) produces an indeterminate form, we apply L Hpi-
tals rule
*
, that is,
Evaluating the second term of (4.40), we obtain
Thus, we have obtained the transform pair
(4.41)
for .
4.3.3 Laplace Transform of
Before deriving the Laplace transform of this function, we digress to review the gamma or general-
* Often, the ratio of two functions, such as , for some value of x, say a, results in an indeterminate form. To work
around this problem, we consider the limit , and we wish to find this limit, if it exists. To find this limit, we use
LHpitals rule which states that if , and if the limit as x approaches a exists, then,
u v d
}
uv v u d
}
=
u t and dv e
st
= =
du 1 and v
e
st

s
----------- = =
L t {
t e
st
s
-------------
0

e
st

s
-----------
0

}
dt
t e
st
s
-------------
e
st
s
2
--------
0

= =
f x ( )
g x ( )
-----------
f x ( )
g x ( )
-----------
x a
lim
f a ( ) g a ( ) 0 = =
d
dx
------f x ( )
d
dx
------g x ( ) '
f x ( )
g x ( )
-----------
x a
lim
d
dx
------f x ( )
d
dx
------g x ( ) '
\ .
| |
x a
lim =
te
st
t
lim
t
e
st
------
t
lim
t d
d
t ( )
t d
d
e
st
( )
----------------
t
lim
1
se
st
--------
t
lim 0 = = = =
L t {
1
s
2
---- =
t
1
s
2
---- =
o 0 >
t
n
u
0
t ( )
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Laplace Transform of Common Functions of Time
ized factorial function which is an improper integral
*
but converges (approaches a limit) for
all . It is defined as
(4.42)
We will now derive the basic properties of the gamma function, and its relation to the well
known factorial function
The integral of (4.42) can be evaluated by performing integration by parts. Thus, in (4.42) we let
Then,
and (4.42) is written as
(4.43)
With the condition that , the first term on the right side of (4.43) vanishes at the lower
limit . It also vanishes at the upper limit as . This can be proved with L Hpitals
rule by differentiating both numerator and denominator times, where . Then,
Therefore, (4.43) reduces to
and with (4.42), we have
* Improper integrals are two types and these are:
a. where the limits of integration a or b or both are infinite
b. where f(x) becomes infinite at a value x between the lower and upper limits of integration inclusive.
I n ( )
f x ( ) x d
a
b
}
f x ( ) x d
a
b
}
n 0 >
I n ( ) x
n 1
e
x
x d
0

}
=
n! n n 1 ( ) n 2 ( ) 3 2 1 =
u e
x
and dv x
n 1
= =
du e
x
dx and v
x
n
n
----- = =
I n ( )
x
n
e
x
n
-------------
x 0 =

1
n
-- - x
n
e
x
x d
0

}
+ =
n 0 >
x 0 = x
m m n
x
n
e
x
n
-------------
x
lim
x
n
ne
x
--------
x
lim
x
m
m
d
d
x
n
x
m
m
d
d
ne
x
--------------------
x
lim
x
m 1
m 1
d
d
nx
n 1
x
m 1
m 1
d
d
ne
x
------------------------------------
x
lim . = = = =
n n 1 ( ) n 2 ( ). n m 1 + ( )x
n m
ne
x
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
x
lim
n 1 ( ) n 2 ( ). n m 1 + ( )
x
m n
e
x
--------------------------------------------------------------------
x
lim 0 = = =
I n ( )
1
n
-- - x
n
e
x
x d
0

}
=
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
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(4.44)
By comparing the integrals in (4.44), we observe that
(4.45)
or
(4.46)
It is convenient to use (4.45) for , and (4.46) for . From (4.45), we see that
becomes infinite as .
For , (4.42) yields
(4.47)
and thus we have obtained the important relation,
(4.48)
From the recurring relation of (4.46), we obtain
(4.49)
and in general
(4.50)
for
The formula of (4.50) is a noteworthy relation; it establishes the relationship between the
function and the factorial
We now return to the problem of finding the Laplace transform pair for , that is,
(4.51)
To make this integral resemble the integral of the gamma function, we let , or ,
and thus . Now, we rewrite (4.51) as
I n ( ) x
n 1
e
x
x d
0

}
1
n
--- x
n
e
x
x d
0

}
= =
I n ( )
I n 1 + ( )
n
--------------------- =
nI n ( ) I n 1 + ( ) =
n 0 < n 0 > I n ( )
n 0
n 1 =
I 1 ( ) e
x
x d
0

}
e
x
0

1 = = =
I 1 ( ) 1 =
I 2 ( ) 1 I 1 ( ) 1 = =
I 3 ( ) 2 I 2 ( ) 2 1 2! = = =
I 4 ( ) 3 I 3 ( ) 3 2 3! = = =
I n 1 + ( ) n! =
n 1 2 3 . , , , =
I n ( )
n!
t
n
u
0
t
L t
n
u
0
t { t
n
0

}
e
st
dt =
st y = t y s ' =
dt dy s ' =
L t
n
u
0
t {
y
s
-- -
\ .
| |
n
0

}
e
y
d
y
s
---
\ .
| |
1
s
n 1 +
----------- y
n
0

}
e
y
dy
I n 1 + ( )
s
n 1 +
--------------------
n!
s
n 1 +
----------- = = = =
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Laplace Transform of Common Functions of Time
Therefore, we have obtained the transform pair
(4.52)
for positive integers of and .
4.3.4 Laplace Transform of the Delta Function
We apply the definition
and using the sifting property of the delta function,
*
we obtain
Thus, we have the transform pair
(4.53)
for all .
4.3.5 Laplace Transform of the Delayed Delta Function
We apply the definition
and again, using the sifting property of the delta function, we obtain
Thus, we have the transform pair
(4.54)
for .
* The sifting property of the is described in Subsection 3.4.2, Chapter 3.
t
n
u
0
t ( )
n!
s
n 1 +
----------- =
n o 0 >
o t ( )
L o t ( ) { o t ( )
0

}
e
st
dt =
o t ( )
L o t ( ) { o t ( )
0

}
e
st
dt e
s 0 ( )
1 = = =
o t ( ) 1 =
o
o t a ( )
L o t a ( ) { o t a ( )
0

}
e
st
dt =
L o t a ( ) { o t a ( )
0

}
e
st
dt e
as
= =
o t a ( ) e
as
=
o 0 >
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
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4.3.6 Laplace Transform of
We apply the definition
Thus, we have the transform pair
(4.55)
for .
4.3.7 Laplace Transform of
For this derivation, we will use the transform pair of (4.52), i.e.,
(4.56)
and the frequency shifting property of (4.14), that is,
(4.57)
Then, replacing with in (4.56), we obtain the transform pair
(4.58)
where is a positive integer, and . Thus, for , we obtain the transform pair
(4.59)
for .
For , we obtain the transform
(4.60)
and in general,
(4.61)
for .
e
a t
u
0
t ( )
L e
at
u
0
t ( ) { e
at
0

}
e
st
dt e
s a + ( )t
0

}
dt =
1
s a +
-----------
\ .
| |
e
s a + ( )t
0

1
s a +
----------- = = =
e
at
u
0
t ( )
1
s a +
----------- =
o a >
t
n
e
a t
u
0
t ( )
t
n
u
0
t ( )
n!
s
n 1 +
----------- =
e
at
f t ( ) F s a + ( ) =
s s a +
t
n
e
at
u
0
t ( )
n!
s a + ( )
n 1 +
------------------------- =
n o a > n 1 =
te
at
u
0
t ( )
1
s a + ( )
2
------------------ =
o a >
n 2 =
t
2
e
at
u
0
t ( )
2!
s a + ( )
3
------------------ =
t
n
e
at
u
0
t ( )
n!
s a + ( )
n 1 +
------------------------- =
o a >
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Laplace Transform of Common Functions of Time
4.3.8 Laplace Transform of
We apply the definition
and from tables of integrals
*
Then,
Thus, we have obtained the transform pair
(4.62)
for .
4.3.9 Laplace Transform of
We apply the definition
and from tables of integrals

Then,
* This can also be derived from , and the use of (4.55) where . By the linear-
ity property, the sum of these terms corresponds to the sum of their Laplace transforms. Therefore,
ct u
0
sin t ( )
L ct u
0
sin t ( ) { ct sin ( )
0

}
e
st
dt ct sin ( )
0
a
}
e
st
dt
a
lim = =
ct sin
1
j2
----- e
jct
e
jct
( ) = e
at
u
0
t ( )
1
s a +
----------- =
L ctu
0
sin t ( ) [ ]
1
j2
---- -
1
s jc
--------------
1
s jc +
--------------
\ .
| |
c
s
2
c
2
+
----------------- = =
e
ax
bx sin
}
dx
e
ax
a bx sin b bx cos ( )
a
2
b
2
+
------------------------------------------------------ =
L ct u
0
sin t ( ) {
e
st
s ct sin c ct cos ( )
s
2
c
2
+
-----------------------------------------------------------
0
a
a
lim =
e
as
s ca sin c ca cos ( )
s
2
c
2
+
--------------------------------------------------------------
c
s
2
c
2
+
----------------- +
a
lim
c
s
2
c
2
+
----------------- = =
ct u
0
t sin
c
s
2
c
2
+
----------------- =
o 0 >
c cos t u
0
t ( )
L c cos t u
0
t ( ) { ct cos ( )
0

}
e
st
dt ct cos ( )
0
a
}
e
st
dt
a
lim = =
e
ax
bx cos
}
dx
e
ax
bx acos b bx sin + ( )
a
2
b
2
+
------------------------------------------------------ =
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
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(4.71)
4.5 Using MATLAB for Finding the Laplace Transforms of Time Functions
We can use the MATLAB function laplace to find the Laplace transform of a time function. For
examples, please type
help laplace
in MATLABs Command prompt.
We will be using this function extensively in the subsequent chapters of this book.
* This waveform was produced with the following MATLAB script:
t=0:pi/64:5*pi; x=sin(t); y=sin(t-2*pi); z=sin(t-4*pi); plot(t,x,t,y,t,z); axis([0 5*pi 0 1])
L f
HW
t ( ) {
1
1 e
2rs

--------------------- f t ( )
0
2r
}
e
st
dt
1
1 e
2rs

--------------------- t sin
0
r
}
e
st
dt = =
1
1 e
2rs

---------------------
e
st
s t t cos sin ( )
s
2
1 +
------------------------------------------
0
r
1
s
2
1 + ( )
------------------
1 e
rs
+ ( )
1 e
2rs
( )
-------------------------- = =
L f
HW
t ( ) {
1
s
2
1 + ( )
------------------
1 e
rs
+ ( )
1 e
rs
+ ( ) 1 e
rs
( )
----------------------------------------------- =
f
HW
t ( )
1
s
2
1 + ( ) 1 e
rs
( )
------------------------------------------ =
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Summary
4.6 Summary
- The two-sided or bilateral Laplace Transform pair is defined as

where denotes the Laplace transform of the time function , denotes
the Inverse Laplace transform, and is a complex variable whose real part is , and imagi-
nary part , that is, .
- The unilateral or one-sided Laplace transform defined as
- We denote transformation from the time domain to the complex frequency domain, and vice
versa, as
- The linearity property states that
- The time shifting property states that
- The frequency shifting property states that
- The scaling property states that
- The differentiation in time domain property states that
Also,
L f t ( ) { F s ( ) = f t ( )

}
e
st
dt =
L
1
F s ( ) { f t ( ) =
1
2rj
-------- F s ( )
o jc
o jc +
}
e
st
ds =
L f t ( ) { f t ( ) L
1
F s ( ) {
s o
c s o jc + =
L f t ( ) { F = s ( ) f t ( )
t
0

}
e
st
dt f t ( )
0

}
e
st
dt = =
f t ( ) F s ( ) =
c
1
f
1
t ( ) c
2
f
2
t ( ) . c
n
f
n
t ( ) + + + c
1
F
1
s ( ) c
2
F
2
s ( ) . c
n
F
n
s ( ) + + + =
f t a ( )u
0
t a ( ) e
as
F s ( ) =
e
at
f t ( ) F s a + ( ) =
f at ( )
1
a
-- -F
s
a
--
\ .
| |
=
f

' t ( )
d
dt
----- f t ( ) = sF s ( ) f 0
-
( ) =
d
2
dt
2
-------- f t ( ) s
2
F s ( ) sf 0
-
( ) f

' 0
-
( ) =
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
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and in general
where the terms , and so on, represent the initial conditions.
- The differentiation in complex frequency domain property states that
and in general,
- The integration in time domain property states that
- The integration in complex frequency domain property states that
provided that the limit exists.
- The time periodicity property states that
- The initial value theorem states that
- The final value theorem states that
d
3
dt
3
-------- f t ( ) s
3
F s ( ) s
2
f 0
-
( ) sf

' 0
-
( ) f

'' 0
-
( ) =
d
n
dt
n
-------- f t ( ) s
n
F s ( ) s
n 1
f 0
-
( ) s
n 2
f

' 0
-
( ) . f
n 1
0
-
( ) =
f 0
-
( ) f

' 0
-
( ) f

'' 0
-
( ) , ,
tf t ( )
d
ds
----- F s ( ) =
t
n
f t ( ) 1 ( )
n d
n
ds
n
--------F s ( ) =
f t ( )

t
}
dt
F s ( )
s
----------
f 0
-
( )
s
------------- + =
f t ( )
t
-------- F s ( ) s d
s

}
=
f t ( )
t
--------
t 0
lim
f t nT + ( )
f t ( )
0
T
}
e
st
dt
1 e
sT

------------------------------ =
f t ( )
t 0
lim sF s ( )
s
lim f 0
-
( ) = =
f t ( )
t
lim sF s ( )
s 0
lim f ( ) = =
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Copyright Orchard Publications
Summary
- Convolution in the time domain corresponds to multiplication in the complex frequency
domain, that is,
- Convolution in the complex frequency domain divided by , corresponds to multiplica-
tion in the time domain. That is,
- The Laplace transforms of some common functions of time are shown in Table 4.1, Page 4-13
- The Laplace transforms of some common waveforms are shown in Table 4.2, Page 4-22
- We can use the MATLAB function laplace to find the Laplace transform of a time function
f
1
t ( )*f
2
t ( ) F
1
s ( )F
2
s ( ) =
1 2rj '
f
1
t ( )f
2
t ( )
1
2rj
-------- F
1
s ( )*F
2
s ( ) =
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
4-30 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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4.7 Exercises
1. Derive the Laplace transform of the following time domain functions:
a. b. c. d. e.
2. Derive the Laplace transform of the following time domain functions:
a. b. c. d. e.
3. Derive the Laplace transform of the following time domain functions:
a. b.
c. d.
e. Be careful with this! Comment and you may skip derivation.
4. Derive the Laplace transform of the following time domain functions:
a. b. c.
d. e.
5. Derive the Laplace transform of the following time domain functions:
a. b. c.
d. e.
6. Derive the Laplace transform of the following time domain functions:
a. b. c. d. e.
7. Derive the Laplace transform of the following time domain functions:
a. b. c. d. e.
12 6u
0
t ( ) 24u
0
t 12 ( ) 5tu
0
t ( ) 4t
5
u
0
t ( )
j8 j5 90 Z 5e
5t
u
0
t ( ) 8t
7
e
5t
u
0
t ( ) 15o t 4 ( )
t
3
3t
2
4t 3 + + + ( )u
0
t ( ) 3 2t 3 ( )o t 3 ( )
3 5t sin ( )u
0
t ( ) 5 3t cos ( )u
0
t ( )
2 4t tan ( )u
0
t ( )
3t 5t sin ( )u
0
t ( ) 2t
2
3t cos ( )u
0
t ( ) 2e
5t
5t sin
8e
3t
4t cos t cos ( )o t r 4 ' ( )
5tu
0
t 3 ( ) 2t
2
5t 4 + ( )u
0
t 3 ( ) t 3 ( )e
2t
u
0
t 2 ( )
2t 4 ( )e
2 t 2 ( )
u
0
t 3 ( ) 4te
3t
2t cos ( )u
0
t ( )
t d
d
3t sin ( )
t d
d
3e
4t
( )
t d
d
t
2
2t cos ( )
t d
d
e
2t
2t sin ( )
t d
d
t
2
e
2t
( )
t sin
t
---------
t sin
t
---------- t d
0
t
}
at sin
t
------------
t cos
t
----------- t d
t

}
e
t
t
------- t d
t

}
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Modeling 4-31
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Exercises
8. Derive the Laplace transform for the sawtooth waveform below.
9. Derive the Laplace transform for the full-rectified waveform below.
Write a simple MATLAB script that will produce the waveform above.
f
ST
t ( )
A
a 2a
t
f
ST
t ( )
3a
f
FR
t ( )
f
FR
t ( )
r
2r 3r 4r
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
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Modeling
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4.8 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
1. From the definition of the Laplace transform or from Table 4.2, Page 4-22, we obtain:
a. b. c. d. e.
2. From the definition of the Laplace transform or from Table 4.2, Page 4-22, we obtain:
a. b. c. d. e.
3.
a. From Table 4.2, Page 4-22, and the linearity property, we obtain
b. and
c. d. e.
This answer for part (e) looks suspicious because and the Laplace transform is
unilateral, that is, there is one-to-one correspondence between the time domain and the com-
plex frequency domain. The fallacy with this procedure is that we assumed that if
and , we cannot conclude that . For this exercise
, and as weve learned, multiplication in the time domain corre-
sponds to convolution in the complex frequency domain. Accordingly, we must use the
Laplace transform definition and this requires integration by parts. We skip
this analytical derivation. The interested reader may try to find the answer with the MATLAB
script
syms s t; 2*laplace(sin(4*t)/cos(4*t))
4. From (4.22), Page 4-6,
a.
12 s ' 6 s ' e
12s 24
s
------ 5 s
2
' 4
5!
s
6
-----
j8 s ' 5 s '
5
s 5 +
----------- 8
7!
s 5 + ( )
8
------------------ 15e
4s
3!
s
4
-----
3 2!
s
3
--------------
4
s
2
----
3
s
-- - + + +
3 2t 3 ( )o t 3 ( ) 3 2t 3 ( )
t 3 =
o t 3 ( ) 9o t 3 ( ) = = 9o t 3 ( ) 9e
3s
=
3
5
s
2
5
2
+
---------------- 5
s
s
2
3
2
+
---------------- 2 4t tan 2
4t sin
4t cos
------------- 2
4 s
2
2
2
+ ( ) '
s s
2
2
2
+ ( ) '
----------------------------
8
s
--- = = =
8 s ' 8u
0
t ( ) =
f
1
t ( ) F
1
s ( ) = f
2
t ( ) F
2
s ( ) =
f
1
t ( )
f
2
t ( )
-----------
F
1
s ( )
F
2
s ( )
------------- =
f
1
t ( ) f
2
t ( ) 4t
1
4t cos
------------- sin =
2 4t tan ( )e
st
t d
0

}
t
n
f t ( ) 1 ( )
n d
n
ds
n
--------F s ( ) =
3 1 ( )
1 d
ds
-----
5
s
2
5
2
+
----------------
\ .
| |
3
5 2s ( )
s
2
25 + ( )
2
------------------------
30s
s
2
25 + ( )
2
------------------------ = =
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Modeling 4-33
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Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
b.
c.
d.
e.
and
5.
a.
b.
c.
d.
2 1 ( )
2 d
2
ds
2
--------
s
s
2
3
2
+
----------------
\ .
| |
2
d
ds
-----
s
2
3
2
s 2s ( ) +
s
2
9 + ( )
2
----------------------------------- 2
d
ds
-----
s
2
9 +
s
2
9 + ( )
2
---------------------
\ .
|
| |
= =
2
s
2
9 + ( )
2
2s ( ) 2 s
2
9 + ( ) 2s ( ) s
2
9 + ( )
s
2
9 + ( )
4
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
2
s
2
9 + ( ) 2s ( ) 4s s
2
9 + ( )
s
2
9 + ( )
3
-------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
2s
3
18s 4s
3
36s +
s
2
9 + ( )
3
-------------------------------------------------------- = =
2
2s
3
54s
s
2
9 + ( )
3
---------------------- 2
2s s
2
27 ( )
s
2
9 + ( )
3
---------------------------
4s s
2
27 ( )
s
2
9 + ( )
3
--------------------------- = = =
2 5
s 5 + ( )
2
5
2
+
------------------------------
10
s 5 + ( )
2
25 +
------------------------------- =
8 s 3 + ( )
s 3 + ( )
2
4
2
+
------------------------------
8 s 3 + ( )
s 3 + ( )
2
16 +
------------------------------- =
t
r 4 '
o cos t r 4 ' ( ) 2 2 ' ( )o t r 4 ' ( ) = 2 2 ' ( )o t r 4 ' ( ) 2 2 ' ( )e
r 4 ' ( )s
=
5tu
0
t 3 ( ) 5 t 3 ( ) 15 + [ ]u
0
t 3 ( ) e
3s 5
s
2
----
15
s
------ +
\ .
| |
5
s
---e
3s 1
s
-- - 3 +
\ .
| |
= = =
2t
2
5t 4 + ( )u
0
t 3 ( ) 2 t 3 ( )
2
12t 18 5t 4 + + [ ]u
0
t 3 ( ) =
2 t 3 ( )
2
7t 14 + [ ]u
0
t 3 ( ) =
2 t 3 ( )
2
7 t 3 ( ) 21 14 + + [ ]u
0
t 3 ( ) =
2 t 3 ( )
2
7 t 3 ( ) 7 + + [ ]u
0
t 3 ( ) e
3s 2 2!
s
3
--------------
7
s
2
----
7
s
-- - + +
\ .
| |
= =
t 3 ( )e
2t
u
0
t 2 ( ) t 2 ( ) 1 [ ]e
2 t 2 ( )
e
4
u
0
t 2 ( ) =
e
4
e
2s 1
s 2 + ( )
2
------------------
1
s 2 + ( )
---------------- e
4
e
2s s 1 + ( )
s 2 + ( )
2
------------------- = =
2t 4 ( )e
2 t 2 ( )
u
0
t 3 ( ) 2 t 3 ( ) 6 4 + [ ]e
2 t 3 ( )
e
2
u
0
t 3 ( ) =
e
2
e
3s 2
s 3 + ( )
2
------------------
2
s 3 + ( )
---------------- + 2e
2
e
3s s 4 +
s 3 + ( )
2
------------------ = =
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
4-34 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
e.
6.
a.
b.
c.
Thus,
and
d.
4te
3t
2t cos ( )u
0
t ( ) 4 1 ( )
1 d
ds
-----
s 3 +
s 3 + ( )
2
2
2
+
------------------------------ 4
d
ds
-----
s 3 +
s
2
6s 9 4 + + +
----------------------------------- = =
4
d
ds
-----
s 3 +
s
2
6s 13 + +
----------------------------- 4
s
2
6s 13 s 3 + ( ) 2s 6 + ( ) + +
s
2
6s 13 + + ( )
2
------------------------------------------------------------------------ = =
4
s
2
6s 13 2s
2
6s 6s 18 + +
s
2
6s 13 + + ( )
2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4 s
2
6s 5 + + ( )
s
2
6s 13 + + ( )
2
------------------------------------ = =
3t
3
s
2
3
2
+
---------------- = sin
d
dt
-----f t ( ) sF s ( ) f 0
-
( ) = f 0
-
( ) 3t sin
t 0 =
0 = =
t d
d
3t sin ( ) s
3
s
2
3
2
+
---------------- 0
3s
s
2
9 +
-------------- = =
3e
4t 3
s 4 +
----------- =
d
dt
-----f t ( ) sF s ( ) f 0
-
( ) = f 0
-
( ) 3e
4t
t 0 =
3 = =
t d
d
3e
4t
( ) s
3
s 4 +
----------- 3
3s
s 4 +
-----------
3 s 4 + ( )
s 4 +
-------------------
12
s 4 +
----------- = = =
2t cos
s
s
2
2
2
+
---------------- = t
2
2t cos 1 ( )
2 d
2
ds
2
--------
s
s
2
4 +
-------------- =
d
ds
-----
s
2
4 s 2s ( ) +
s
2
4 + ( )
2
---------------------------------
d
ds
-----
s
2
4 +
s
2
4 + ( )
2
---------------------
s
2
4 + ( )
2
2s ( ) s
2
4 + ( ) s
2
4 + ( )2 2s ( )
s
2
4 + ( )
4
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = =
s
2
4 + ( ) 2s ( ) s
2
4 + ( ) 4s ( )
s
2
4 + ( )
3
------------------------------------------------------------------------
2s
3
8s 4s
3
16s +
s
2
4 + ( )
3
-----------------------------------------------------
2s s
2
12 ( )
s
2
4 + ( )
3
--------------------------- = = =
t
2
2t cos
2s s
2
12 ( )
s
2
4 + ( )
3
--------------------------- =
t d
d
t
2
2t cos ( ) sF s ( ) f 0
-
( ) s
2s s
2
12 ( )
s
2
4 + ( )
3
--------------------------- 0
2s
2
s
2
12 ( )
s
2
4 + ( )
3
------------------------------ = = =
2 sin t
2
s
2
2
2
+
---------------- = e
2t
2t sin
2
s 2 + ( )
2
4 +
---------------------------- =
d
dt
-----f t ( ) sF s ( ) f 0
-
( ) =
t d
d
e
2t
2t sin ( ) s
2
s 2 + ( )
2
4 +
---------------------------- 0
2s
s 2 + ( )
2
4 +
---------------------------- = =
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Modeling 4-35
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
e.
7.
a.
but to find we must first show that the limit exists. Since
, this condition is satisfied and thus . From tables of inte-
grals, . Then, and the constant of
integration is evaluated from the final value theorem. Thus,
and
b.
From (a) above, and since , it follows that
c.
From (a) above and since , it follows that
or
d.
, , and from tables of integrals,
. Then, and the constant of inte-
gration is evaluated from the final value theorem. Thus,
and using we
t
2 2!
s
3
----- = t
2
e
2t
2!
s 2 + ( )
3
------------------ =
d
dt
-----f t ( ) sF s ( ) f 0
-
( ) =
t d
d
t
2
e
2t
( ) s
2!
s 2 + ( )
3
------------------ 0
2s
s 2 + ( )
3
------------------ = =
t sin
1
s
2
1 +
-------------- = L
t sin
t
---------
)
`

t sin
t
---------
t 0
lim
x sin
x
----------
x 0
lim 1 =
t sin
t
---------
1
s
2
1 +
-------------- s d
s

}
=
1
x
2
a
2
+
---------------- x d
}
1
a
-- - x a ' ( )
1
tan C + =
1
s
2
1 +
-------------- s d
}
1 s ' ( )
1
tan = C +
C
f t ( )
t
lim sF s ( )
s 0
lim s 1 s ' ( )
1
tan C + [ ]
s 0
lim 0 = = =
t sin
t
--------- 1 s ' ( )
1
tan =
t sin
t
--------- 1 s ' ( )
1
tan = f t ( )

t
}
dt
F s ( )
s
----------
f 0
-
( )
s
------------- + =
t sin
t
----------
0
t
}
dt
1
s
--- 1 s ' ( )
1
tan =
t sin
t
--------- 1 s ' ( )
1
tan = f at ( )
1
a
-- -F
s
a
--
\ .
| |
=
at sin
at
------------
1
a
---
1 s '
a
---------
\ .
| |
1
tan =
at sin
t
------------ a s ' ( )
1
tan =
t cos
s
s
2
1 +
-------------- =
t cos
t
----------
s
s
2
1 +
-------------- s d
s

}
=
x
x
2
a
2
+
---------------- x d
}
1
2
-- - x
2
a
2
+ ( ) ln C + =
s
s
2
1 +
-------------- s d
}
1
2
-- - s
2
1 + ( ) ln C + =
C
f t ( )
t
lim sF s ( )
s 0
lim s
1
2
-- - s
2
1 + ( ) ln C +
s 0
lim 0 = = = f t ( )

t
}
dt
F s ( )
s
----------
f 0
-
( )
s
------------- + =
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
4-36 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
obtain
e.
, , and from tables of integrals . Then,
and the constant of integration is evaluated from the final value
theorem. Thus,
and using , we obtain
8.
This is a periodic waveform with period , and its Laplace transform is
(1)
and from (4.41), Page 4-14, and limits of integration to , we obtain
Adding and subtracting in the last expression above, we obtain
t cos
t
----------- t d
t

}
1
2s
----- s
2
1 + ( ) ln =
e
t 1
s 1 +
----------- =
e
t
t
------
1
s 1 +
----------- s d
s

}
=
1
ax b +
--------------- x d
}
1
2
-- - ax b + ( ) ln =
1
s 1 +
----------- s d
}
s 1 + ( ) ln C + = C
f t ( )
t
lim sF s ( )
s 0
lim s s 1 + ( ) ln C + [ ]
s 0
lim 0 = = =
f t ( )

t
}
dt
F s ( )
s
----------
f 0
-
( )
s
------------- + =
e
t
t
------- t d
t

}
1
s
--- s 1 + ( ) ln =
A
a 2a
t
f
ST
t ( )
3a
A
a
----t
T a =
F s ( )
1
1 e
as

------------------
A
a
----te
st
t d
0
a
}
A
a 1 e
as
( )
-------------------------- te
st
t d
0
a
}
= =
0 a
L t {
0
a
te
st
t d
0
a
}
te
st
s
----------
e
st
s
2
--------
0
a
te
st
s
----------
e
st
s
2
-------- +
a
0
= = =
1
s
2
----
ae
as
s
------------
e
as
s
2
---------
1
s
2
---- 1 1 as + ( )e
as
[ ] = =
as
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Modeling 4-37
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
By substitution into (1) we obtain
9.
This is a periodic waveform with period and its Laplace transform is
From tables of integrals,
Then,
The full-rectified waveform can be produced with the MATLAB script below.
t=0:pi/16:4*pi; x=sin(t); plot(t,abs(x)); axis([0 4*pi 0 1])
The full-rectified waveform can also be produced with the Simulink model below. The Sine
Wave, Abs, and Reshape blocks are in the Math Operations library, the MATLAB Func-
tion block is in the User-Defined Functions library, and the Scope and Display blocks are
found in the Sinks library.
L t {
0
a 1
s
2
---- 1 as + ( ) 1 as + ( )e
as
as [ ]
1
s
2
---- 1 as + ( ) 1 e
as
( ) as [ ] = =
F s ( )
A
a 1 e
as
( )
--------------------------
1
s
2
---- 1 as + ( ) 1 e
as
( ) as [ ]
A
as
2
1 e
as
( )
------------------------------- 1 as + ( ) 1 e
as
( ) as [ ] = =
A 1 as + ( )
as
2
------------------------
Aa
as 1 e
as
( )
----------------------------
A
as
-----
1 as + ( )
s
-------------------
a
1 e
as
( )
----------------------- = =
T a r = =
F s ( )
1
1 e
sT

------------------ f t ( )e
st
t d
0
T
}
1
1 e
rs
( )
----------------------- te
st
sin t d
0
r
}
= =
bxe
ax
sin x d
}
e
ax
bx b bx cos asin ( )
a
2
b
2
+
------------------------------------------------------ =
F s ( )
1
1 e
rs

------------------
e
st
s t sin t cos ( )
s
2
1 +
------------------------------------------
0
r

1
1 e
rs

------------------
1 e
rs
+
s
2
1 +
------------------- = =
1
s
2
1 +
--------------
1 e
rs
+
1 e
rs

-------------------
1
s
2
1 +
--------------
rs
2
-----
\ .
| |
coth = =
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Chapter 4 The Laplace Transformation
4-38 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Before simulation execution, the following script must be entered at the MATLAB command
prompt:
x=[0 pi/6 pi/3 pi/2 2*pi/3 5*pi/6 pi]; string1='abs(sin(x))';
The Scope block displays the waveform shown below.
We can use MATLAB polyfit(x,y,n) and polyval(p,x) functions to find a suitable polynomial
*
that approximates the full-rectifier waveform.
* For an example with a step-by-step procedure, please refer to Numerical Analysis Using MATLAB and
Excel, ISBN 978-1-934404-03-4, Chapter 8, Example 8.8.
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 5-1
Copyright Orchard Publications
Chapter 5
The Inverse Laplace Transformation
his chapter is a continuation to the Laplace transformation topic of the previous chapter
and presents several methods of finding the Inverse Laplace Transformation. The partial
fraction expansion method is explained thoroughly and it is illustrated with several exam-
ples.
5.1 The Inverse Laplace Transform Integral
The Inverse Laplace Transform Integral was stated in the previous chapter; it is repeated here for
convenience.
(5.1)
This integral is difficult to evaluate because it requires contour integration using complex vari-
ables theory. Fortunately, for most engineering problems we can refer to Tables of Properties, and
Common Laplace transform pairs to lookup the Inverse Laplace transform.
5.2 Partial Fraction Expansion
Quite often the Laplace transform expressions are not in recognizable form, but in most cases
appear in a rational form of , that is,
(5.2)
where and are polynomials, and thus (5.2) can be expressed as
(5.3)
The coefficients and are real numbers for , and if the highest power of
is less than the highest power of , i.e., , is said to be expressed as a proper
rational function. If , is an improper rational function.
In a proper rational function, the roots of in (5.3) are found by setting ; these are
called the zeros of . The roots of , found by setting , are called the poles of .
We assume that in (5.3) is a proper rational function. Then, it is customary and very conve-
nient to make the coefficient of unity; thus, we rewrite as
T
L
1
F s ( ) { f t ( ) =
1
2rj
-------- F s ( )
o jc
o jc +
}
e
st
ds =
s
F s ( )
N s ( )
D s ( )
----------- =
N s ( ) D s ( )
F s ( )
N s ( )
D s ( )
-----------
b
m
s
m
b
m 1
s
m 1
b
m 2
s
m 2
. b
1
s b
0
+ + + + +
a
n
s
n
a
n 1
s
n 1
a
n 2
s
n 2
. a
1
s a
0
+ + + + +
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = =
a
k
b
k
k 1 2 . n , , , = m
N s ( ) n D s ( ) m n < F s ( )
m n F s ( )
N s ( ) N s ( ) 0 =
F s ( ) D s ( ) D s ( ) 0 = F s ( )
F s ( )
s
n
F s ( )

Chapter 5 The Inverse Laplace Transformation
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(5.4)
The zeros and poles of (5.4) can be real and distinct, repeated, complex conjugates, or combina-
tions of real and complex conjugates. However, we are mostly interested in the nature of the
poles, so we will consider each case separately, as indicated in Subsections 5.2.1 through 5.2.3
below.
5.2.1 Distinct Poles
If all the poles of are distinct (different from each another), we can factor the
denominator of in the form
(5.5)
where is distinct from all other poles. Next, using the partial fraction expansion method,
*
we can
express (5.5) as
(5.6)
where are the residues, and are the poles of .
To evaluate the residue , we multiply both sides of (5.6) by ; then, we let , that is,
(5.7)
Example 5.1
Use the partial fraction expansion method to simplify of (5.8) below, and find the time
domain function corresponding to .
(5.8)
* The partial fraction expansion method applies only to proper rational functions. It is used extensively in integration, and in
finding the inverses of the Laplace transform, the Fourier transform, and the z-transform. This method allows us to decom-
pose a rational polynomial into smaller rational polynomials with simpler denominators from which we can easily recognize
their integrals and inverse transformations. This method is also being taught in intermediate algebra and introductory cal-
culus courses.
F s ( )
N s ( )
D s ( )
-----------
1
a
n
----- b
m
s
m
b
m 1
s
m 1
b
m 2
s
m 2
. b
1
s b
0
+ + + + + ( )
s
n
a
n 1
a
n
-----------s
n 1
a
n 2
a
n
-----------s
n 2
.
a
1
a
n
-----s
a
0
a
n
----- + + + + +
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = =
p
1
p
2
p
3
. p
n
, , , , F s ( )
F s ( )
F s ( )
N s ( )
s p
1
( ) s p
2
( ) s p
3
( ) . s p
n
( )
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
p
k
F s ( )
r
1
s p
1
( )
------------------
r
2
s p
2
( )
------------------
r
3
s p
3
( )
------------------ .
r
n
s p
n
( )
------------------ + + + + =
r
1
r
2
r
3
. r
n
, , , , p
1
p
2
p
3
. p
n
, , , , F s ( )
r
k
s p
k
( ) s p
k

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
f t =
2/ 5*e xp( - t ) - 2/ 5*e xp( - 2*t ) *c os ( 2*t ) +3/ 10*e xp( - 2*t ) *s i n( 2*t )
5.2.3 Multiple (Repeated) Poles
In this case, has simple poles, but one of the poles, say , has a multiplicity . For this con-
dition, we express it as
(5.34)
Denoting the residues corresponding to multiple pole as , the partial frac-
tion expansion of (5.34) is expressed as
(5.35)
For the simple poles , we proceed as before, that is, we find the residues from
(5.36)
The residues corresponding to the repeated poles, are found by multiplication
of both sides of (5.35) by . Then,
(5.37)
Next, taking the limit as on both sides of (5.37), we obtain
or
(5.38)
and thus (5.38) yields the residue of the first repeated pole.
F s ( ) p
1
m
F s ( )
N s ( )
s p
1
( )
m
s p
2
( ). s p
n 1
( ) s p
n
( )
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ =
m p
1
r
11
r
12
r
13
. r
1m
, , , ,
F s ( )
r
11
s p
1
( )
m
---------------------
r
12
s p
1
( )
m 1
----------------------------
r
13
s p
1
( )
m 2
---------------------------- .
r
1m
s p
1
( )
------------------ + + + + =
+
r
2
s p
2
( )
------------------
r
3
s p
3
( )
------------------ .
r
n
s p
n
( )
------------------ + + +
p
1
p
2
. p
n
, , ,
r
k
s p
k
( )F s ( )
s p
k

lim s p
k
( )F s ( )
s p
k
=
= =
r
11
r
12
r
13
. r
1m
, , , ,
s p ( )
m
s p
1
( )
m
F s ( ) r
11
s p
1
( )r
12
s p
1
( )
2
r
13
. s p
1
( )
m 1
r
1m
+ + + + =
+ s p
1
( )
m r
2
s p
2
( )
------------------
r
3
s p
3
( )
------------------ .
r
n
s p
n
( )
------------------ + + +
\ .
| |
s p
1

s p
1
( )
m
F s ( )
s p
1

lim r
11
s p
1
( )r
12
s p
1
( )
2
r
13
. s p
1
( )
m 1
r
1m
+ + + [ ]
s p
1

lim + =
+ s p
1
( )
m r
2
s p
2
( )
------------------
r
3
s p
3
( )
------------------ .
r
n
s p
n
( )
------------------ + + +
\ .
| |
s p
1

lim
r
11
s p
1
( )
m
F s ( )
s p
1

lim =
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Modeling 5-9
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Partial Fraction Expansion
The residue for the second repeated pole , is found by differentiating (5.37) with respect to
and again, we let , that is,
(5.39)
In general, the residue can be found from
(5.40)
whose derivative of both sides is
(5.41)
or
(5.42)
Example 5.4
Use the partial fraction expansion method to simplify of (5.43) below, and find the time
domain function corresponding to .
(5.43)
Solution:
We observe that there is a pole of multiplicity 2 at , and thus in partial fraction expansion
form, is written as
(5.44)
The residues are
r
12
p
1
s s p
1

r
12
d
ds
-----
s p
1

lim s p
1
( )
m
F s ( ) [ ] =
r
1k
s p
1
( )
m
F s ( ) r
11
r
12
s p
1
( ) r
13
s p
1
( )
2
. + + + =
m 1 ( )th
k 1 ( )!r
1k
1
k 1 ( )!
------------------
s p
1

\ .
| |
= =
s
2
6s 3 + +
s 3 + ( )
5
--------------------------
s
2
6s 9 6 + +
s 3 + ( )
5
-----------------------------------
s 3 + ( )
2
s 3 + ( )
5
------------------
6
s 3 + ( )
5
------------------
1
s 3 + ( )
3
------------------ 6
1
s 3 + ( )
5
------------------ = = =

1
2!
-----t
2
e
3t 6
4!
-----t
4
e
3t

1
2
-- - t
2
e
3t 1
2
---t
4
e
3t

\ .
| |
= =
3s 4 +
s
2
4s 85 + +
-----------------------------
3 s 4 3 2 3 ' 2 3 ' + ' + ( )
s 2 + ( )
2
81 +
----------------------------------------------------------- 3
s 2 + ( ) 2 3 '
s 2 + ( )
2
9
2
+
-------------------------------- 3
s 2 + ( )
s 2 + ( )
2
9
2
+
------------------------------
1
9
---
2 9
s 2 + ( )
2
9
2
+
------------------------------ = = =
3
s 2 + ( )
s 2 + ( )
2
9
2
+
------------------------------
2
9
-- -
9
s 2 + ( )
2
9
2
+
------------------------------ 3e
2t
9t cos
2
9
-- -e
2t
9t sin = =
4s 5 +
s
2
5s 18.5 + +
---------------------------------
4s 5 +
s
2
5s 6.25 12.25 + + +
-----------------------------------------------------
4s 5 +
s 2.5 + ( )
2
3.5
2
+
--------------------------------------- 4
s 5 4 ' +
s 2.5 + ( )
2
3.5
2
+
--------------------------------------- = = =
4
s 10 4 ' 10 4 ' 5 4 ' + +
s 2.5 + ( )
2
3.5
2
+
--------------------------------------------------------- 4
s 2.5 +
s 2.5 + ( )
2
3.5
2
+
---------------------------------------
1
3.5
-------
5 3.5
s 2.5 + ( )
2
3.5
2
+
--------------------------------------- = =
4
s 2.5 + ( )
s 2.5 + ( )
2
3.5
2
+
---------------------------------------
10
7
------
3.5
s 2.5 + ( )
2
3.5
2
+
--------------------------------------- 4e
2.5t
3.5t cos
10
7
------e
2.5t
3.5t sin = =
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Modeling 5-21
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
d.
e.
3.
a.
b.
c.
s
2
3s 2 + +
s
3
5s
2
10.5s 9 + + +
------------------------------------------------
s 1 + ( ) s 2 + ( )
s 2 + ( ) s
2
3s 4.5 + + ( )
----------------------------------------------------
s 1 + ( )
s
2
3s 4.5 + + ( )
-----------------------------------
s 1 +
s
2
3s 2.25 2.25 4.5 + + +
---------------------------------------------------------------- = = =
s 1.5 1.5 1 + +
s 1.5 + ( )
2
1.5 ( )
2
+
--------------------------------------------
s 1.5 +
s 1.5 + ( )
2
1.5 ( )
2
+
--------------------------------------------
1
1.5
-------
0.5 1.5
s 1.5 + ( )
2
1.5 ( )
2
+
-------------------------------------------- = =
s 1.5 +
s 1.5 + ( )
2
1.5 ( )
2
+
--------------------------------------------
1
3
---
1.5
s 2.5 + ( )
2
3.5
2
+
--------------------------------------- e
1.5t
1.5t cos
1
3
---e
1.5t
1.5t sin = =
s
2
16
s
3
8s
2
24s 32 + + +
----------------------------------------------
s 4 + ( ) s 4 ( )
s 4 + ( ) s
2
4s 8 + + ( )
------------------------------------------------
s 4 ( )
s 2 + ( )
2
2
2
+
------------------------------
s 2 2 4 +
s 2 + ( )
2
2
2
+
------------------------------ = = =
s 2 +
s 2 + ( )
2
2
2
+
------------------------------
1
2
-- -
6 2
s 2 + ( )
2
2
2
+
------------------------------ =
s 2 +
s 2 + ( )
2
2
2
+
------------------------------ 3
2
s 2 + ( )
2
2
2
+
------------------------------ e
2t
2t cos 3e
2t
2t sin = =
s 1 +
s
3
6s
2
11s 6 + + +
-------------------------------------------
s 1 + ( )
s 1 + ( ) s 2 + ( ) s 3 + ( )
--------------------------------------------------
1
s 2 + ( ) s 3 + ( )
--------------------------------- = =
1
s 2 + ( ) s 3 + ( )
---------------------------------
r
1
s 2 +
-----------
r
2
s 3 +
----------- r
1
1
s 3 +
-----------
s 2 =
1 r
2
1
s 2 +
-----------
s 3 =
1 = = = = + = =
1
s 2 + ( ) s 3 + ( )
---------------------------------
1
s 2 +
-----------
1
s 3 +
----------- = e
2t
e
3t
= =
3s 2 +
s
2
25 +
-----------------
3s
s
2
5
2
+
----------------
1
5
---
2 5
s
2
5
2
+
---------------- + 3
s
s
2
5
2
+
----------------
2
5
-- -
5
s
2
5
2
+
---------------- + 3 5t
2
5
-- - 5t sin + cos = = =
5s
2
3 +
s
2
4 + ( )
2
---------------------
5s
2
s
2
2
2
+ ( )
2
-----------------------
3
s
2
2
2
+ ( )
2
----------------------- + 5
1
2 2
------------ 2t 2t 2t cos + sin ( ) 3
1
2 8
------------ 2t 2t 2t cos sin ( ) + = =

5
4
---
3
16
------ +
\ .
| |
2t sin
5
4
-- -
3
16
------
\ .
| |
2t 2t cos +
23
16
------ 2t
17
8
------t 2t cos + sin = =
2s 3 +
s
2
4.25s 1 + +
---------------------------------
2s 3 +
s 4 + ( ) s 1 4 ' + ( )
----------------------------------------
r
1
s 4 +
-----------
r
2
s 1 4 ' +
------------------ + = =
r
1
2s 3 +
s 1 4 ' +
------------------
s 4 =
5
15 4 '
----------------
4
3
-- - r
2
2s 3 +
s 4 +
---------------
s 1 4 ' =
5 2 '
15 4 '
------------- = =
2
3
-- - = = = =
Chapter 5 The Inverse Laplace Transformation
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Modeling 6-3
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Circuit Transformation from Time to Complex Frequency
or
(6.1)
The Laplace transform of (6.1) is
By partial fraction expansion,
Therefore,
Example 6.2
Use the Laplace transform method and apply Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) to find the voltage
across the capacitor for the circuit of Figure 6.6, given that .
Figure 6.6. Circuit for Example 6.2
i
R
i
C
+ 0 =
v
C
t ( ) 12u
0
t ( )
1
------------------------------------- 1
dv
C
dt
--------- + 0 =
dv
C
dt
--------- v
C
t ( ) + 12u
0
t ( ) =
sV
C
s ( ) v
C
0
-
( ) V
C
s ( ) +
12
s
------ =
s 1 + ( )V
C
s ( )
12
s
------ 6 + =
V
C
s ( )
6s 12 +
s s 1 + ( )
------------------- =
V
C
s ( )
6s 12 +
s s 1 + ( )
-------------------
r
1
s
----
r
2
s 1 + ( )
---------------- + = =
r
1
6s 12 +
s 1 + ( )
------------------
s 0 =
12 = =
r
2
6s 12 +
s
------------------
s 1 =
6 = =
V
C
s ( )
12
s
------
6
s 1 +
----------- = 12 6e
t
= 12 6e
t
( )u
0
t ( ) v
C
t ( ) = =
v
C
t ( ) v
C
0
-
( ) 6 V =
C
-
+
+
-
V
1 F
1 O
12u
0
t ( )
v
S
v
C
t ( )
R
Chapter 6 Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms
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Solution:
This is the same circuit as in Example 6.1. We apply KVL for the loop shown in Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7. Application of KVL for the circuit of Example 6.2
and with and , we obtain
(6.2)
Next, taking the Laplace transform of both sides of (6.2), we obtain

or
Check: From Example 6.1,
Then,
(6.3)
The presence of the delta function in (6.3) is a result of the unit step that is applied at .
R
C
-
+
+
-
V
1 F
1 O
12u
0
t ( )
v
S
v
C
t ( )
i
C
t ( )
Ri
C
t ( )
1
C
---- i
C
t ( ) t d

t

+ 12u
0
t ( ) =
R 1 = C 1 =
i
C
t ( ) i
C
t ( ) t d

t

+ 12u
0
t ( ) =
I
C
s ( )
I
C
s ( )
s
------------
v
C
0
-
( )
s
---------------- + +
12
s
------ =
1
1
s
--- +

I
C
s ( )
12
s
------
6
s
---
6
s
--- = =
s 1 +
s
-----------

I
C
s ( )
6
s
-- - =
I
C
s ( )
6
s 1 +
----------- = i
C
t ( ) 6e
t
u
0
t ( ) = =
v
C
t ( ) 12 6e
t
( )u
0
t ( ) =
i
C
t ( ) C
dv
C
dt
---------
dv
C
dt
---------
t d
d
12 6e
t
( )u
0
t ( ) 6e
t
u
0
t ( ) 6o t ( ) + = = = =
t 0 =
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Modeling 6-5
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Circuit Transformation from Time to Complex Frequency
Example 6.3
In the circuit of Figure 6.8, switch closes at , while at the same time, switch opens.
Use the Laplace transform method to find for .
Figure 6.8. Circuit for Example 6.3
Solution:
Since the circuit contains a capacitor and an inductor, we must consider two initial conditions
One is given as . The other initial condition is obtained by observing that there is
an initial current of in inductor ; this is provided by the current source just before
switch opens. Therefore, our second initial condition is .
For , we transform the circuit of Figure 6.8 into its s-domain
*
equivalent shown in Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9. Transformed circuit of Example 6.3
In Figure 6.9 the current in inductor has been replaced by a voltage source of . This is
found from the relation
(6.4)
* Henceforth, for convenience, we will refer the time domain as t-domain and the complex frequency domain as s-domain.
S
1
t 0 = S
2
v
out
t ( ) t 0 >
-
+
C
-
+
1 O
2 A
1 F
2 O 0.5 H
0.5 H
v
C
0
-
( ) 3 V =
t 0 =
t 0 =
i
S
t ( )
v
out
t ( )
i
L1
t ( )
L
2
R
1
R
2
L
1
S
1
S
2
v
C
0
-
( ) 3 V =
2 A L
1
2 A
S
2
i
L1
0
-
( ) 2 A =
t 0 >
-
+
+
-
1
2 0.5s
0.5s
+
-
1/s
3/s
1 V
V
out
s ( )

L
1
1 V
L
1
i
L1
0
-
( )
1
2
--- 2 1 V = =
Chapter 6 Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms
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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
and
Therefore, the initial condition is
For all , the circuit is as shown below.
Then,
3. The circuit is shown below where , , and
Then,
i
T
0
-
( )
72 V
6 KO 60 KO 60 KO

+
-------------------------------------------------------------
72 V
6 KO 30 KO +
--------------------------------------
72 V
36 KO
----------------- = = 2 mA = =
i
2
0
-
( )
1
2
---i
T
0
-
( ) 1 mA = =
v
C
0
-
( ) 20 KO 10 KO + ( ) i
2
0
-
( ) 30 KO ( ) 1 mA ( ) 30 V = = =
t 0 > s domain
+
-
60 KO
30 KO 20 KO
10 KO
1
40 9 ' 10
6
s
----------------------------------
30 s '
+
-
9 10
6

40s
-------------------
30 s '
60 KO 30 KO + ( ) 20 KO 10 KO + ( )

22.5 KO =
V
C
s ( )
V
R
V
R
V
C
s ( ) =
+
-
22.5 KO
V
C
s ( ) V
R
22.5 10
3

9 10
6
40s ' 22.5 10
3
+
-------------------------------------------------------------
30
s
------
30 22.5 10
3

9 10
6
40 ' 22.5 10
3
s +
------------------------------------------------------------- = = =
30 22.5 10
3
( ) 22.5 10
3
( ) '
9 10
6
40 22.5 10
3
( ) ' s +
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
30
9 10
6
90 10
4
' s +
---------------------------------------------------
30
10 s +
-------------- = = =
V
C
s ( )
30
s 10 +
-------------- = 30e
10t
u
0
t ( ) V = v
C
t ( ) =
s domain z
1
2s = z
2
1 1 s ' + = z
3
s 3 + =
+
-
-
+
I
1
s ( )
+
-
I
2
s ( )
2s
1
s
1 s '
1 s '
2 s '
3
z
1
z
3
z
2
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Modeling 6-29
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
and in matrix form
We use the MATLAB script below we obtain the values of the currents.
syms s; z1=2*s; z2=1+1/s; z3=s+3; % Must have Symbolic Math Toolbox installed
Z=[z1+z2 -z2; -z2 z2+z3]; Vs=[1/s -2/s]'; Is=Z\Vs; fprintf(' \n');...
disp('Is1 = '); pretty(Is(1)); disp('Is2 = '); pretty(Is(2))
I s 1 =
2
2 s - 1 + s
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2 3
( 6 s + 3 + 9 s + 2 s )
I s 2 =
2
4 s + s + 1
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2 3
( 6 s + 3 + 9 s + 2 s ) c onj ( s )
Therefore,
(1)
(2)
We use MATLAB to express the denominators of (1) and (2) as a product of a linear and a
quadratic term.
p=[2 9 6 3]; r=roots(p); fprintf(' \n'); disp('root1 ='); disp(r(1));...
disp('root2 ='); disp(r(2)); disp('root3 ='); disp(r(3)); disp('root2 + root3 ='); disp(r(2)+r(3));...
disp('root2 * root3 ='); disp(r(2)*r(3))
r oot 1 =
- 3. 8170
r oot 2 =
- 0. 3415 + 0. 5257i
z
1
z
2
+ ( )I
1
s ( ) z
2
I
2
s ( ) 1 s ' =
z
2
I
1
s ( ) z
2
z
3
+ ( )I
2
s ( ) + 2 s ' =
z
1
z
2
+ ( ) z
2

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Modeling 6-35
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
8.
Network (a):
Let and . For inverting op amps , and
thus
This network is a first-order active low-pass filter.
Network (b):
Let and . For inverting op-amps , and thus
This network is a first-order active high-pass filter.
R
2 R
1
V
in
s ( )
V
out
s ( )
1 Cs '
V
in
s ( )
R
1
1 Cs '
R
2
V
out
s ( )
a ( ) b ( )
z
1
R
1
= z
2
R
2
1 Cs '

R
2
1 Cs '
R
2
1 Cs ' +
-------------------------- = =
V
out
s ( )
V
in
s ( )
------------------
z
2
z
1
----- =
G s ( )
V
out
s ( )
V
in
s ( )
------------------
R
2
1 Cs ' ( ) R
2
1 Cs ' + ( ) ' [ ]
R
1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
R
2
1 Cs ' ( )
R
1
R
2
1 Cs ' + ( )
------------------------------------------
R
1
C
s 1 R
2
C ' +
-------------------------- = = = =
z
1
R
1
1 Cs ' + = z
2
R
2
=
V
out
s ( )
V
in
s ( )
------------------
z
2
z
1
----- =
G s ( )
V
out
s ( )
V
in
s ( )
------------------
R
2

R
1
1 Cs ' +
--------------------------
R
2
R
1
' ( )s
s 1 R
1
C ' +
--------------------------- = = =
Chapter 6 Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms
6-36 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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9.
At Node :
(1)
At Node :
and since , we express the last relation above as
(2)
At Node :
(3)
R
1
R
2
R
3
V
out
s ( )
V
in
s ( )
R
4
R
1
= 11.3 KO
R
2
= 22.6 KO
R
3
=R
4
= 68.1 KO
C
1
=C
2
= 0.01 F
V
3
V
2
V
1
1 C
1
s '
1 C
2
s '
V
1
V
1
s ( )
R
3
--------------
V
1
s ( ) V
out
s ( )
R
4
-------------------------------------- + 0 =
1
R
3
------
1
R
4
------ +

V
1
s ( )
1
R
4
------V
out
s ( ) =
V
3
V
3
s ( ) V
2
s ( )
R
2
----------------------------------
V
3
s ( )
1 C
1
s '
---------------- + 0 =
V
3
s ( ) V
1
s ( ) =
V
1
s ( ) V
2
s ( )
R
2
---------------------------------- C
1
sV
1
s ( ) + 0 =
1
R
2
------ C
1
s +

V
1
s ( )
1
R
2
------V
2
s ( ) =
V
2
V
2
s ( ) V
in
s ( )
R
1
------------------------------------
V
2
s ( ) V
1
s ( )
R
2
----------------------------------
V
2
s ( ) V
out
s ( )
1 C
2
s '
-------------------------------------- + + 0 =
1
R
1
------
1
R
2
------ C
2
s + +

V
2
s ( )
V
in
s ( )
R
1
---------------
V
1
s ( )
R
2
-------------- C
2
sV
out
s ( ) + + =
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Modeling 6-37
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
From (1)
(4)
From (2)
and with (4)
(5)
By substitution of (4) and (5) into (3) we obtain
and thus
By substitution of the given values and after simplification we obtain
We use the MATLAB script below to plot this function.
w=1:10:10000; s=j.*w; Gs=7.83.*10.^7./(s.^2+1.77.*10.^4.*s+5.87.*10.^7);...
semilogx(w,abs(Gs)); xlabel('Radian Frequency w'); ylabel('|Vout/Vin|');...
title('Magnitude Vout/Vin vs. Radian Frequency'); grid
V
1
s ( )
1 R
4
' ( )
R
3
R
4
+ ( ) R
3
R
4
'
-----------------------------------------V
out
s ( )
R
3
R
3
R
4
+ ( )
------------------------V
out
s ( ) = =
V
2
s ( ) R
2
1
R
2
------ C
1
s +

V
1
s ( ) 1 R
2
C
1
s + ( )V
1
s ( ) = =
V
2
s ( )
R
3
1 R
2
C
1
s + ( )
R
3
R
4
+ ( )
------------------------------------V
out
s ( ) =
1
R
1
------
1
R
2
------ C
2
s + +

R
3
1 R
2
C
1
s + ( )
R
3
R
4
+ ( )
------------------------------------V
out
s ( )
V
in
s ( )
R
1
---------------
1
R
2
------
R
3
R
3
R
4
+ ( )
------------------------V
out
s ( ) C
2
sV
out
s ( ) + + =
1
R
1
------
1
R
2
------ C
2
s + +

R
3
1 R
2
C
1
s + ( )
R
3
R
4
+ ( )
------------------------------------
1
R
2
------
R
3
R
3
R
4
+ ( )
------------------------ C
2
s V
out
s ( )
1
R
1
------V
in
s ( ) =
G s ( )
V
out
s ( )
V
in
s ( )
------------------
1
R
1
1
R
1
------
1
R
2
------ C
2
s + +

R
3
1 R
2
C
1
s + ( )
R
3
R
4
+ ( )
------------------------------------
1
R
2
------
R
3
R
3
R
4
+ ( )
------------------------ C
2
s
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = =
G s ( )
7.83 10
7

s
2
1.77 10
4
s 5.87 10
7
+ +
---------------------------------------------------------------------- =
Chapter 6 Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms
6-38 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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The plot above indicates that this circuit is a second-order low-pass filter.
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Radian Frequency w
|
V
o
u
t
/
V
i
n
|
Magnitude Vout/Vin vs. Radian Frequency
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Modeling 7-1
Copyright Orchard Publications
Chapter 7
State Variables and State Equations
his chapter is an introduction to state variables and state equations as they apply in circuit
analysis. The state transition matrix is defined, and the state-space to transfer function
equivalence is presented. Several examples are presented to illustrate their application.
7.1 Expressing Differential Equations in State Equation Form
As we know, when we apply Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) or Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) in
networks that contain energy-storing devices, we obtain integro-differential equations. Also,
when a network contains just one such device (capacitor or inductor), it is said to be a first-order
circuit. If it contains two such devices, it is said to be second-order circuit, and so on. Thus, a first
order linear, time-invariant circuit can be described by a differential equation of the form
(7.1)
A second order circuit can be described by a second-order differential equation of the same form
as (7.1) where the highest order is a second derivative.
An nth-order differential equation can be resolved to first-order simultaneous differential
equations with a set of auxiliary variables called state variables. The resulting first-order differen-
tial equations are called state-space equations, or simply state equations. These equations can be
obtained either from the nth-order differential equation, or directly from the network, provided
that the state variables are chosen appropriately. The state variable method offers the advantage
that it can also be used with non-linear and time-varying devices. However, our discussion will
be limited to linear, time-invariant circuits.
State equations can also be solved with numerical methods such as Taylor series and Runge-
Kutta methods, but these will not be discussed in this text
*
. The state variable method is best
illustrated with several examples presented in this chapter.
Example 7.1
A series circuit with excitation
(7.2)
* These are discussed in Numerical Analysis using MATLAB and Excel, ISBN 978-1-934404-03-4.
T
a
1
dy
dt
------ a
0
y t ( ) + x t ( ) =
n
RLC
v
S
t ( ) e
jct
=

Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
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is described by the integro-differential equation
(7.3)
Differentiating both sides and dividing by we obtain
(7.4)
or
(7.5)
Next, we define two state variables and such that
(7.6)
and
(7.7)
Then,
(7.8)
where denotes the derivative of the state variable . From (7.5) through (7.8), we obtain the
state equations
(7.9)
It is convenient and customary to express the state equations in matrix
*
form. Thus, we write the
state equations of (7.9) as
(7.10)
We usually express (7.10) in a compact form as
(7.11)
where

is any input
* For a review of matrix theory, please refer to Appendix E.
In this text, and in all Orchard Publications texts, the unit step function is denoted as .
Ri L
di
dt
-----
1
C
---- i t d

t
}
+ + e
jct
=
L
d
2
t
dt
2
-------
R
L
----
di
dt
-----
1
LC
-------- i + +
1
L
---jce
jct
=
d
2
t
dt
2
-------
R
L
----
di
dt
-----
1
LC
-------- i
1
L
---jce
jct
+ =
x
1
x
2
x
1
i =
x
2
di
dt
-----
dx
1
dt
-------- x

1
= = =
x

2
d
2
i dt
2
' =
x

k
x
k
x

1
x
2
=
x

2
R
L
---x
2

1
LC
-------x
1

1
L
---jce
jct
+ =
x

1
x

2
0 1
1
LC
-------
R
L
---
x
1
x
2
0
1
L
--- jce
j ct
u + =
x

Ax bu + =
u
u
0
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Modeling 7-3
Copyright Orchard Publications
Expressing Differential Equations in State Equation Form
(7.12)
The output is expressed by the state equation
(7.13)
where is another matrix, and is a column vector.
In general, the state representation of a network can be described by the pair of the of the state-
space equations
(7.14)
The state space equations of (7.14) can be realized with the block diagram of Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1. Block diagram for the realization of the state equations of (7.14)
We will learn how to solve the matrix equations of (7.14) in the subsequent sections.
Example 7.2
A fourth-order network is described by the differential equation
(7.15)
where is the output representing the voltage or current of the network, and is any
input. Express (7.15) as a set of state equations.
Solution:
The differential equation of (7.15) is of fourth-order; therefore, we must define four state vari-
ables which will be used with the resulting four first-order state equations.
x

1
x

2
A
0 1
1
LC
-------
R
L
---
x , = ,
x
1
x
2
b
0
1
L
--- jce
jct
and u , = , any input = = =
y t ( )
y Cx du + =
C d
x

Ax bu + =
y Cx du + =
u b
A
C
d
x
+ +
+ +
y
Z Z
dt
}
x

d
4
y
dt
4
--------- a
3
d
3
y
dt
3
--------- a
2
d
2
y
dt
2
-------- a
1
dy
dt
------ a
0
y t ( ) + + + + u t ( ) =
y t ( ) u t ( )
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
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We denote the state variables as , and , and we relate them to the terms of the given
differential equation as
(7.16)
We observe that
(7.17)
and in matrix form
\ (7.18)
In compact form, (7.18) is written as
(7.19)
where
We can also obtain the state equations directly from given circuits. We choose the state variables
to represent inductor currents and capacitor voltages. In other words, we assign state variables to
energy storing devices. The examples below illustrate the procedure.
Example 7.3
Write state equation(s) for the circuit of Figure 7.2, given that , and is the unit
step function.
x
1
x
2
x
3
, , x
4
x
1
y t ( ) = x
2
dy
dt
------ = x
3
d
2
y
dt
2
--------- = x
4
d
3
y
dt
3
--------- =
x

1
x
2
=
x

2
x
3
=
x

3
x
4
=
d
4
y
dt
4
--------- x

4
a
0
x
1
a
1
x
2
a
2
x
3
a
3
x
4
u t ( ) + = =
x

1
x

2
x

3
x

4
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3

x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
0
0
0
1
u t ( ) + =
x

Ax bu + =
x

1
x

2
x

3
x

4
= A
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3

= x
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
= b
0
0
0
1
and u , = , , , u t ( ) =
v
C
0
-
( ) 0 = u
0
t ( )
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Modeling 7-5
Copyright Orchard Publications
Expressing Differential Equations in State Equation Form
Figure 7.2. Circuit for Example 7.3
Solution:
This circuit contains only one energy-storing device, the capacitor. Therefore, we need only one
state variable. We choose the state variable to denote the voltage across the capacitor as shown
in Figure 7.3. For this example, the output is defined as the voltage across the capacitor.
Figure 7.3. Circuit for Example 7.3 with state variable x assigned to it
For this circuit,
and
By KVL,
or
Therefore, the state equations are
(7.20)
Example 7.4
Write state equation(s) for the circuit of Figure 7.4 assuming , and the output is
defined as .
Figure 7.4. Circuit for Example 7.4
+
-
R
-
+
C
v
S
u
0
t ( )
v
C
t ( ) v
out
t ( ) =
+
-
R
-
+
C
+ -
i
v
S
u
0
t ( )
v
R
t ( )
v
C
t ( ) v
out
t ( ) x = =
i
R
i i
C
C
dv
C
dt
--------- Cx

= = = =
v
R
t ( ) Ri RCx

= =
v
R
t ( ) v
C
t ( ) + v
S
u
0
t ( ) =
RCx

x + v
S
u
0
t ( ) =
x

1
RC
--------
x v
S
u
0
t ( ) + =
y x =
i
L
0
-
( ) 0 = y
y i t ( ) =
+
-
R
L
v
S
u
0
t ( )
i t ( )
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
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Solution:
This circuit contains only one energy-storing device, the inductor; therefore, we need only one
state variable. We choose the state variable to denote the current through the inductor as shown
in Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5. Circuit for Example 7.4 with assigned state variable x
By KVL,
or
or
Therefore, the state equations are
(7.21)
7.2 Solution of Single State Equations
If a circuit contains only one energy-storing device, the state equations are written as
(7.22)
where , , , and are scalar constants, and the initial condition, if non-zero, is denoted as
(7.23)
We will now prove that the solution of the first state equation in (7.22) is
(7.24)
Proof:
First, we must show that (7.24) satisfies the initial condition of (7.23). This is done by substitu-
tion of in (7.24). Then,
+
-
R
L
v
S
u
0
t ( )
i t ( ) x =
v
R
v
L
+ v
S
u
0
t ( ) =
Ri L
di
dt
----- + v
S
u
0
t ( ) =
Rx Lx

+ v
S
u
0
t ( ) =
x

R
L
--- -
x
1
L
---
v
S
u
0
t ( ) + =
y x =
x

ox u + =
y k
1
x k
2
u + =
o k
1
k
2
x
0
x t
0
( ) =
x t ( ) e
o t t
0
( )
x
0
e
ot
e
ot
u t ( ) t d
t
0
t
}
+ =
t t
0
=
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Modeling 7-7
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution of Single State Equations
(7.25)
The first term in the right side of (7.25) reduces to since
(7.26)
The second term of (7.25) is zero since the upper and lower limits of integration are the same.
Therefore, (7.25) reduces to and thus the initial condition is satisfied.
Next, we must prove that (7.24) satisfies also the first equation in (7.22). To prove this, we dif-
ferentiate (7.24) with respect to and we obtain
or
or
(7.27)
We observe that the bracketed terms of (7.27) are the same as the right side of the assumed solu-
tion of (7.24). Therefore,
and this is the same as the first equation of (7.22).
In summary, if and are scalar constants, the solution of
(7.28)
with initial condition
(7.29)
is obtained from the relation
(7.30)
x t
0
( ) e
o t
0
t
0
( )
x
0
e
ot
e
o t
u t ( ) t d
t
0
t
0
}
+ =
x
0
e
o t
0
t
0
( )
x
0
e
0
x
0
x
0
= =
x t
0
( ) x
0
=
t
x

t ( )
d
dt
----- e
o t t
0
( )
x
0
( )
d
dt
----- e
ot
e
ot
u t ( ) t d
t
0
t
}
)
`

+ =
x

t ( ) oe
o t t
0
( )
x
0
oe
ot
e
ot
u t ( ) t e
ot
e
ot
u t ( ) [ ]
t t =
+ d
t
0
t
}
+ =
o e
o t t
0
( )
x
0
e
ot
e
ot
u t ( ) t d
t
0
t
}
+ e
ot
e
ot
u t ( ) + =
x

t ( ) o e
o t t
0
( )
x
0
e
o t t ( )
u t ( ) t d
t
0
t
}
+ u t ( ) + =
x

ox u + =
o
x

ox u + =
x
0
x t
0
( ) =
x t ( ) e
o t t
0
( )
x
0
e
ot
e
o t
u t ( ) t d
t
0
t
}
+ =
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
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Example 7.5
Use (7.28) through (7.30) to find the capacitor voltage of the circuit of Figure 7.6 for ,
given that the initial condition is
Figure 7.6. Circuit for Example 7.5
Solution:
From (7.20) of Example 7.3, Page 7-5,
and by comparison with (7.28),
and
Then, from (7.30),
or
(7.31)
Assuming that the output is the capacitor voltage, the output state equation is
(7.32)
7.3 The State Transition Matrix
In Section 7.1, relation (7.14), we defined the state equations pair
(7.33)
v
C
t ( ) t 0 >
v
C
0
-
( ) 1 V =
+
-
-
+
0.5 F
R
2u
0
t ( )
v
C
t ( )
2 O
C
x

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Modeling 7-13
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Computation of the State Transition Matrix
1. We find the eigenvalues from . We can write at once by sub-
tracting from each of the main diagonal elements of . If the dimension of is a
matrix, it will yield two eigenvalues; if it is a matrix, it will yield three eigenvalues, and
so on. If the eigenvalues are distinct, we perform steps 2 through 4; otherwise we refer to Sub-
section 7.4.2 below.
2. If the dimension of is a matrix, we use only the first 2 terms of the right side of the
state transition matrix
(7.54)
If matrix is a matrix, we use the first 3 terms of (7.54), and so on.
3. We obtain the coefficients from
We use as many equations as the number of the eigenvalues, and we solve for the coefficients
.
4. We substitute the coefficients into the state transition matrix of (7.54), and we simplify.
Example 7.7
Compute the state transition matrix given that
(7.55)
Solution:
1. We first compute the eigenvalues from . We obtain at once, by sub-
tracting from each of the main diagonal elements of . Then,
/ det A /I [ ] 0 = A /I [ ]
/ A A 2 2
3 3
A 2 2
e
At
a
0
I a
1
A a
2
A
2
. a
n 1
A
n 1
+ + + + =
A 3 3
a
i
a
0
a
1
/
1
a
2
/
1
2
. a
n 1
/
1
n 1
+ + + + e
/
1
t
=
a
0
a
1
/
2
a
2
/
2
2
. a
n 1
/
2
n 1
+ + + + e
/
2
t
=
.
a
0
a
1
/
n
a
2
/
n
2
. a
n 1
/
n
n 1
+ + + + e
/
n
t
=
a
i
a
i
e
At
A
5 7 5
0 4 1
2 8 3
=
det A /I [ ] 0 = A /I [ ]
/ A
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
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(7.56)
and expansion of this determinant yields the polynomial
(7.57)
We will use MATLAB roots(p) function to obtain the roots of (7.57).
p=[1 -6 11 -6]; r=roots(p); fprintf(' \n'); fprintf('lambda1 = %5.2f \t', r(1));...
fprintf('lambda2 = %5.2f \t', r(2)); fprintf('lambda3 = %5.2f', r(3))
l a mbda 1 = 3. 00 l a mbda 2 = 2. 00 l a mbda 3 = 1. 00
and thus the eigenvalues are
(7.58)
2. Since is a matrix, we use the first terms of (7.54), that is,
(7.59)
3. We obtain the coefficients from
or
(7.60)
We will use the following MATLAB script for the solution of (7.60).
B=sym('[1 1 1; 1 2 4; 1 3 9]'); b=sym('[exp(t); exp(2*t); exp(3*t)]'); a=B\b; fprintf(' \n');...
disp('a0 = '); disp(a(1)); disp('a1 = '); disp(a(2)); disp('a2 = '); disp(a(3))
a 0 =
3*e xp( t ) - 3*e xp( 2*t ) +e xp( 3*t )
a 1 =
- 5/ 2*e xp( t ) +4*e xp( 2*t ) - 3/ 2*e xp( 3*t )
a 2 =
det A /I [ ] det
5 / 7 5
0 4 / 1
2 8 3 /
0 = =
/
3
6/
2
11/ 6 + 0 =
/
1
1 = /
2
2 = /
3
3 =
A 3 3 3
e
At
a
0
I a
1
A a
2
A
2
+ + =
a
0
a
1
and a
2
, ,
a
0
a
1
/
1
a
2
/
1
2
+ + e
/
1
t
=
a
0
a
1
/
2
a
2
/
2
2
+ + e
/
2
t
=
a
0
a
1
/
3
a
2
/
3
2
+ + e
/
3
t
=
a
0
a
1
a
2
+ + e
t
=
a
0
2a
1
4a
2
+ + e
2t
=
a
0
3a
1
9a
2
+ + e
3t
=
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 7-15
Copyright Orchard Publications
Computation of the State Transition Matrix
1/ 2*e xp( t ) - e xp( 2*t ) +1/ 2*e xp( 3*t )
Thus,
(7.61)
4. We also use MATLAB to perform the substitution into the state transition matrix, and to per-
form the matrix multiplications. The script is shown below.
syms t; a0 = 3*exp(t)+exp(3*t)-3*exp(2*t); a1 = -5/2*exp(t)-3/2*exp(3*t)+4*exp(2*t);...
a2 = 1/2*exp(t)+1/2*exp(3*t)-exp(2*t);...
A = [5 7 -5; 0 4 -1; 2 8 -3]; eAt=a0*eye(3)+a1*A+a2*A^2
e At =
[ - 2*e xp( t ) +2*e xp( 2*t ) +e xp( 3*t ) , - 6*e xp( t ) +5*e xp( 2*t ) +e xp( 3*t ) ,
4*e xp( t ) - 3*e xp( 2*t ) - e xp( 3*t ) ]
[ - e xp( t ) +2*e xp( 2*t ) - e xp( 3*t ) , - 3*e xp( t ) +5*e xp( 2*t ) - e xp( 3*t ) ,
2*e xp( t ) - 3*e xp( 2*t ) +e xp( 3*t ) ]
[ - 3*e xp( t ) +4*e xp( 2*t ) - e xp( 3*t ) , - 9*e xp( t ) +10*e xp( 2*t ) - e xp( 3*t ) ,
6*e xp( t ) - 6*e xp( 2*t ) +e xp( 3*t ) ]
Thus,
7.4.2 Multiple (Repeated) Eigenvalues
In this case, we will assume that the polynomial of
(7.62)
has roots, and of these roots are equal. In other words, the roots are
(7.63)
The coefficients of the state transition matrix
(7.64)
are found from the simultaneous solution of the system of equations of (7.65) below.
a
0
3e
t
3e
2t
e
3t
+ =
a
1
5
2
-- -e
t
4e
2t 3
2
---e
3t
+ =
a
2
1
2
---e
t
e
2t

Computing and Simulink

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Modeling 7-23
Copyright Orchard Publications
Circuit Analysis with State Variables
Also,
and thus,
or
(7.87)
Therefore, from (7.85), (7.86), and (7.87), we obtain the state equations
and in matrix form,
(7.88)
We will compute the solution of (7.88) using
(7.89)
where
(7.90)
First, we compute the state transition matrix . We find the eigenvalues from
Then,
Therefore,
The next step is to find the coefficients . Since is a matrix, we only need the first two
terms of the state transition matrix, that is,
(7.91)
x

2
dv
C
dt
--------- =
i
L
C
dv
C
dt
--------- =
x
1
i
L
C
dv
C
dt
--------- Cx

2
4
3
---x

2
= = = =
x

2
3
4
-- -x
1
=
x

1
4x
1
4x
2
4 + =
x

2
3
4
--- x
1
=
x

1
x

2
4 4
3 4 ' 0
x
1
x
2
4
0
u
0
t ( ) + =
x t ( ) e
A t t
0
( )
x
0
e
At
e
A t
bu t ( ) t d
t
0
t
}
+ =
A
4 4
3 4 ' 0
= x
0
i
L
0 ( )
v
C
0 ( )
0
1 2 '
= = b
4
0
=
e
At
det A /I [ ] 0 =
det A /I [ ] det
4 / 4
3 4 ' /
0 = = / ( ) 4 / ( ) 3 + 0 = /
2
4/ 3 + + 0 =
/
1
1 and /
2
3 = =
a
i
A 2 2
e
At
a
0
I a
1
A + =
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-24 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
The constants and are found from
and with , we obtain
(7.92)
Simultaneous solution of (7.92) yields
(7.93)
We now substitute these values into (7.91), and we obtain
or
The initial conditions vector is the second vector in (7.90); then, the first term of (7.89) becomes
or
(7.94)
We also need to evaluate the integral on the right side of (7.89). From (7.90)
a
0
a
1
a
0
a
1
/
1
+ e
/
1
t
=
a
0
a
1
/
2
+ e
/
2
t
=
/
1
1 and /
2
3 = =
a
0
a
1
e
t
=
a
0
3a
1
e
3t
=
a
0
1.5e
t
0.5e
3t
=
a
1
0.5e
t
0.5e
3t
=
e
At
1.5e
t
0.5e
3t
( )
1 0
0 1
0.5e
t
0.5e
2t
( )
4 4
3 4 ' 0
+ =
1.5e
t
0.5e
3t
0
0 1.5e
t
0.5e
3t

2 e
t
2e
3t
+ 2 e
t
2e
3t
+
3
8
-- -e
t 3
8
---e
3t
0
+ =
e
At
0.5 e
t
1.5e
3t
+ 2 e
t
2e
3t
+
3
8
---e
t 3
8
---e
3t
1.5e
t
0.5e
3t

=
e
At
x
0
0.5 e
t
1.5e
3t
+ 2 e
t
2e
3t
+
3
8
-- -e
t 3
8
-- -e
3t
1.5e
t
0.5e
3t

0
1 2 '
=
e
At
x
0
e
t
e
3t
+
0.75e
t
0.25e
3t

=
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink

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Modeling 7-25
Copyright Orchard Publications
Circuit Analysis with State Variables
and denoting this integral as , we obtain
or
(7.95)
The integration in (7.95) is with respect to ; then, integrating the column vector under the
integral, we obtain
or
By substitution of these values, the solution of
is
Then,
(7.96)
and
(7.97)
Other variables of the circuit can now be computed from (7.96) and (7.97). For example, the
voltage across the inductor is
b
4
0
1
0
4 = =
Int
Int
0.5 e
t t ( )
1.5e
3 t t ( )
+ 2 e
t t ( )
2e
3 t t ( )
+
3
8
---e
t t ( ) 3
8
-- -e
3 t t ( )
1.5e
t t ( )
0.5e
3 t t ( )

1
0
4 t d
t
0
t
}
=
Int
0.5 e
t t ( )
1.5e
3 t t ( )
+
3
8
---e
t t ( ) 3
8
-- -e
3 t t ( )

4 t d
t
0
t
}
=
t
Int 4
0.5 e
t t ( )
0.5e
3 t t ( )
+
0.375e
t t ( )
0.125e
3 t t ( )

t 0 =
t
=
Int 4
0.5 0.5 +
0.375 0.125
4
0.5 e
t
0.5e
3t
+
0.375e
t
0.125e
3t

4
0.5e
t
0.5 e
3t
0.25 0.375 e
t
0.125e
3t
+
= =
x t ( ) e
A t t
0
( )
x
0
e
At
e
A t
bu t ( ) t d
t
0
t
}
+ =
x
1
x
2
e
t
e
3t
+
0.75e
t
0.25e
3t

4
0.5e
t
0.5 e
3t
0.25 0.375 e
t
0.125e
3t
+
+
e
t
e
3t
1 0.75 e
t
0.25e
3t
+
= =
x
1
i
L
e
t
e
3t
= =
x
2
v
C
1 0.75e
t
0.25e
3t
+ = =
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-26 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
We use the MATLAB script below to plot the relation of (7.97).
t=0:0.01:10; x2=1-0.75.*exp(-t)+0.25.*exp(-3.*t);...
plot(t,x2); grid
The plot is shown in Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8. Plot for relation (7.97)
We can obtain the plot in Figure 7.8 with the Simulink State-Space block with the unit step
function as the input using the Step block, and the capacitor voltage as the output displayed on
the Scope block as shown in the model of Figure 7.9 where for the State-Space block Function
Block Parameters dialog box we have entered:
A: [-4 -4; 3/4 0]
B: [4 0]
C: [0 1]
D: [ 0 ]
Initial conditions: [0 1/2]
Figure 7.9. Simulink model for Example 7.10
v
L
L
di
L
dt
-------
1
4
-- -
d
dt
----- e
t
e
3t
( )
1
4
-- -e
t

3
4
---e
3t
+ = = =
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
Time (sec)
x
2
v
C
1 0.75e
t
0.25e
3t
+ = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink

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Modeling 7-27
Copyright Orchard Publications
Circuit Analysis with State Variables
The waveform for the capacitor voltage for the simulation time interval seconds is
shown in Figure 7.10 where we observe that the initial condition is also dis-
played.
Figure 7.10. Input and output waveforms for the model of Figure 7.9
The SimPowerSystems model for the circuit in Figure 7.7 is shown in Figure 7.11.
Figure 7.11. Model for the circuit in Figure 7.7. Scope 2 block displays the waveform in Fig.7.8.
Example 7.11
A network is described by the state equation
(7.98)
where
and (7.99)
0 t 10 s s
v
C
0
-
( ) 0.5 V =
x

Ax bu + =
A
1 0
1 1
= x
0
1
0
= b
1
1
= u o t ( ) =
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-28 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Compute the state vector
Solution:
We compute the eigenvalues from
For this example,
Then,
Since is a matrix, we only need the first two terms of the state transition matrix to find
the coefficients , that is,
(7.100)
The constants and are found from
(7.101)
and with , we obtain
(7.102)
and simultaneous solution of (7.102) yields
By substitution of these values into (7.100), we obtain
(7.103)
The values of the vector are found from
x
x
1
x
2
=
det A /I [ ] 0 =
det A /I [ ] det
1 / 0
1 1 /
0 = = 1 / ( ) 1 / ( ) 0 =
/
1
1 and /
2
1 = =
A 2 2
a
i
e
At
a
0
I a
1
A + =
a
0
a
1
a
0
a
1
/
1
+ e
/
1
t
=
a
0
a
1
/
2
+ e
/
2
t
=
/
1
1 and /
2
1 = =
a
0
a
1
+ e
t
=
a
0
a
1
e
t
=
a
0
e
t
e
t
+
2
---------------- t cosh = =
a
1
e
t
e
t

2
---------------- t sinh = =
e
At
t cosh I t sinh A + t cosh
1 0
0 1
t sinh
1 0
1 1
+
t cosh t sinh + 0
t sinh t cosh t sinh
= = =
x
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 7-29
Copyright Orchard Publications
Relationship between State Equations and Laplace Transform
(7.104)
Using the sifting property of the delta function we find that (7.104) reduces to
Therefore,
(7.105)
7.7 Relationship between State Equations and Laplace Transform
In this section, we will show that the state transition matrix can be computed from the Inverse
Laplace transform. We will also show that the transfer function can be found from the coefficient
matrices of the state equations.
Consider the state equation
(7.106)
Taking the Laplace of both sides of (7.106), we obtain
or
(7.107)
Multiplying both sides of (7.107) by , we obtain
(7.108)
Comparing (7.108) with
(7.109)
we observe that the right side of (7.108) is the Laplace transform of (7.109). Therefore, we can
compute the state transition matrix from the Inverse Laplace of , that is, we can
use the relation
x t ( ) e
A t t
0
( )
x
0
e
At
e
A t
bu t ( ) t d
t
0
t
}
+ e
At
x
0
e
At
e
A t
bo t ( ) t d
0
t
}
+ = =
x t ( ) e
At
x
0
e
At
b + e
At
x
0
b + ( ) e
At
1
0
1
1
+
)
`

e
At
0
1
= = = =
t cosh t sinh + 0
t sinh t cosh t sinh
0
1
x
1
x
2
= =
x
x
1
x
2
0
t cosh t sinh
0
e
t
= = =
x

Ax bu + =
sX s ( ) x 0 ( ) AX s ( ) bU s ( ) + =
sI A ( )X s ( ) x 0 ( ) bU s ( ) + =
sI A ( )
1
X s ( ) sI A ( )
1
x 0 ( ) sI A ( )
1
bU s ( ) + =
x t ( ) e
At
x
0
e
At
e
A t
bu t ( ) t d
0
t
}
+ =
e
At
sI A ( )
1
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-30 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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(7.110)
Next, we consider the output state equation
(7.111)
Taking the Laplace of both sides of (7.111), we obtain
(7.112)
and using (7.108), we obtain
(7.113)
If the initial condition , (7.113) reduces to
(7.114)
In (7.114), is the Laplace transform of the input ; then, division of both sides by
yields the transfer function
(7.115)
Example 7.12
In the circuit of Figure 7.12, all initial conditions are zero. Compute the state transition matrix
using the Inverse Laplace transform method.
Figure 7.12. Circuit for Example 7.12
Solution:
For this circuit,
and
Substitution of given values and rearranging, yields
e
At
L
1
sI A ( )
1
{ =
y Cx du + =
Y s ( ) CX s ( ) dU s ( ) + =
Y s ( ) C sI A ( )
1
x 0 ( ) C sI A ( )
1
b d + [ ]U s ( ) + =
x 0 ( ) 0 =
Y s ( ) C sI A ( )
1
b d + [ ]U s ( ) =
U s ( ) u t ( ) U s ( )
G s ( )
Y s ( )
U s ( )
----------- C sI A ( )
1
b d + = =
e
At
-
+
R L
+
-
C
3 O
v
S
t ( ) u
0
t ( ) =
v
C
t ( )
i t ( )
1 H
1 2 ' F
i i
L
=
Ri
L
L
di
L
dt
------- v
C
+ + u
0
t ( ) =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 7-31
Copyright Orchard Publications
Relationship between State Equations and Laplace Transform
(7.116)
Now, we define the state variables
and
Then,
(7.117)
and
Also,
(7.118)
and thus,
or
(7.119)
Therefore, from (7.117) and (7.119) we obtain the state equations
(7.120)
and in matrix form,
(7.121)
By inspection,
(7.122)
Now, we will find the state transition matrix from
(7.123)
where
Then,
di
L
dt
------- 3 i
L
v
C
1 + =
x
1
i
L
=
x
2
v
C
=
x

1
di
L
dt
------- 3 i
L
v
C
1 + = =
x

2
dv
C
dt
--------- =
i
L
C
dv
C
dt
--------- 0.5
dv
C
dt
--------- = =
x
1
i
L
0.5
dv
C
dt
--------- 0.5x

2
= = =
x

2
2x
1
=
x

1
3x
1
x
2
1 + =
x

2
2x
1
=
x

1
x

2
3 1
2 0
x
1
x
2
1
0
1 + =
A
3 1
2 0
=
e
At
L
1
sI A ( )
1
{ =
sI A ( )
s 0
0 s
3 1
2 0

s 3 + 1
2 s
= =
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-32 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
We find the Inverse Laplace of each term by partial fraction expansion. Thus,
Now, we can find the state variables representing the inductor current and the capacitor voltage
from
using the procedure of Example 7.11.
MATLAB provides two very useful functions to convert state-space (state equations), to transfer
function (s-domain), and vice versa. The function ss2tf (state-space to transfer function) con-
verts the state space equations
*
(7.124)
to the rational transfer function form
(7.125)
This is used with the statement [num,den]=ss2tf(A,B,C,D,iu) where A, B, C, D are the matrices
of (7.124) and iu is if there is only one input. The MATLAB help command provides the fol-
lowing information:
help ss2tf
SS2TF St a t e - s pa c e t o t r a ns f e r f unc t i on c onve r s i on.
[ NUM, DEN] = SS2TF( A, B, C, D, i u) c a l c ul a t e s t he
t r a ns f e r f unc t i on:
NUM( s ) - 1
G( s ) = - - - - - - - - = C( s I - A) B + D
DEN( s )
of t he s ys t e m:
x = Ax + Bu
* We have used capital letters for vectors b and c to be consistent with MATLABs designations.
sI A ( )
1 adj sI A ( )
det sI A ( )
----------------------------
1
s
2
3s 2 + +
--------------------------
s 1
2 s 3 +
s
s 1 + ( ) s 2 + ( )
---------------------------------
1
s 1 + ( ) s 2 + ( )
---------------------------------
2
s 1 + ( ) s 2 + ( )
---------------------------------
s 3 +
s 1 + ( ) s 2 + ( )
---------------------------------
= = =
e
At
L
1
sI A ( )
1
{
e
t
2e
2t
+ e
t
e
2t
+
2e
t
2e
2t
2e
t
e
2t

= =
x t ( ) e
At
x
0
e
At
e
A t
bu t ( ) t d
0
t
}
+ =
x

Ax Bu + =
y Cx Du + =
G s ( )
N s ( )
D s ( )
----------- =
1
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink

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Modeling 7-33
Copyright Orchard Publications
Relationship between State Equations and Laplace Transform
y = Cx + Du
f r om t he i u' t h i nput . Ve c t or DEN c ont a i ns t he c oe f f i c i e nt s of t he
de nomi na t or i n de s c e ndi ng powe r s of s . The nume r a t or c oe f f i c i e nt s a r e
r e t ur ne d i n ma t r i x NUM wi t h a s ma ny r ows a s t he r e a r e out put s y.
Se e a l s o TF2SS
The other function, tf2ss, converts the transfer function of (7.125) to the state-space equations
of (7.124). It is used with the statement [A,B,C,D]=tf2ss(num,den) where A, B, C, and D are
the matrices of (7.124), and num, den are and of (7.125) respectively. The MATLAB
help command provides the following information:
help tf2ss
TF2SS Tr a ns f e r f unc t i on t o s t a t e - s pa c e c onve r s i on.
[ A, B, C, D] = TF2SS( NUM, DEN) c a l c ul a t e s t he s t a t e - s pa c e
r e pr e s e nt a t i on:
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
of t he s ys t e m:
NUM( s )
G( s ) = - - - - - - - -
DEN( s )
f r om a s i ngl e i nput . Ve c t or DEN mus t c ont a i n t he c oe f f i c i e nt s of t he
de nomi na t or i n de s c e ndi ng powe r s of s . Ma t r i x NUM mus t c ont a i n t he
nume r a t or c oe f f i c i e nt s wi t h a s ma ny r ows a s t he r e a r e out put s y. The
A, B, C, D ma t r i c e s a r e r e t ur ne d i n c ont r ol l e r c a noni c a l f or m. Thi s c a l -
c ul a t i on a l s o wor ks f or di s c r e t e s ys t e ms . To a voi d c onf us i on whe n us i ng
t hi s f unc t i on wi t h di s c r e t e s ys t e ms , a l wa ys us e a nume r a t or pol ynomi a l
t ha t ha s be e n pa dde d wi t h z e r os t o ma ke i t t he s a me l e ngt h a s t he
de nomi na t or . Se e t he Us e r ' s gui de f or mor e de t a i l s .
Se e a l s o SS2TF.
Example 7.13
For the circuit of Figure 7.13, all initial conditions are zero.
Figure 7.13. Circuit for Example 7.13
N s ( ) D s ( )
-
+
R
L
+
-
C
1 O
v
S
t ( ) u
0
t ( ) =
v
C
t ( ) v
out
t ( ) =
i t ( )
1 H
1 F
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-34 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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a. Derive the state equations and express them in matrix form as
b. Derive the transfer function
c. Verify your answers with MATLAB.
Solution:
a. The differential equation describing the circuit is
and with the given values,
or
We let
and
Then,
and
Thus, the state equations are
and in matrix form,
(7.126)
b. The circuit is shown in Figure 7.14.
x

Ax Bu + =
y Cx Du + =
G s ( )
N s ( )
D s ( )
----------- =
Ri L
di
dt
----- v
C
+ + u
0
t ( ) =
i
di
dt
----- v
C
+ + u
0
t ( ) =
di
dt
----- i v
C
u
0
t ( ) + =
x
1
i
L
i = =
x
2
v
C
v
out
= =
x

1
di
dt
----- =
x

2
dv
c
dt
-------- x
1
= =
x

1
x
1
x
2
u
0
t ( ) + =
x

2
x
1
=
y x
2
=
x

Ax Bu + =
x

2
x

3
x

4
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 2 3 4
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4

0
0
0
1
u t ( ) + =
u t ( )
R
L
+
-
C
u t ( )
R
C
1
1 O
1 H
2 F
2 F
C
2
V
p
ctu
0
t ( ) cos
L
i
L
0
-
( ) 2 A = i
L
t ( ) t 0 >
R
L
+
-
10u
0
t ( )
2 O
2 H
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Modeling 7-41
Copyright Orchard Publications
Exercises
6. Compute the eigenvalues of the matrices , , and below.
Hint: One of the eigenvalues of matrix C is .
7. Compute given that
Observe that this is the same matrix as of Exercise 6.
8. Find the solution of the matrix state equation given that
9. In the circuit below, , and .
a. Write state equations in matrix form.
b. Compute using the Inverse Laplace transform method.
c. Find and for .
A B C
A
1 2
3 1
= B
a 0
a b
= C
0 1 0
0 0 1
6 11 6
=
1
e
At
A
0 1 0
0 0 1
6 11 6
=
C
x

Ax bu + =
A
1 0
2 2
= b
1
2
= x
0
1
0
= u o t ( ) = t
0
0 = , , , ,
i
L
0
-
( ) 0 = v
C
0
-
( ) 1 V =
e
At
i
L
t ( ) v
C
t ( ) t 0 >
R L
C
3 4 ' O
4 3 ' F
4 H
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-42 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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7.10 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
1. Differentiating the given integrodifferential equation with respect to we obtain
or
(1)
We let
Then,
and by substitution into (1)
and thus the state equations are
and in matrix form
2. Expansion of the given matrix yields

Letting we obtain
t
dv
3
dt
3
-------- k
3
dv
2
dt
2
-------- k
2
dv
dt
------ k
1
v + + + 3 3t 3 3t sin cos 3 3t 3t sin cos ( ) = =
dv
3
dt
3
-------- k
3
dv
2
dt
2
-------- = k
2

dv
dt
------ k
1
v 3 3t 3t sin cos ( ) +
v x
1
=
dv
dt
------ x
2
x
1

= =
dv
2
dt
2
-------- x
3
x
2

= =
dv
3
dt
3
-------- x
3

=
x
3

k
1
x
1
k
2
x
2
k
3
x
3
3 3t 3t sin cos ( ) + =
x
1

x
2
=
x
2

x
3
=
x
3

k
1
x
1
k
2
x
2
k
3
x
3
3 3t 3t sin cos ( ) + =
x
1

x
2

x
3

0 1 0
0 0 1
k
1
k
2
k
3
x
1
x
2
x
3

0
0
1
3 3t 3t sin cos ( ) + =
x
1

x
2
= x
2

x
3
= x
3

x
2
= x
4

x
1
2x
2
3x
3
4x
4
u t ( ) + =
x y =
dy
4
dt
4
-------- 4
dy
3
dt
3
-------- 3
dy
2
dt
2
-------- 2
dy
dt
------ y + + + + u t ( ) =
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Modeling 7-43
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
3.
We let and . By KCL, or
or
Also,
Then,
and
and in matrix form
4.
We let , , and . By KCL,
or
or
(1)
By KVL,
R
L
+
-
C
u t ( )
i
C
i
T
i
L
v
C
-
+
i
L
x
1
= v
C
x
2
= i
T
i
L
i
C
+ =
u t ( ) v
C

R
---------------------- i
L
C
dv
C
dt
--------- + =
u t ( ) x
2

R
--------------------- x
1
Cx
2

+ =
x
2
Lx
1

=
x
1
1
L
---x
2
= x
2
1
C
----x
1

1
RC
--------x
2

1
RC
--------u t ( ) + =
x
1

x
2

0 1 L '
1 C ' 1 RC '
x
1
x
2

0
1 RC '
u t ( ) + =
R
C
1
1 O
1 H
2 F
2 F
C
2
V
p
ctu
0
t ( ) cos
L
+
-
v
C1
i
L
+
-
v
C2
v
C1
i
L
x
1
= v
C1
x
2
= v
C2
x
3
=
v
C1
V
p
ctu
0
t ( ) cos
1
------------------------------------------------- 2
dv
C1
dt
------------ i
L
+ + 0 =
x
2
V
p
ctu
0
t ( ) cos 2x
2

x
1
+ + 0 =
x
2
1
2
---x
1

1
2
---x
2

1
2
---V
p
ctu
0
t ( ) cos + =
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-44 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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or
or
(2)
Also,
or
or
(3)
Combining (1), (2), and (3) into matrix form we obtain
We will create a Simulink model with and output . The model is shown below
where for the State-Space block Function Block Parameters dialog box we have entered:
A: [0 1 -1; -1/2 -1/2 0; 1/2 0 0]
B: [0 1/2 0]
C: [0 0 1]
D: [ 0 ]
Initial conditions: [0 0 0]
and for the Sine Wave block Function Block Parameters dialog box we have entered:
Amplitude: 1
Phase: pi/2
The input and output waveforms are shown below.
v
C1
L
di
L
dt
------- v
C2
+ =
x
2
1x
1

x
3
+ =
x
1

x
2
x
3
=
i
L
C
dv
C2
dt
------------ =
x
1
2x
3

=
x
3
1
2
---x
1
=
x
1

x
2

x
3

0 1 1
1 2 ' 1 2 ' 0
1 2 ' 0 0
x
1
x
2
x
3

0
1 2 '
0
V
p
ctu
0
t ( ) cos + =
V
p
1 = y x
3
=
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 7-45
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
5.
From (7.21) of Example 7.4, Page 7-6,
For this exercise, and . Then,
and denoting the current as the output we obtain
6.
a.
R
L
+
-
10u
0
t ( )
2 O
2 H
x

R
L
--- -
x
1
L
---
v
S
u
0
t ( ) + =
o R L ' 1 = = b 10 1 L ' ( ) 5 = =
x t ( ) e
o t t
0
( )
x
0
e
ot
e
o t
u t ( ) t d
t
0
t
}
+ =
e
1 t 0 ( )
2 e
t
e
t
5u
0
t ( ) t d
0
t
}
+ 2e
t
5e
t
e
t
t d
0
t
}
+ = =
2e
t
5e
t
e
t
1 ( ) + 2e
t
5 5 e
t
+ 5 3e
t
( )u
0
t ( ) = = =
i
L
y
y t ( ) x t ( ) 5 3e
t
( )u
0
t ( ) = =
A
1 2
3 1
= det A /I ( ) det
1 2
3 1
/
1 0
0 1

\ .
|
| |
det
1 / 2
3 1 /
0 = = =
1 / ( ) 1 / ( ) 6 0 =
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-46 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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and thus
b.
and thus
c.
and it is given that . Then,
and thus
7.
a. Matrix is the same as Matrix C in Exercise 6. Then,
and since is a matrix the state transition matrix is
(1)
Then,
1 / / /
2
6 + + 0 =
/
2
7 =
/
1
7 = /
2
7 =
B
a 0
a b
= det B /I ( ) det
a 0
a b
/
1 0
0 1

\ .
|
| |
det
a / 0
a b /
0 = = =
a / ( ) b / ( ) 0 =
/
1
a = /
2
b =
C
0 1 0
0 0 1
6 11 6
= det C /I ( ) det
0 1 0
0 0 1
6 11 6
/
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

\ .
|
|
|
| |
=
det
/ 1 0
0 / 1
6 11 6 /
0 = =
/
2
6 / ( ) 6 11 ( ) / ( ) /
3
6/
2
11/ 6 + + + 0 = =
/
1
1 =
/
3
6/
2
11/ 6 + + +
/ 1 + ( )
---------------------------------------------- /
2
5/ 6 + + / 1 + ( ) / 2 + ( ) / 3 + ( ) 0 = =
/
1
1 = /
2
2 = /
1
3 =
A
/
1
1 = /
2
2 = /
1
3 =
A 3 3
e
At
a
0
I a
1
A a
2
A
2
+ + =
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Modeling 7-47
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
syms t; A=[1 -1 1; 1 -2 4; 1 -3 9];...
a=sym('[exp(-t); exp(-2*t); exp(-3*t)]'); x=A\a; fprintf(' \n');...
disp('a0 = '); disp(x(1)); disp('a1 = '); disp(x(2)); disp('a2 = '); disp(x(3))
a 0 =
3*e xp( - t ) - 3*e xp( - 2*t ) +e xp( - 3*t )
a 1 =
5/ 2*e xp( - t ) - 4*e xp( - 2*t ) +3/ 2*e xp( - 3*t )
a 2 =
1/ 2*e xp( - t ) - e xp( - 2*t ) +1/ 2*e xp( - 3*t )
Thus,
Now, we compute of (1) with the following MATLAB script:
syms t; a0=3*exp(-t)-3*exp(-2*t)+exp(-3*t); a1=5/2*exp(-t)-4*exp(-2*t)+3/2*exp(-3*t);...
a2=1/2*exp(-t)-exp(-2*t)+1/2*exp(-3*t); A=[0 1 0; 0 0 1; -6 -11 -6]; fprintf(' \n');...
eAt=a0*eye(3)+a1*A+a2*A^2
e At =
[ 3*e xp( - t ) - 3*e xp( - 2*t ) +e xp( - 3*t ) , 5/ 2*e xp( - t ) - 4*e xp( - 2*t ) +3/
2*e xp( - 3*t ) , 1/ 2*e xp( - t ) - e xp( - 2*t ) +1/ 2*e xp( - 3*t ) ]
[ - 3*e xp( - t ) +6*e xp( - 2*t ) - 3*e xp( - 3*t ) , - 5/ 2*e xp( - t ) +8*e xp( -
2*t ) - 9/ 2*e xp( - 3*t ) , - 1/ 2*e xp( - t ) +2*e xp( - 2*t ) - 3/ 2*e xp( - 3*t ) ]
[ 3*e xp( - t ) - 12*e xp( - 2*t ) +9*e xp( - 3*t ) , 5/ 2*e xp( - t ) - 16*e xp( -
2*t ) +27/ 2*e xp( - 3*t ) , 1/ 2*e xp( - t ) - 4*e xp( - 2*t ) +9/ 2*e xp( - 3*t ) ]
Thus,
a
0
a
1
/
1
a
2
/
1
2
+ + e
/
1
t
= a
0
a
1
a
2
+ e
t
=
a
0
a
1
/
2
a
2
/
2
2
+ + e
/
2
t
= a
0
2a
1
4a
2
+ e
2t
=
a
0
a
1
/
3
a
2
/
3
2
+ + e
/
3
t
= a
0
3a
1
9a
2
+ e
3t
=
a
0
3e
t
3e
2t
3e
3t
+ =
a
1
2.5e
t
4e
2t
1.5e
3t
+ =
a
2
0.5e
t
e
2t
0.5e
3t
+ =
e
At
e
At
3e
t
3e
2t
e
3t
+ 2.5e
t
4e
2t
1.5e
3t
+ 0.5e
t
e
2t
0.5e
3t
+
3 e
t
6e
2t
3e
3t
+ 2.5 e
t
8e
2t
4.5e
3t
+ 0.5 e
t
2e
2t
1.5e
3t
+
3e
t
12e
2t
9e
3t
+ 2.5e
t
16e
2t
13.5e
3t
+ 0.5e
t
4e
2t
4.5e
3t
+
=
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
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8.
(1)
We use the following MATLAB script to find the eigenvalues and .
A=[1 0; -2 2]; lambda=eig(A); fprintf(' \n');...
fprintf('lambda1 = %4.2f \t',lambda(1)); fprintf('lambda2 = %4.2f \t',lambda(2))
l a mbda 1 = 2. 00 l a mbda 2 = 1. 00
Next,
Then,
and
By substitution into (1) we obtain
and thus
A
1 0
2 2
= b
1
2
= x
0
1
0
= u o t ( ) = t
0
0 = , , , ,
x t ( ) e
A t 0 ( )
x
0
e
At
e
A t
bu t ( ) t d
0
t
}
+ e
At
x
0
e
At
e
A t
bo t ( ) t d
0
t
}
+ = =
e
At
x
0
e
At
b + e
At
x
0
b + ( ) e
At
1
0
1
2
+
\ .
|
| |
e
At
0
2
= = = =
/
1
/
2
a
0
a
1
/
1
+ e
/
1
t
= a
0
a
1
+ e
t
=
a
0
a
1
/
2
+ e
/
2
t
= a
0
2a
1
+ e
2t
=
a
0
2e
t
e
2t
= a
1
e
2t
e
t
=
e
At
a
0
I a
1
A + 2e
t
e
2t
( )
1 0
0 1
e
2t
e
t
( )
1 0
2 2
+ = =
2e
t
e
2t
0
0 2e
t
e
2t

e
2t
e
t
0
2e
2t
2e
t
+ 2e
2t
2e
t

+
e
t
0
2e
t
2e
2t
e
2t
= =
x t ( ) e
At
0
2
e
t
0
2e
t
2e
2t
e
2t
0
2

0
2e
2t
= = =
x
1
0 = x
2
2e
2t
=
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Modeling 7-49
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
9.
We let
Then,
a.
or
(1)
Also,
or
(2)
From (1) and (2)
and thus
b.
R L
C
3 4 ' O 4 3 ' F
4 H
i
L
i
R
i
C
+
-
v
C
0
-
( ) 1 V =
i
L
0
-
( ) 0 =
v
C
x
1
i
L
= x
2
v
C
=
i
R
i
L
i
C
+ + 0 =
v
C
R
------ i
L
C
v
C
dt
------ + + 0 =
x
2
3 4 '
--------- x
1
4
3
---x
2

+ + 0 =
x
2
3
4
-- - x
1
x
2
=
v
L
v
C
L
di
L
dt
------- 4x
1

x
2
= = = =
x
1
1
4
---x
2
=
x
1

x
2

0 1 4 '
3 4 ' 1
x
1
x
2
=
A
0 1 4 '
3 4 ' 1
=
e
At
L
1
sI A [ ]
1
{ =
sI A [ ]
s 0
0 s
0 1 4 '
3 4 ' 1

s 1 4 '
3 4 ' s 1 +
= =
A det sI A [ ] det
s 1 4 '
3 4 ' s 1 +
s
2
s 3 16 ' + + = s 1 4 ' + ( ) s 3 4 ' + ( ) = = =
Chapter 7 State Variables and State Equations
7-50 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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We use MATLAB to find with the script below.
syms s t % Must have Symbolic Math Toolbox installed
Fs1=(s+1)/(s^2+s+3/16); Fs2=(1/4)/(s^2+s+3/16); Fs3=(-3/4)/(s^2+s+3/16);...
Fs4=s/(s^2+s+3/16);...
fprintf(' \n'); disp('a11 = '); disp(simple(ilaplace(Fs1))); disp('a12 = ');...
disp(simple(ilaplace(Fs2)));...
disp('a21 = '); disp(simple(ilaplace(Fs3))); disp('a22 = '); disp(simple(ilaplace(Fs4)))
a 11 =
- 1/ 2*e xp( - 3/ 4*t ) +3/ 2*e xp( - 1/ 4*t )
a 12 =
1/ 2*e xp( - 1/ 4*t ) - 1/ 2*e xp( - 3/ 4*t )
a 21 =
- 3/ 2*e xp( - 1/ 4*t ) +3/ 2*e xp( - 3/ 4*t )
a 22 =
3/ 2*e xp( - 3/ 4*t ) - 1/ 2*e xp( - 1/ 4*t )
Thus,
c.
and thus for ,
adj sI A [ ] adj
s 1 4 '
3 4 ' s 1 +
s 1 + 1 4 '
3 4 ' s
= =
sI A [ ]
1 1
A
---adj sI A [ ]
1
s 1 4 ' + ( ) s 3 4 ' + ( )
-----------------------------------------------
s 1 + 1 4 '
3 4 ' s
= =
s 1 +
s 1 4 ' + ( ) s 3 4 ' + ( )
-----------------------------------------------
1 4 '
s 1 4 ' + ( ) s 3 4 ' + ( )
-----------------------------------------------
3 4 '
s 1 4 ' + ( ) s 3 4 ' + ( )
-----------------------------------------------
s
s 1 4 ' + ( ) s 3 4 ' + ( )
-----------------------------------------------
=
e
At
L
1
sI A [ ]
1
{ =
e
At
1.5e
0.25t
0.5e
0.75t
0.5e
0.25t
0.5e
0.75t

1.5 e
0.25t
1.5e
0.75t
+ 0.5 e
0.25t
1.5e
0.75t
+
=
x t ( ) e
A t 0 ( )
x
0
e
At
e
A t
bu t ( ) t d
0
t
}
+ e
At
x
0
0 + e
At
0
1
0
0
+
\ .
|
| |
= = =
1.5e
0.25t
0.5e
0.75t
0.5e
0.25t
0.5e
0.75t

1.5 e
0.25t
1.5e
0.75t
+ 0.5 e
0.25t
1.5e
0.75t
+
0
1
0.5e
0.25t
0.5e
0.75t

0.5 e
0.25t
1.5e
0.75t
+
= =
t 0 >
x
1
i
L
0.5e
0.25t
0.5e
0.75t
= = x
2
v
C
0.5 e
0.25t
1.5e
0.75t
+ = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 8-1
Copyright Orchard Publications
Chapter 8
Frequency Response and Bode Plots
his chapter discusses frequency response in terms of both amplitude and phase. This topic
will enable us to determine which frequencies are dominant and which frequencies are vir-
tually suppressed. The design of electric filters is based on the study of the frequency
response. We will also discuss the Bode method of linear system analysis using two separate plots;
one for the magnitude of the transfer function, and the other for the phase, both versus fre-
quency. These plots reveal valuable information about the frequency response behavior.
Note: Throughout this text, the common (base 10) logarithm of a number will be denoted as
while its natural (base e) logarithm will be denoted as . However, we should remem-
ber that in MATLAB the function displays the natural logarithm, and the common (base
10) logarithm is defined as .
8.1 Decibel Defined
The ratio of any two values of the same quantity (power, voltage or current) can be expressed in
decibels ( ). For instance, we say that an amplifier has power gain or a transmission line
has a power loss of (or gain ). If the gain (or loss) is , the output is equal to the
input. We should remember that a negative voltage or current gain or indicates that there
is a phase difference between the input and the output waveforms. For instance, if an ampli-
fier has a gain of (dimensionless number), it means that the output is out-of-phase
with the input. For this reason we use absolute values of power, voltage and current when these
are expressed in terms to avoid misinterpretation of gain or loss.
By definition,
(8.1)
Therefore,
represents a power ratio of
represents a power ratio of
represents a power ratio of
represents a power ratio of
represents a power ratio of
Also,
T
x
x ( ) log x ( ) ln
x ( ) log
10 x ( ) log
dB 10 dB
7 dB 7 dB 0 dB
A
V
A
I
180
100 180
dB
dB 10
P
out
P
in
---------
log =
10 dB 10
10n dB 10
n
20 dB 100
30 dB 1 000 ,
60 dB 1 000 000 , ,

Chapter 8 Frequency Response and Bode Plots
8-2 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
represents a power ratio of approximately
represents a power ratio of approximately
represents a power ratio of approximately
From these, we can estimate other values. For instance, which is equivalent
to a power ratio of approximately . Likewise, and this is
equivalent to a power ratio of approximately .
Since and , if we let the values for the voltage
and current ratios become:
(8.2)
and
(8.3)
Example 8.1
Compute the gain in for the amplifier shown in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1. Amplifier for Example 8.1
Solution:
Example 8.2
Compute the gain in for the amplifier shown in Figure 8.2 given that .
Figure 8.2. Amplifier for Example 8.2.
Solution:
1 dB 1.25
3 dB 2
7 dB 5
4 dB 3 dB 1 dB + =
2 1.25 2.5 = 27 dB 20 dB 7 dB + =
100 5 500 =
y x
2
log 2 x log = = P V
2
R ' I
2
R = = R 1 = dB
dB
v
10
V
out
V
in
----------
2
log 20
V
out
V
in
----------
log = =
dB
i
10
I
out
I
in
--------
2
log 20
I
out
I
in
--------
log = =
dB
W
P
in
P
out
1 w
10 w
dB
W
10
P
out
P
in
--------- log 10
10
1
------ log 10 10 log 10 1 10 dB
W
= = = = =
dB
V
2 log 0.3 =
V
in
V
out
1 v
2v
dB
V
20
V
out
V
in
---------- log 20
2
1
-- - log 20 0.3 log 20 0.3 6 dB
V
= = = = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

2
+ + + =
o c
n
=
o
2

2
+ c
n
2
=
s
2
2os o
2

2
+ + + s
2
2c
n
s c
n
2
+ + =
G s ( ) s
2
2c
n
s c
n
2
+ + =
G jc ( ) jc ( )
2
j2c
n
c c
n
2
+ + =
c
n
2
c
2
( ) j2c
n
c + =
G jc ( ) c
n
2
c
2
( )
2
4
2
c
n
2
+ c
2
=
20
20 G jc ( ) log 10 c
n
2
c
2
( )
2
4
2
c
n
2
c
2
+ [ ] log =
c
n
4
u
u c c
n
' =
20 G ju ( ) log 10 c
n
2
c
2
( )
2
4
2
c
n
2
c
2
+ [ ] log =
20 G ju ( ) log 10 c
n
4
c
n
c
c
n
2
-------------------
\ .
|
|
| |
4
2
c
n
4c
2
c
n
2
------ + log 10 c
n
4
c
n
c
c
n
2
-------------------
\ .
|
|
| |
4
2
c
n
4c
2
c
n
2
------ + log = =
10 c
n
4
1 u
2
( )
2
4
2
u
2
+
)
`

log 10 c
n
4
log 10 1 u
2
( )
2
4
2
u
2
+ [ ] log + = =
u
2
1 10 1 log 0 dB =
Chapter 8 Frequency Response and Bode Plots
8-14 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
and if , this term reduces to approximately and this can be plotted as a straight line
increasing at . Using these two straight lines as asymptotes for the magnitude curve
we see that the asymptotes intersect at the corner frequency . The exact shape of the curve
depends on the value of which is called the damping coefficient.
A plot of (8.35) for , , and is shown in Figure 8.17.
Figure 8.17. Magnitude for zeros of
The phase shift associated with is also simplified by the substitution
and thus
(8.36)
The two asymptotic relations of (8.36) are
(8.37)
and
u
2
1 10 u
4
log
40 dB decade '
u 1 =

0.2 = 0.4 = 0.707 =

Zeros of (c
n
2
-c
2
)+j2c
n
c
u = c/c
n
, c
n
= 1
10logc
n
4
+10log{(1-u
2
)
2
+4
2
u
2
}
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Frequency u (r/s)
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

i
n

d
B
=0.707
=0.2
=0.4
10 c
n
4
log 10 1 u
2
( )
2
4
2
u
2
+ [ ] log +
c
n
2
c
2
( ) j2c
n
c + u c c
n
' =
0 u ( )
2u
1 u
2

--------------
\ .
| |
1
tan =
0 u ( )
u 0
lim
2u
1 u
2

--------------
\ .
| |
1
tan
u 0
lim 0 = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 8-15
Copyright Orchard Publications
Construction of Bode Plots when the Zeros and Poles are Complex
(8.38)
At the corner frequency , and
(8.39)
A plot of the phase for , , and is shown in Figure 8.18.
Figure 8.18. Phase for zeros of
The magnitude and phase plots for
are similar to those of
except for a minus sign. In this case, (8.35) becomes
(8.40)
and (8.36) becomes
(8.41)
0 u ( )
u
lim
2u
1 u
2

--------------
\ .
| |
1
tan
u
lim r = =
c c
n
= u 1 =
0 1 ( )
2u
1 u
2

/ SimPowerSystems

Modeling 8-25
Copyright Orchard Publications
Corrected Amplitude Plots
The corrected amplitude plots for a first order zero and first order pole are shown by solid lines in
Figure 8.27.
Figure 8.27. Corrections for magnitude Bode plots
The corrections for straight-line amplitude plots when we have complex poles and zeros require
different type of correction because they depend on the damping coefficient . Let us refer to the
plot in Figure 8.28.
We observe that as the damping coefficient becomes smaller and smaller, larger and larger
peaks in the amplitude occur in the vicinity of the corner frequency . We also observe that
when , the amplitude at the corner frequency lies below the straight line approxi-
mation.
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
c in r/s

M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

i
n

d
B
c
n
2 '
c
n
c
n
2 '
3 dB
3 dB
1 dB
1 dB
7 dB
7 dB
6 dB
6 dB

c
n
0.707 c
n
Chapter 8 Frequency Response and Bode Plots
8-26 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Figure 8.28. Magnitude Bode plots with complex poles
We can obtain a fairly accurate amplitude plot by computing the amplitude at four points near the
corner frequency as shown in Figure 8.28.
The amplitude plot of Figure 8.28 is for complex poles. In analogy with (8.30), i.e., the plot in Fig-
ure 8.28 above, we obtain
which was derived earlier for complex zeros, the transfer function for complex poles is
(8.50)
where C is a constant.
Dividing each term of the denominator of (8.50) by we obtain
and letting and , we obtain
Magnitude for Poles of 1/((c
n
2
-c
2
)+j2c
n
c)
u = c/c
n
, c
n
= 1
-10logc
n
4
-10log{(1-u
2
)
2
+4
2
u
2
}
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Frequency u (r/s)
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

i
n

d
B
=0.707
=0.2
=0.4
c
n
G s ( ) s
2
2c
n
s c
n
2
+ + =
G s ( )
C
s
2
2c
n
s c
n
2
+ +
---------------------------------------- =
c
n
G s ( )
C
c
n
2
------
1
s c
n
' ( )
2
2 s c
n
' ( ) 1 + +
---------------------------------------------------------------- =
C c
n
2
' K = s jc =
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Modeling 8-27
Copyright Orchard Publications
Corrected Amplitude Plots
(8.51)
As before, we let . Then (8.51) becomes
(8.52)
and in polar form,
(8.53)
The magnitude of (8.53) in is
(8.54)
and the phase is
(8.55)
In (8.54) the term is constant and thus the amplitude , as a function of frequency, is
dependent only the second term on the right side. Also, from this expression, we observe that as
,
(8.56)
and as ,
(8.57)
We are now ready to compute the values of at points , , , and of the plot of Figure
8.29.
At point 1, the corner frequency corresponds to . Then, from (8.54)
(8.58)
G jc ( )
K
1 c c
n
' ( )
2
j2c c
n
' +
---------------------------------------------------------------- =
c c
n
' u =
G ju ( )
K
1 u
2
j2u +
-------------------------------- =
G ju ( )
K
1 u
2
j2u + 0 Z
------------------------------------------- =
dB
A
dB
20 G ju ( ) log 20 K log 20 1 u
2
j2u + ( ) log = =
20 K log 20 1 u
2
( )
2
4
2
u
2
+ log 20 K 10 u
4
2u
2
2
2
1 ( ) 1 + + [ ] log log = =
0 u ( )
2u
1 u
2

--------------
1
tan =
20 K log A
dB
u 0
10 u
4
2u
2
2
2
1 ( ) 1 + + [ ] log 0
u
10 u
4
2u
2
2
2
1 ( ) 1 + + [ ] log 40 u log
A
dB
1 2 3 4
c
n
u 1 =
A
dB
c
n
2 ' ( ) A
dB
u
2
-- -
\ .
| |
10 u
4
2u
2
2
2
1 ( ) 1 + + [ ] log
u 1 2 ' =
= =
10
1
16
------ 2
1
4
-- - 2
2
1 ( ) 1 + + log 10
1
16
------
2
1
2
-- - 1 + + log = =
10
2
0.5625 + ( ) log =
Chapter 8 Frequency Response and Bode Plots
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and for ,
Figure 8.29. Corrections for magnitude Bode plots with complex poles when
To find the amplitude at point 2, in (8.54) we let and we form the magnitude in .
Then,
(8.59)
We now recall that the logarithmic function is a monotonically increasing function and therefore
(8.59 has a maximum when the absolute magnitude of this expression is maximum. Also, the
square of the absolute magnitude is maximum when the absolute magnitude is maximum.
The square of the absolute magnitude is
0.4 =
A
dB
c
n
2 ' ( )
point 1
10 0.4
2
0.5625 + ( ) log 1.41 dB = =
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
c
n
2 '
c
n
c
0 dB
c
max
Point 1 at c c
n
2 ' =
Point 2 at c c
max
=
Point 3 at c c
n
=
Point 4 at c c
0 dB
=
0.4 =
K 1 = dB
A
dB
point 2
20
1
1 c c
n
' ( )
2
j2c c
n
' +
---------------------------------------------------------------- log =
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Modeling 8-29
Copyright Orchard Publications
Corrected Amplitude Plots
(8.60)
or
(8.61)
To find the maximum, we take the derivative with respect to and we set it equal to zero, that
is,
(8.62)
The expression of (8.62) will be zero when the numerator is set to zero, that is,
(8.63)
Of course, we require that the value of must be a nonzero value. Then,
or
from which
(8.64)
provided that or or .
The value of the amplitude at point is found by substitution of (8.64) into (8.54), that is,
(8.65)
and for
1
1 c c
n
' ( )
2
[ ]
2
4 c c
n
' ( )
2
+
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
1 2c
2
c
n
2
' c
4
c
n
4
' + 4
2
c
2
c
n
2
' +
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c
4c c
n
2
' 4c
3
c
n
4
' 8
2
c c
n
2
'
1 c c
n
' ( )
2
[ ]
2
4 c ( ) c
n
' ( )
2
+
)
`

2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0 =
c c
n
2
' ( ) 4 4c
2
c
n
2
' 8
2
( ) 0 =
c
4 4c
2
c
n
2
' 8
2
0 =
4c
2
( ) c
n
2
' 4 8
2
=
c
max
c c
n
1 2
2
= =
1 2
2
0 > 1 2 ' < 0.707 <
dB 2
A
dB
c
max
( ) 10 u
4
2u
2
2
2
1 ( ) 1 + + [ ] log
u 1 2 =
=
10 1 2
2
( )
2
2 1 2
2
( ) 2
2
1 ( ) 1 + + [ ] log =
10 4
2
1
2
( ) [ ] log =
0.4 =
A
dB
c
max
( ) 10 4 0.4
2
1 0.4
2
( ) ( ) log 2.69 dB = =
Chapter 8 Frequency Response and Bode Plots
8-30 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 8-33
Copyright Orchard Publications
Corrected Amplitude Plots
e. From (8.61),
where from (8.74) and thus . Then,
and this value is indicated as Point 1 on the plot of Figure 8.32.
Next, from (8.64)
Then,
Therefore, from (8.65)
and this value is indicated as Point 2 on the plot of Figure 8.32.
The amplitude at the corner frequency is found from (8.66), that is,
Then,
and this value is indicated as Point 3 on the plot of Figure 8.32.
Finally, the frequency at which the amplitude plot crosses the axis is found from (8.67),
that is,
or
This frequency is indicated as Point 4 on the plot of Figure 8.32.
The amplitude plot of Figure 8.32 reveals that the given circuit behaves as a low pass filter.
Using the transfer function of (8.68) with the MATLAB script below, we obtain the Bode
magnitude plot shown in Figure 8.33.
num=[0 0 2500]; den=[1 20 2500]; sys=tf(num,den); w=logspace(0,5,100); bodemag(sys,w)
A
dB
c
n
2 ' ( ) 10
2
0.5625 + ( ) log =
0.2 =
2
0.04 =
A
dB
c
n
2 ' ( ) 10 0.04 0.5625 + ( ) log = 10 0.6025 ( ) log 2.2 dB = =
c
max
c
n
1 2
2
=
c
max
50 1 2 0.04 50 0.92 47.96 rad s ' = = =
A
dB
c
max
( ) 10 4
2
1
2
( ) [ ] log 10 0.16 ( ) 0.96 ( ) [ ] log 8.14 dB = = =
dB
A
dB
c
n
( ) 20 2 ( ) log =
A
dB
c
n
( ) 20 2 0.2 ( ) log 7.96 dB = =
0 dB
c
0 dB
2c
max
=
c
0 dB
2 47.96 67.83 rad s ' = =
Chapter 8 Frequency Response and Bode Plots
8-34 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Figure 8.33. Bode plot for Example 8.5 using the MATLAB bodemag function
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 8-35
Copyright Orchard Publications
Summary
8.8 Summary
- The decibel, denoted as dB, is a unit used to express the ratio between two amounts of power,
gener al l y . By def i ni t i on, t he number of i s obt ai ned f r om
. It can also be used to express voltage and current ratios provided
that the voltages and currents have identical impedances. Then, for voltages we use the
expr es s i on , and f or cur r ent s we us e t he expr es s i on
- The bandwidth, denoted as , is a term generally used with electronic amplifiers and filters.
For low-pass filters the bandwidth is the band of frequencies from zero frequency to the cutoff
frequency where the amplitude fall to of its maximum value. For high-pass filters the
bandwidth is the band of frequencies from of maximum amplitude to infinite frequency.
For amplifiers, band-pass, and band-elimination filters the bandwidth is the range of frequen-
cies where the maximum amplitude falls to of its maximum value on either side of the
frequency response curve.
- If two frequencies and are such that , we say that these frequencies are sepa-
rated by one octave and if , they are separated by one decade.
- Frequency response is a term used to express the response of an amplifier or filter to input sinu-
soids of different frequencies. The response of an amplifier or filter to a sinusoid of frequency
is completely described by the magnitude and phase of the transfer func-
tion.
- Bode plots are frequency response diagrams of magnitude and phase versus frequency .
- In Bode plots the - frequencies, denoted as , are referred to as the corner frequencies.
- In Bode plots, the transfer function is expressed in linear factors of the form for the zero
(numerator) linear factors and for the pole linear factors. When quadratic factors with
complex roots occur in addition to the linear factors, these quadratic factors are expressed in
the form .
- In magnitude Bode plots with quadratic factors the difference between the asymptotic plot and
the actual curves depends on the value of the damping factor . But regardless of the value of
, the actual curve approaches the asymptotes at both low and high frequencies.
P
out
P
in
' dB
dB
w
10 P
out
P
in
' ( )
10
log =
dB
v
20 V
out
V
in
' ( )
10
log =
dB
i
20 I
out
I
in
' ( )
10
log =
BW
0.707
0.707
0.707
c
1
c
2
c
2
2c
1
=
c
2
10c
1
=
c G jc ( ) G jc ( ) Z
c
3 dB c
n
jc z
i
+
jc p
i
+
jc ( )
2
j2c
n
c c
n
2
+ +

Chapter 8 Frequency Response and Bode Plots

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
There are many magnetic lines of flux linking the coil with turns but for simplicity, only
two are shown in Figure 9.4. The current produces a magnetic flux . Then by (9.4) and
(9.5), we obtain
(9.8)
and by Faradays law of (9.6), in terms of the self-inductance ,
(9.9)
Next, suppose another coil with turns is brought near the vicinity of coil and some lines
of flux are also linking coil as shown in Figure 9.5.
Figure 9.5. Lines of flux linking two coils
It is convenient to express the flux as the sum of two fluxes and , that is,
(9.10)
where the linkage flux is the flux which links coil only and not coil , and the mutual flux
is the flux which links both coils and . We have assumed that the linkage and mutual
fluxes and link all turns of coil and the mutual flux links all turns of coil .
The arrangement above forms an elementary transformer where coil is called the primary wind-
ing and coil the secondary winding.
In a linear transformer the mutual flux is proportional to the primary winding current and
since there is no current in the secondary winding, the flux linkage in the secondary winding is by
(9.8),
L
1
N
1
i
1

11
/
1
N
1

11
L
1
i
1
= =
L
1
v
1
d/
1
dt
-------- N
1
d
11
dt
----------- L
1
di
1
dt
------- = = =
L
2
N
2
L
1
L
2
N
1
i
1
L
1
L
2
v
1
+
-
N
2
i
2
= 0

11

L1

21

11

L1

21
+ =

L1
L
1
L
2

21
L
1
L
2

L1

21
L
1

21
L
2
L
1
L
2

21
i
1
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Modeling 9-5
Copyright Orchard Publications
Mutually Coupled Coils
(9.11)
where is the mutual inductance (in Henries) and thus the open-circuit secondary winding
voltage is
(9.12)
In summary, when there is no current in the secondary winding the voltages are
(9.13)
Next, we will consider the case where there is a voltage in the secondary winding producing cur-
rent which in turn produces flux as shown in Figure 9.6.
Figure 9.6. Flux in secondary winding
Then in analogy with (9.8) and (9.9)
(9.14)
and by Faradays law in terms of the self-inductance
(9.15)
If another coil with turns is brought near the vicinity of coil , some lines of flux are also
linking coil as shown in Figure 9.7.
/
2
N
2

21
M
21
i
1
= =
M
21
v
2
v
2
d/
2
dt
-------- N
2
d
21
dt
----------- M
21
di
1
dt
------- = = =
v
1
L
1
di
1
dt
------- = and v
2
M
21
di
1
dt
------- =
if i
1
0 and i
2
0 =
i
2

22
N
2
i
2
L
2
v
2
+
-
/
2
N
2

22
L
2
i
2
= =
L
2
v
2
d/
2
dt
-------- N
2
d
22
dt
----------- L
2
di
2
dt
------- = = =
L
1
N
1
L
2
L
1
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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Figure 9.7. Lines of flux linking open primary coil
Following the same procedure as above, we express the flux as the sum of two fluxes and
, that is,
(9.16)
where the linkage flux is the flux which links coil only and not coil , and the mutual flux
is the flux which links both coils and . As before, we have assumed that the linkage and
mutual fluxes link all turns of coil and the mutual flux links all turns of coil .
Since there is no current in the primary winding, the flux linkage in the primary winding is
(9.17)
where is the mutual inductance (in Henries) and thus the open-circuit primary winding volt-
age is
(9.18)
In summary, when there is no current in the primary winding, the voltages are
(9.19)
We will see later that
(9.20)
The last possible arrangement is shown in Figure 9.8 where and also .
N
2
i
2
L
2
L
1
v
2
+
-
N
1
i
1
= 0

22

L2

22

L2

12
+ =

L2
L
2
L
1

12
L
2
L
1
L
2
L
1
/
1
N
1

12
M
12
i
2
= =
M
12
v
1
v
1
d/
1
dt
-------- N
1
d
12
dt
----------- M
12
di
2
dt
------- = = =
v
2
L
2
di
2
dt
------- = and v
1
M
12
di
2
dt
------- =
if i
1
0 = and i
2
0
M
12
M
21
M = =
i
1
0 i
2
0
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Mutually Coupled Coils
Figure 9.8. Flux linkages when both primary and secondary currents are present
The total flux linking coil is
(9.21)
and the total flux linking coil is
(9.22)
and since , we express (9.21) and (9.22) as
(9.23)
and
(9.24)
Differentiating (9.23) and (9.24) and using (9.13), (9.14), (9.19) and (9.20) we obtain:
(9.25)
In (9.25) the voltage terms
are referred to as self-induced voltages and the terms
are referred to as mutual voltages.
N
1
i
1
L
1
L
2
v
2
+
-
N
2

21
+
-

12
v
1
i
2

1
L
1

1

L1

21

12
+ +
11

12
+ = =

2
L
2

2

L2

12

21
+ +
21

22
+ = =
/ N =
/
1
N
1

11
N
1

12
+ =
/
2
N
2

21
N
2

22
+ =
v
1
L
1
di
1
dt
------- M
di
2
dt
------- + =
v
2
M
di
1
dt
------- L
2
di
2
dt
------- + =
L
1
di
1
dt
------- and L
2
di
2
dt
-------
M
di
1
dt
------- and M
di
2
dt
-------
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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In our previous studies we used the passive sign convention as a basis to denote the polarity (+)
and (-) of voltages and powers. While this convention can be used with the self-induced voltages,
it cannot be used with mutual voltages because there are four terminals involved. Instead, the
polarity of the mutual voltages is denoted by the dot convention. To understand this convention,
we first consider the transformer circuit designations shown in Figures 9.9(a) and 9.9(b) where
the dots are placed on the upper terminals and the lower terminals respectively.
Figure 9.9. Arrangements where the mutual voltage has a positive sign
These designations indicate the condition that a current entering the dotted (undotted) termi-
nal of one coil induce a voltage across the other coil with positive polarity at the dotted (undot-
ted) terminal of the other coil. Thus, the mutual voltage term has a positive sign. Following the
same rule we see that in the circuits of Figure 9.10 (a) and 9.10(b) the mutual voltage has a nega-
tive sign.
Figure 9.10. Arrangements where the mutual voltage has a negative sign
Example 9.1
For the circuit of Figure 9.11 find and if
a. and
b. and
c. and
-
-
v
2 L
1
L
2
M
-
-
v
1
i
2
i
1
(a)
i
2
v
2
M
di
1
dt
------- =
for both
networks
-
-
v
2 L
1
L
2
M
-
-
v
1
i
1
(b)
i
-
-
v
2 L
1
L
2
M
-
-
v
1
i
2
i
1
(a)
i
2
v
2
M
di
1
dt
------- =
for both
networks
-
-
v
2 L
1
L
2
M
-
-
v
1
i
1
(b)
v
1
v
2
i
1
50 mA = i
2
25 mA =
i
1
0 = i
2
20 377t sin mA =
i
1
15 377t cos mA = i
2
40 377t 60 + ( ) sin mA =
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Modeling 9-9
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Mutually Coupled Coils
Figure 9.11. Circuit for Example 9.1
Solution:
a. Since both currents and are constants, their derivatives are zero, i.e.,
and thus
b. The dot convention in the circuit of Figure 9.11 shows that the mutual voltage terms are posi-
tive and thus
c.
Example 9.2
For the circuit of Figure 9.12 find the open-circuit voltage for given that .
-
-
v
2 L
1
L
2
M = 20 mH
-
-
v
1
i
2
i
1
50 mH 50 mH
i
1
i
2
di
1
dt
-------
di
2
dt
------- 0 = =
v
1
v
2
0 = =
v
1
L
1
di
1
dt
------- M
di
2
dt
------- + 0.05 0 20 10
3
+ 20 377 377t cos = =
150.8 377t mV cos =
v
2
M
di
1
dt
------- L
2
di
2
dt
------- + 20 10
3
0 0.05 + 20 377 377t cos = =
377 377t mV cos =
v
1
L
1
di
1
dt
------- M
di
2
dt
------- + 0.05 15 377 377t sin ( ) 0.02 40 377 377t 60 + ( ) cos + = =
282.75 377t sin 301.6 377t 60 + ( ) mV cos + =
v
2
M
di
1
dt
------- L
2
di
2
dt
------- + 0.02 15 377 377t sin ( ) 0.05 40 377 377t 60 + ( ) cos + = =
113.1 377t sin 754 377t 60 + ( ) mV cos + =
v
2
t 0 > i
1
0
-
( ) 0 =
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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Figure 9.12. Circuit for Example 9.2
Solution:
For
Also,
where is the forced response component of and it is obtained from
and is the natural response component of and it is obtained from
Then,
and with the initial condition
we obtain
Therefore,
and in accordance with the dot convention,
-
-
-
-
+
-
t 0 =
5 O
50 mH
L
2
R
L
1
v
1
v
2
i
1
i
2
M 20 mH =
50 mH
24 V
t 0 >
L
di
1
dt
------- Ri
1
+ 24 =
0.05
di
1
dt
------- 5i
1
+ 24 =
di
1
dt
------- 100i
1
+ 480 =
i
1
i
f
i
n
+ =
i
f
i
1
i
f
24
5
------ 4.8 A = =
i
n
i
1
i
n
Ae
Rt L '
Ae
100t
= =
i
1
i
f
i
n
+ 4.8 Ae
100t
+ = =
i
1
0
+
( ) i
1
0
-
( ) 0 4.8 Ae
0
+ = = =
A 4.8 =
i
1
i
f
i
n
+ 4.8 4.8 e
100t
= =
v
2
M
di
1
dt
------- 0.02 480e
100t
( ) 9.6e
100t
= = =
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Establishing Polarity Markings
9.5 Establishing Polarity Markings
In our previous discussion and in Examples 9.1 and 9.2, the polarity markings (dots) were given.
There are cases, however, when these are not known. The following method is generally used to
establish the polarity marking in accordance with the dot convention.
Consider the transformer and its circuit symbol shown in Figure 9.13.
Figure 9.13. Establishing polarity markings
We recall that the direction of the flux can be found by the right-hand rule which states that if
the fingers of the right hand encircle a winding in the direction of the current, the thumb indi-
cates the direction of the flux. Let us place a dot at the upper end of and assume that the cur-
rent enters the top end thereby producing a flux in the clockwise direction shown. Next, we
want the current in to enter the end which will produce a flux in the same direction, in this
case, clockwise. This will be accomplished if the current in enters the lower end as shown
and thus we place a dot at that end.
Example 9.3
For the transformer shown in Figure 9.14, find and .
Solution:
Let us first establish the dot positions as discussed above. Since the current has a negative sign,
it leaves the upper terminal, or equivalently, enters the lower terminal and thus we enter a dot at
the lower terminal. The dotted circuit now is as shown in Figure 9.15.
i

L
1
L
2
M
L
1
L
2
i
2

L
1
i
1
L
2
i
2
L
2
v
1
v
2
i
2
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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Figure 9.14. Network for Example 9.3
Figure 9.15. Figure for Example 9.3 with dotted markings
The current enters the upper terminal on the left side and leaves the upper terminal on the
right side, the fluxes oppose each other. Therefore,
Example 9.4
For the network in Figure 9.16 find the voltage ratio .
*
Solution:
The dots are given to us as shown. Now, we arbitrarily assign currents and as shown in Fig-
ure 9.17 and we write mesh equations for each mesh.
* Henceforth we will be using bolded capital letters to denote phasor quantities.
+
-
+
-
i
1
2 377t A sin =
i
2
5 377 cos t A =
v
1 v
2
M 2 H =
L
2
L
1
3 H 4 H

( ) sin ( )
2
46 10
6
J 46 J = =
R
1
R
2
V
0
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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Figure 9.22. Transformer with DC isolation
Application of KVL around the primary and secondary circuits yields the loop equations
*
(9.53)
and we see that the instantaneous values of the voltages and the currents are not affected by the
presence of the DC voltage source since we would have obtained the same equations had we
let .
Example 9.6
For the transformer shown in Figure 9.23, find the total response of for given that
. Use MATLAB to sketch for .
Figure 9.23. Transformer for Example 9.6
Solution:
The total response consists of the summation of the forced and natural responses, that is,
* The mutual inductance terms and have a negative sign since the current is leaving the dotted ter-
minal of the transformer secondary.
-
-
v
2
L
1
L
2
M
v
1
i
2
i
1
-
-
R
1
v
in
R
2
R
LD
v
out
V
0
(DC)
-
-
v
in
R
1
i
1
L
1
di
1
dt
------- M
di
2
dt
------- + =
0 M
di
1
dt
------- L
2
di
2
dt
------- R
2
R
LD
+ ( ) + + =
M
di
2
dt
------- M
di
1
dt
------- i
2
V
0
V
0
0 =
i
2
t 0 >
i
1
0
-
( ) i
2
0
-
( ) 0 = = i
2
0 t 5 s s s
-
-
L
1
L
2
-
-
R
1
v
in
R
2
R
LD
v
out
t=0
24 V DC
100 O 200 O
1 KO
3 H 5 H
I
1
I
2
M 2 H =
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Circuits with Linear Transformers
(9.54)
and since the applied voltage is constant (DC), no steady-state (forced) voltage is produced in
the secondary and thus .
For the -domain circuit is shown in Figure 9.24.
Figure 9.24. The -domain circuit for the transformer of Example 9.6 for
The loop equations for this transformer are
(9.55)
Since we are interested only in , we will use Cramers rule.
or
and by partial fraction expansion,
(9.56)
from which
(9.57)
(9.58)
i
2T
i
2f
i
2n
+ =
i
2f
0 =
t 0 > s
-
-
-
-
2s
100 200
24 s '
v
out
s ( )
3s 5s
I
1
s ( )
I
2
s ( )
1000
v
in
s ( )
s t 0 >
3s 100 + ( )I
1
s ( ) 2sI
2
s ( ) 24 s ' =
2sI
1
s ( ) 5s 1200 + ( )I
2
s ( ) + 0 =
I
2
s ( )
I
2
s ( )
3s 100 + 24 s '
2s 0
3s 100 + 2s
2s 5s 1200 +
----------------------------------------------------
48
11s
2
4100s 120000 + +
--------------------------------------------------------
4.36
s
2
372.73s 10909.01 + +
----------------------------------------------------------- = = =
I
2
s ( )
4.36
s 340.71 + ( ) s 32.02 + ( )
--------------------------------------------------------- =
I
2
s ( )
4.36
s 340.71 + ( ) s 32.02 + ( )
--------------------------------------------------------- =
r
1
s 340.71 +
-------------------------
r
2
s 32.02 +
---------------------- + =
r
1
4.36
s 32.02 +
----------------------
s 340.71 =
0.01 = =
r
2
4.36
s 340.71 +
-------------------------
s 32.02 =
0.01 = =
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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By substitution into (9.56), we obtain
(9.59)
and taking the Inverse Laplace of (9.59) we obtain
(9.60)
Using the following MATLAB script we obtain the plot shown on Figure 9.25.
t=0: 0.001: 0.2; i2n=0.01.*(exp(-32.02*t)-exp(-340.71.*t)); plot(t,i2n); grid
Figure 9.25. Plot for the secondary current of the transformer of Example 9.6
Example 9.7
For the transformer of Figure 9.26, find the steady-state (forced) response of .
Figure 9.26. Circuit for Example 9.7
I
2
s ( )
0.01
s 32.02 +
----------------------
0.01
s 340.71 +
------------------------- + =
i
2n
0.01 e
32.02t
e
340.71t
( ) =
i
2n
0.01 e
32.02t
e
340.71t
( ) =
v
out
-
-
-
-
10 O
170 377t V cos
v
out
v
in
100 O
2 H
3 H 5 H
0.1 F
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The imaginary part of (9.75) represents the reflected reactance and we see that it is negative.
That is, the reflected reactance is opposite to that of the net reactance of the second-
ary. Therefore, if is a capacitive reactance whose magnitude is less than , or if it is an
inductive reactance, then the reflected reactance is capacitive. However, if is a capacitive
reactance whose magnitude is greater than , the reflected reactance is inductive. In the case
where the magnitude of is capacitive and equal to , the reflected reactance is zero and
the transformer operates at resonant frequency. In this case, the reflected impedance is purely real
since (9.75) reduces to
(9.76)
Example 9.8
In the transformer circuit of Figure 9.29, represents the internal impedance of the voltage
source .
Find:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Figure 9.29. Transformer for Example 9.8
Solution:
a. From (9.72)
X
LD
cL
2
+
X
LD
cL
2
X
LD
cL
2
X
LD
cL
2
Z
R
c
2
M
2
R
LD
--------------- =
Z
S
V
S
Z
in
I
1
I
2
V
1
V
2
200 mH
-
-
-
-
100 mH
V
S
V
2
V
1
I
2
I
1
L
1
L
2
V
LD
Z
LD
Z
S
2 O
300 mH
c 377 r s ' =
V
S
120 0 Z =
Z
LD
10 j
7540
c
------------ O =
Z
in
V
S
I
1
------ jcL
1
c
2
M
2
jcL
2
Z
LD
+
---------------------------- + = =
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The Ideal Transformer
and we must add to it. Therefore, for the transformer of this example,
b.
c. By KVL
or
d.
e.
9.9 The Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one in which the coefficient of coupling is almost unity, and both the pri-
mary and secondary inductive reactances are very large in comparison with the load impedances.
The primary and secondary coils have many turns wound around a laminated iron-core and are
arranged so that the entire flux links all the turns of both coils.
An important parameter of an ideal transformer is the turns ratio which is defined as the ratio of
the number of turns on the secondary, , to the number of turns of the primary , that is,
(9.77)
The flux produced in a winding of a transformer due to a current in that winding is proportional to
the product of the current and the number of turns on the winding. Therefore, letting be a con-
stant of proportionality which depends on the physical properties of the transformer, for the pri-
mary and secondary windings we have:
Z
s
2 O =
Z
in
jcL
1
c
2
M
2
jcL
2
Z
LD
+
---------------------------- 2 + + j75.4
142129 0.01
j113.1 10 j20 +
----------------------------------------- 2 + + = =
3.62 j60.31 + 60.42 86.56 O Z = =
I
1
V
S
Z
in
-------
120 0 Z
60.42 86.56 O Z
----------------------------------------- 1.98 86.56 A Z = = =
jcMI
1
jcL
2
Z
LD
+ ( ) I
2
+ 0 =
I
2
jcM
jcL
2
Z
LD
+
----------------------------I
1
j37.7
j113.1 10 j20 +
-----------------------------------------1.98 86.56 Z
74.88 3.04 Z
93.64 83.87 Z
---------------------------------- 0.8 80.83 Z A = = = =
V
1
jcL
1
I
1
jcMI
2
75.4 90 1.98 86.56 Z Z 37.7 90 0.8 80.83 Z Z = =
149.29 3.04 Z 30.15 9.17 Z 149.08 j7.92 30.15 j4.8 + 118.9 1.5 Z V = = =
V
2
Z
LD
I
2
10 j20 ( )0.8 80.83 Z 22.36 63.43 Z 0.8 80.83 Z 17.89 144.26V Z = = = =
a
N
2
N
1
a
N
2
N
1
------ =
o
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(9.78)
The constant is the same for the primary and secondary windings because we have assumed
that the same flux links both coils and thus both flux paths are identical. We recall from (9.8) and
(9.14) that
(9.79)
Then, from (9.78) and (9.79) we obtain:
(9.80)
or
(9.81)
Therefore,
(9.82)
From (9.69),
(9.83)
or
(9.84)
and since , (9.84) reduces to
(9.85)
For the case of unity coupling,
(9.86)
or
(9.87)
and by substitution of (9.87) into (9.85) we obtain:
(9.88)
o
11
oN
1
i
1
=
o
22
oN
2
i
2
=
o
/
1
N
1

11
L
1
i
1
= =
/
2
N
2

22
L
2
i
2
= =
N
1

11
L
1
i
1
oN
1
2
i
1
= =
N
2

22
L
2
i
2
oN
2
2
i
2
= =
L
1
oN
1
2
=
L
2
oN
2
2
=
L
2
L
1
------
N
2
N
1
------

2
a
2
= =
I
2
jcMI
1
jcL
2
Z
LD
+ ( )
--------------------------------- =
I
2
I
1
----
jcM
jcL
2
Z
LD
+ ( )
--------------------------------- =
jcL
2
Z
LD

I
2
I
1
----
jcM
jcL
2
------------
M
L
2
------ = =
k
M
L
1
L
2
---------------- 1 = =
M L
1
L
2
=
I
2
I
1
----
L
1
L
2
L
2
-----------------
L
1
L
2
------ = =
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The Ideal Transformer
From (9.82) and (9.88), we obtain the important relation
(9.89)
Also, from (9.77) and (9.89),
(9.90)
and this relation indicates that if , the current is larger than .
The primary and secondary voltages are also related to the turns ratio . To find this relation, we
define the secondary or load voltage as
(9.91)
and the primary voltage across as
(9.92)
From (9.72),
(9.93)
and for
Then, (9.93) becomes
(9.94)
Next, from (9.82)
(9.95)
Substitution of (9.95) into (9.94) yields
(9.96)
and if we let , both terms on the right side of (9.96) become infinite and we obtain an
indeterminate result. To work around this problem, we combine these terms and we obtain:
and as ,
I
2
I
1
----
1
a
--- =
N
1
I
1
N
2
I
2
=
N
2
N
1
< I
2
I
1
a
V
2
V
2
Z
LD
I
2
=
V
1
L
1
V
1
Z
in
I
1
=
Z
in
V
s
I
1
------ jcL
1
c
2
M
2
jcL
2
Z
LD
+
---------------------------- + = =
k 1 =
M
2
L
1
L
2
=
Z
in
jcL
1
c
2
L
1
L
2
jcL
2
Z
LD
+
---------------------------- + =
L
2
a
2
L
1
=
Z
in
jcL
1
c
2
a
2
L
1
2
jca
2
L
1
Z
LD
+
--------------------------------- + =
jcL
1

Z
in
c
2
a
2
L
1
2
jcL
1
Z
LD
c
2
a
2
L
1
2
+ +
jca
2
L
1
Z
LD
+
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
jcL
1
Z
LD
jca
2
L
1
Z
LD
+
--------------------------------- = =
jcL
1

Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
9-30 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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(9.97)
Finally, substitution of (9.97) into (9.92) yields
(9.98)
and by division of (9.91) by (9.98) we obtain:
(9.99)
or
(9.100)
also, from the current and voltage relations of (9.88) and (9.99),
(9.101)
that is, the volt-amperes of the secondary and the primary are equal.
An ideal transformer is represented by the network of Figure 9.30.
Figure 9.30. Ideal transformer representation
9.10 Impedance Matching
An ideal (iron-core) transformer can be used as an impedance level changing device. We recall
from basic circuit theory that to achieve maximum power transfer, we must adjust the resistance
of the load to make it equal to the resistance of the voltage source. But this is not always possible.
A power amplifier for example, has an internal resistance of several thousand ohms. On the other
hand, a speaker which is to be connected to the output of a power amplifier has a fixed resistance
of just a few ohms. In this case, we can achieve maximum power transfer by inserting an iron-core
transformer between the output of the power amplifier and the input of the speaker as shown in
Figure 9.31 where .
Z
in
Z
LD
a
2
--------- =
V
1
Z
LD
a
2
---------I
1
=
V
2
V
1
------
Z
LD
I
2
Z
LD
a
2
' ( )I
1
--------------------------- a
2 1
a
--- a = = =
V
2
V
1
------ a =
V
2
I
2
V
1
I
1
=
-
-
v
2
L
1
L
2
-
-
v
1
i
2
i
1
1:a
N
2
N
1
<
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Figure 9.37. The Thevenin equivalent of the circuit of Example 9.9
Now, by application of KCL
or
Other equivalent circuits can be developed from the equations of the primary and secondary volt-
ages and currents.
Consider for example, the linear transformer circuit of Figure 9.38.
Figure 9.38. Linear transformer
From (9.30), the primary and secondary voltages and currents are:
-
-
V
2
0.001 V
2
80 0 V Z
1 KO
-
-
60 j80 O +
V
2
80 0 Z ( )
10
3
------------------------------------- 10
3
V
2
( )
V
2
60 j80 +
-------------------- + 0 =
V
2
10
3
--------
V
2
10
3
--------
60 j 80 ( )V
2
10000
----------------------------- + +
80
10
3
-------- =
2V
2
6 j8 ( )V
2
+ 80 =
8 1 j1 ( )V
2
80 180 Z =
2 45 Z ( )V
2
10 180 Z =
V
2
10
2
------- 225 Z 5 2 135 Z = =
-
-
v
2 L
1
L
2
-
-
v
1
i
1
i
2
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Modeling 9-35
Copyright Orchard Publications
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
(9.108)
and these equations are satisfied by the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 9.39.
Figure 9.39. Network satisfying the expressions of (9.108)
If we rearrange the equations of (9.108) as
(9.109)
we find that these equations are satisfied by the circuit of Figure 9.40.
Figure 9.40. Network satisfying the expressions of (9.109)
Additional equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 9.41 and they are useful in the computations of
transformer parameters computations from the open- and short-circuit tests, efficiency, and volt-
age regulation which will be discussed in subsequent sections in this chapter.
v
1
L
1
di
1
dt
------- M
di
2
dt
------- + =
v
2
M
di
1
dt
------- L
2
di
2
dt
------- + =
-
-
-
-
-
-
v
1
v
2
i
2
i
1
M
di
2
dt
-------
L
1
L
2
M
di
1
dt
-------
-
-
v
1
L
1
M ( )
di
1
dt
------- M
di
1
dt
-------
di
2
dt
------- +

+ =
v
2
M
di
1
dt
-------
di
2
dt
------- +

L
2
M ( )
di
2
dt
------- + =
-
- -
v
1
v
2
i
2
i
1
M
L
1
M
L
2
M
-
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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Figure 9.41. Other transformer equivalent circuits
9.13 Autotransformer
An autotransformer is a special transformer that shares a common winding, and can be configured
either as a step-down or step-up transformer as shown in Figure 9.42.
Figure 9.42. Step-down and step-up center-tapped autotransformers
Autotransformers are not used in residential, commercial, or industrial applications because a
break in the common winding may result in equipment damage and / or personnel injury.
A variac is an adjustable autotransformer, that is, its secondary voltage can be adjusted from zero
to a maximum value y a wiper arm that slides over the common winding as shown in Figure 9.43.
I
1
V
1
Z
eq2
V
2
Y
eq2
I
2
I
1
V
1
Z
eq2
V
2
Y
eq2
I
2
I
1
V
1
Z
eq1
V
2
Y
eq1
I
2 I
1
V
1
Z
eq1
V
2
Y
eq1
I
2
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(a) Step-down autotransformer
(b) Step-up autotransformer
V
S
V
P
V
P
V
S
Load
Load
N
P
N
P
N
S
N
S
I
P
I
P
I
S
I
S N
P
N
S
------
V
P
V
S
------
I
S
I
P
---- = =
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Modeling 9-41
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Transformer Tests
Figure 9.49. Circuit for Example 9.10
For this transformer, the ratio is
(9.120)
From the short-circuit test,
(9.121)
and
(9.122)
Then,
(9.123)
The load current referred to the primary is
(9.124)
The excitation current referred to the primary is
(9.125)
and its phase angle is
(9.126)
and since in a real transformer the angle of the current lags the angle of the voltage, we accept
, and thus
(9.127)
Therefore, the generator voltage must be
I
P
R
C
X
M
V
L
2 300 V , =
V
GEN
j35 O
10 O
X
eq
R
eq
Z
line
Z
eq
I
o
0.8 pf
a
a
N
P
N
S
------
V
P
V
S
------
13.2 KV
2.4 KV
--------------------- 5.5 = = = =
R
eq
P
SC
I
SC
2
---------
1600
8.2
2
------------ 23.8 O = = =
Z
eq
V
SC
I
SC
----------
450
8.2
--------- 54.9 O = = =
X
eq
Z
eq
2
R
eq
2
54.9
2
23.8
2
49.5 O = = =
I
L
I
L
Load KW
Load KV a pf
---------------------------------------------
75
2.3 5.5 0.8
------------------------------- 7.4 A = = =
I
o
I
o
I
OC
a
--------
37
5.5
------- 6.73 A = = =
o
o arc
P
OC
V
OC
I
OC

------------------------ cos arc cos

1100
2400 37
---------------------- 90 deg = = =
o Z 90 deg =
I
o
6.73 90 Z j6.73 = =
V
GEN
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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or
(9.128)
9.16 Efficiency
Efficiency, denoted as , is a dimensionless quantity defined as
(9.129)
or in terms of the output and losses
(9.130)
The losses in a transformer are the summation of the core losses (hysteresis and eddy currents),
and copper losses caused by the resistance of the conducting material of the coils, generally made
of copper. The core losses can be obtained from the transformer equivalent circuit in Figure 9.50.

Figure 9.50. Transformer equivalent circuit for computation of the core losses
Thus, the core losses are found from the relation
(9.131)
The copper losses can be obtained from the transformer equivalent circuit in Figure 9.51.
Figure 9.51. Transformer equivalent circuit for computation of the copper losses
V
GEN I
o
Z
line
I
L
Z
line
Z
eq
+ ( ) pf aV
L

+
j6.73 10 j35 + ( ) 7.4 33.8 j84.5 + ( ) 0.8 j0.6 ( ) 5.5 2300 + + 13457 j280.5 +
=
= =
V
GEN 13.46 KV =
q
q
P
OUT
P
IN
-------------
P
IN
P
LOSS

P
IN
----------------------------- 1
P
LOSS
P
IN
--------------- = = =
q
P
OUT
P
OUT
P
LOSS
+
---------------------------------- 1
P
LOSS
P
OUT
P
LOSS
+
---------------------------------- = =
I
1
V
1
Z
eq2
V
2
Y
eq2
I
2
P
C
P
C
G
C2
V
2
2
=
I
1
V
1
Z
eq2
V
2
Y
eq2
I
2
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Modeling 9-43
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Efficiency
Thus, the copper losses are found from the relation
(9.132)
Therefore, using equation (9.130), we obtain
(9.133)
The efficiency varies with the load current , and to find the maximum efficiency we differenti-
ate (9.133) with respect to the load current
*
and we obtain
(9.134)
(9.135)
or
(9.136)
and after simplification,
(9.137)
That is, the efficiency attains its maximum value at that load at which the constant (core) losses
are equal to the losses that vary with the load, i.e., the copper losses.
Example 9.11
A , transformer has an equivalent series impedance
referred to the low-voltage side, and a core loss at rated terminal voltage. Find:
a. The value of the load current which will produce the maximum efficiency
b. The output at maximum efficiency.
Solution:
a. From relation (9.137),
* The quantities and are constant.
P
R
P
R
R
eq2
I
2
2
=
q
P
OUT
P
OUT
P
LOSS
+
----------------------------------
V
2
I
2
0
2
cos
V
2
I
2
0
2
cos G
C2
V
2
2
R
eq2
I
2
2
+ +
------------------------------------------------------------------------ = =
I
2
I
2
V
2
0
2
cos
dq
dI
2
-------
V
2
I
2
0
2
cos G
C2
V
2
2
R
eq2
I
2
2
+ + ( ) V
2
0
2
cos V
2
0
2
2R
eq2
I
2
+ cos ( ) V
2
I
2
0
2
cos
V
2
I
2
0
2
cos G
C2
V
2
2
R
eq2
I
2
2
+ + ( )
2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0 = =
V
2
I
2
0
2
cos G
C2
V
2
2
R
eq2
I
2
2
+ + ( ) V
2
0
2
cos V
2
0
2
2R
eq2
I
2
+ cos ( ) V
2
I
2
0
2
cos
V
2
I
2
0
2
cos G
C2
V
2
2
R
eq2
I
2
2
+ + ( )
2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0 =
V
2
I
2
0
2
cos G
C2
V
2
2
R
eq2
I
2
2
+ + ( ) V
2
0
2
2R
eq2
I
2
+ cos ( ) I
2
0 =
G
C2
V
2
2
R
eq2
I
2
2
=
1000 KVA 13.2 / 4.16 KV Z
eq
1 j4.2 O + =
2500 w
I
2
KVA
R
eq
I
2
2
G
C
V
2
2
2500 = =
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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and with , we find that the maximum efficiency occurs when , and with
(9.133) we find that the efficiency is
Figure 9.52 is a plot of the efficiency versus the load current, and we observe that the maxi-
mum efficiency occurs when the load current is .
The plot in Figure 9.51 was produced with the MATLAB script below.
i2=0:1:150; eff=4.16.*0.8.*i2./(4.16.*0.8.*i2+2.5+i2.^2./1000); plot(i2,eff); grid;...
xlabel('Load Current I2 (A)'); ylabel('Efficiency'); ...
title('Efficiency vs Load Current, Example 9.11')
Figure 9.52. Efficiency vs. load current for the transformer in Example 9.11
b. At maximum efficiency the output is
R
eq
1 O = I
2
50 A =
q
V
2
I
2
0
2
cos
V
2
I
2
0
2
cos G
C2
V
2
2
R
eq2
I
2
2
+ +
------------------------------------------------------------------------
4160 50 0.8
4160 50 0.8 2500 2500 + +
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.97 or 97% = = =
I
2
50 A
KVA
4.16 KV 50 A 208 KVA =
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Modeling 9-45
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Efficiency
It is reasonable to assume that whenever a transformer is intended to operate continuously, it
should be designed to operate at its maximum efficiency at rated load. However, the loads sup-
plied by the transformer vary from time to time, but in most cases follow the same pattern day
after day. Thus, a more meaningful measure is a energy efficiency, denoted as , for the entire
day, and it is defined as
(9.138)
where and .
All-day efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output to energy input for a 24-hour period.
Example 9.12
A , , transformer is in operation 24 hours a day. The loads during the
day are:
a. at for 3 hours
b. at for 5 hours
c. No load for 16 hours
Using the transformer equivalent circuit in Figure 9.53 where
and
compute the all-day efficiency.
Figure 9.53. Transformer equivalent circuit for Example 9.12
Solution:
q
W
q
W
P
OUT
t d
t
1
t
2

P
OUT
t d
t
1
t
2

P
C
t d
t
1
t
2

P
R
t d
t
1
t
2

+ +
---------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
P
C
core losses = P
R
copper losses =
10KVA 2400 / 240 60 Hz
10 KVA pf 1.0 =
6 KVA pf 0.8 =
Y
eq1
G
C1
jB
m1
+ 12.5 j28.6 O
1
= =
Z
eq1
R
eq1
jX
eq1
+ 8.4 j13.7 O + = =
I
1
V
1
Z
eq1
V
2
Y
eq1
I
2
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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The all-day efficiency is readily found by evaluating the integrals in equation (9.138). Thus,
denoting the energy as , we obtain
(9.139)
The core losses are the same for the entire 24-hour period and using (9.131) we obtain
and the energy dissipated during the 24-hour period is
(9.140)
For the 3-hour period the energy dissipated due to copper losses is
(9.141)
For the 5-hour period the energy dissipated due to copper losses is
(9.142)
For the 16-hour period the energy dissipated due to copper losses is zero, that is,
(9.143)
and from (9.141) through (9.143),
(9.144)
Therefore, from (9.138) we find that all-day efficiency is
9.17 Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation in a transformer is based on rated voltage and rated current at the second-
ary terminal. Accordingly, a transformer operates at rated conditions when the following condi-
tions are satisfied.
(9.145)
W
W
OUT
10000 1.0 ( ) 3 6000 0.8 ( ) 5 0 16 + + 54 000 watt-hours , = =
P
C
P
C
G
C2
V
2
2
G
C1
V
1
2
12.5 10
6
( ) 2400 ( )
2
72 w = = = =
W
C
W
C
72 24 1728 watt-hours = =
W
R 3 hr
10 KVA
2.4 KV
---------------------

2
R
eq1
3
10
2.4
-------

2
8.4 3 437.5 w h = = =
W
R 5 hr
6 KVA
2.4 KV
------------------

2
R
eq1
5
6
2.4
-------

2
8.4 5 262.5 w h = = =
W
R 16 hr
0 w h =
W
R 24 hr
437.5 262.5 0 + + w 700 w-h = =
q
W
54000
54000 1728 700 + +
------------------------------------------------ 0.957 = =
V
2
V
2
rated ( ) =
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Modeling 9-47
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Voltage Regulation
(9.146)
(9.147)
While the relation in (9.147) defines the turns ratio, the primary terminal voltage under rated
conditions is not exactly under normal operating conditions and thus it cannot be
computed as . Its actual value can be computed from a transformer equivalent circuit
such as the one shown in Figure 9.52, Page 9-45, from which
(9.148)
and we must remember that and are the transformer rated values. Relation (9.148) can also
be expressed as
(9.149)
if we use the equivalent circuit in Figure 9.50, Page 9-42.
The relations in (9.148) and (9.149) are phasor quantities. However, the transformer regulation,
denoted as , is defined in terms of the magnitudes of as computed from relation (9.148) or
(9.149), and the magnitude of rated secondary voltage as
(9.150)
The transformer voltage regulation can also be expressed in terms of the no-load and full-load
voltages as
(9.151)
where represents the condition where the transformer operates under rated conditions, that
is, and are the rated values defined in (9.145) and (9.146), and represents the condi-
tion where the load is disconnected in which case , and the output voltage attains the
value .
Obviously, the transformer regulation depends on the power factor of the load. In Figure 9.53, a
resistive load is represented by the phasor diagram (a), an inductive load is represented by the
phasor diagram (b), and a capacitive load is represented by the phasor diagram (c).
I
2
I
2
rated ( )
KVA rated ( )
V
2
rated ( )
-------------------------------- = =
Turns ratio a
V
1
rated ( )
V
2
rated ( )
------------------------- = =
V
1
rated ( )
V
1
aV
2
=
V
1
aV
2
Z
eq1
I
2
a
---- + =
V
2
I
2
V
1
a V
2
Z
eq2
I
2
+ ( ) =
r V
1
V
2
r
V
1
aV
2

aV
2
----------------------
V
1
a ' V
2

V
2
-------------------------- = =
r
V
2
No Load ( ) V
2
Full Load ( )
V
2
Full Load ( )
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
V
2 NL
V
2 FL

V
2 FL
------------------------------- = =
V
2 FL
V
2
I
2
V
2 NL
I
2
0 = V
2
V
1
a '
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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When pu values are used the transformer ratio is unity. that is, . This is because the pu val-
ues are the same regardless of which side there are referred to, e.g., . Accordingly,
whenever pu values are use, the voltage regulation expression in (9.150) above, reduces to
(9.152) below.
(9.152)
Figure 9.54. Transformer voltage regulation dependence on load power factor
Example 9.13
An equivalent circuit of a , , transformer is shown in Figure 9.55 where
and
Compute the voltage regulation if the transformer operates at rated load and lagging.
Figure 9.55. Transformer equivalent circuit for Example 9.13
Solution:
The voltage regulation is defined as in relation (9.150). Therefore we need to find the value of
using relation (9.148). We choose the secondary rated voltage as our reference.
The magnitude of the rated current is found from (9.146), that is,
a 1 =
Z
eq1
Z
eq2
=
r
pu
V
1
V
2

V
2
-------------------
V
1
V
2
------ 1 = =
(a)
(b) (c)
I
2
I
2
I
2
V
2
V
2
V
2
1
a
---V
1
1
a
---V
1
1
a
---V
1
Z
eq2
I
2
Z
eq2
I
2
Z
eq2
I
2
10KVA 2400 / 240 60 Hz
Y
eq1
G
C1
jB
m1
+ 12.5 j28.6 O
1
= =
Z
eq1
R
eq1
jX
eq1
+ 8.4 j13.7 O + = =
pf 08 =
I
1
V
1
Z
eq1
V
2
Y
eq1
I
2
V
1
V
2
240 0 V Z =
I
2
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9.19 Summary
- Inductance is associated with the magnetic field which is always present when there is an elec-
tric current.
- The magnetic field loops are circular in form and are called lines of magnetic flux.
- The magnetic flux is denoted as and the unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb).
- If there are turns and we assume that the flux passes through each turn, the total flux
denoted as is called flux linkage. Then,
- A linear inductor one in which the flux linkage is proportional to the current through it, that
is,
where the constant of proportionality is called inductance in webers per ampere.
- Faradays law of electromagnetic induction states that
- Lenzs law states that whenever there is a change in the amount of magnetic flux linking an
electric circuit, an induced voltage of value directly proportional to the time rate of change of
flux linkages is set up tending to produce a current in such a direction as to oppose the change
in flux.
- A linear transformer is a four-terminal device in which the voltages and currents in the pri-
mary coils are linearly related.
- In a linear transformer, when there is no current in the secondary winding the voltages are
- In a linear transformer, when there is no current in the primary winding, the voltages are

N
/
/ N =
/ Li =
L
v
d/
dt
------ =
v
1
L
1
di
1
dt
------- = and v
2
M
21
di
1
dt
------- =
if i
1
0 and i
2
0 =
v
2
L
2
di
2
dt
------- = and v
1
M
12
di
2
dt
------- =
if i
1
0 = and i
2
0
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Modeling 9-59
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Summary
- In a linear transformer, when there is a current in both the primary and secondary windings,
the voltages are
- The voltage terms
are referred to as self-induced voltages.
- The voltage terms
are referred to as mutual voltages.
- The polarity of the mutual voltages is denoted by the dot convention. If a current entering
the dotted (undotted) terminal of one coil induces a voltage across the other coil with positive
polarity at the dotted (undotted) terminal of the other coil, the mutual voltage term has a pos-
itive sign. If a current entering the undotted (dotted) terminal of one coil induces a voltage
across the other coil with positive polarity at the dotted (undotted) terminal of the other coil,
the mutual voltage term has a negative sign.
- If the polarity (dot) markings are not given, they can be established by using the right-hand
rule which states that if the fingers of the right hand encircle a winding in the direction of the
current, the thumb indicates the direction of the flux. Thus, in an ideal transformer with pri-
mary and secondary windings and and currents and respectively, we place a dot at
the upper end of and assume that the current enters the top end thereby producing a flux
in the clockwise direction. Next, we want the current in to enter the end which will pro-
duce a flux in the same direction, in this case, clockwise.
- The energy stored in a pair of mutually coupled inductors is given by
where the sign of is positive if both currents enter the dotted (or undotted) terminals, and it
is negative if one current enters the dotted (or undotted) terminal while the other enters the
undotted (or dotted) terminal.
v
1
L
1
di
1
dt
------- M
di
2
dt
------- + =
v
2
M
di
1
dt
------- L
2
di
2
dt
------- + =
L
1
di
1
dt
------- and L
2
di
2
dt
-------
M
di
1
dt
------- and M
di
2
dt
-------
i
i
L
1
L
2
i
1
i
2
L
1
i
1
L
2
W
t
0
t
2 1
2
---L
1
i
1
2
M i
1
i
2
1
2
---L
2
i
2
2
+ =
M
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
9-60 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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- The ratio
is known as the coefficient of coupling and provides a measure of the proximity of the pri-
mary and secondary coils. If the coils are far apart, we say that they are loose-coupled, and has
a small value, typically between and . For close-coupled circuits, has a value of about
. Power transformers have a between and . The value of is exactly unity only
when the two coils are coalesced into a single coil.
- If the secondary of a linear transformer is referenced to a DC voltage source , it is said that
the secondary has DC isolation.
- In a linear transformer, the load impedance of the secondary can be reflected into the primary
can be reflected into the primary using the relation
where is referred to as the reflected impedance.
- An ideal transformer is one in which the coefficient of coupling is almost unity, and both the
primary and secondary inductive reactances are very large in comparison with the load imped-
ances. The primary and secondary coils have many turns wound around a laminated iron-core
and are arranged so that the entire flux links all the turns of both coils.
- In an ideal transformer number of turns on the primary and the number of turns on the sec-
ondary are related to the primary and secondary currents and respectively as
- An important parameter of an ideal transformer is the turns ratio which is defined as the
ratio of the number of turns on the secondary, , to the number of turns of the primary ,
that is,
- In an ideal transformer the turns ratio relates the primary and secondary currents as
k
M
L
1
L
2
---------------- =
k
k
0.01 0.1 k
0.5 k 0.90 0.95 k
V
0
Z
R
c
2
M
2
jcL
2
Z
LD
+
---------------------------- =
Z
R
N
1
N
2
I
1
I
2
N
1
I
1
N
2
I
2
=
a
N
2
N
1
a
N
2
N
1
------ =
a
I
2
I
1
----
1
a
-- - =
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Modeling 9-61
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Summary
- In an ideal transformer the turns ratio relates the primary and secondary voltages as
- In an ideal transformer the volt-amperes of the primary and the secondary are equal, that is,
- An ideal transformer can be used as an impedance matching device by specifying the appropri-
ate turns ratio . Then,
- In analyzing networks containing ideal transformers, it is very convenient to replace the trans-
former by an equivalent circuit before the analysis. One method is presented in Section 9.11.
- An ideal transformer can be replaced by a Thevenin equivalent as discussed in Section 9.12.
- Four transformer equivalent circuits are shown in Figure 9.41 and they are useful in the com-
putations of transformer parameters computations from the open- and short-circuit tests, effi-
ciency, and voltage regulation.
- An autotransformer is a special transformer that shares a common winding, and can be config-
ured either as a step-down or step-up transformer as shown in Figure 9.42.
- Autotransformers are not used in residential, commercial, or industrial applications because a
break in the common winding may result in equipment damage and / or personnel injury.
- A variac is an adjustable autotransformer, that is, its secondary voltage can be adjusted from
zero to a maximum value y a wiper arm that slides over the common winding as shown in Fig-
ure 9.43.
- Some transformers are constructed with a common primary winding and two or more second-
ary windings. These transformers are used in applications hen there is a need for two or more
different secondary voltages with a common primary voltage.
- The transformer open-circuit test, also referred to as the no-load test, is used to determine the
reactance n the primary winding, the core resistance , and the magnetizing reactance
. For this test, the secondary is left open, and an ammeter, a voltmeter, and a wattmeter are
connected as shown in Figure 9.47.
- The transformer short-circuit test is used to determine the magnitude of the series impedances
referred to the primary side of the transformer denoted as For this test, the secondary is
shorted, and an ammeter, a voltmeter, and a wattmeter are connected as shown in Figure 9.48.
a
V
2
V
1
------ a =
V
2
I
2
V
1
I
1
=
N
2
N
1
' a =
Z
in
Z
LD
a
2
--------- =
X
P
R
C
X
M
Z
SC
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
9-62 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
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- Efficiency, denoted as , is a dimensionless quantity defined as
or in terms of the output and losses
- The losses in a transformer are the summation of the core losses (hysteresis and eddy cur-
rents), and copper losses caused by the resistance of the conducting material of the coils, gen-
erally made of copper.
- Energy efficiency, denoted as , for the entire day, and it is defined as
where and .
- All-day efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output to energy input for a 24-hour period.
- The transformer voltage regulation, denoted as , is defined in terms of the magnitudes of
as computed from relation (9.148) or (9.149), and the magnitude of rated secondary voltage
as
The transformer voltage regulation can also be expressed in terms of the no-load and full-
load voltages as
where represents the condition where the transformer operates under rated conditions,
that is, and are the rated values defined in (9.145) and (9.146), and represents
the condition where the load is disconnected in which case , and the output voltage
attains the value .
q
q
P
OUT
P
IN
-------------
P
IN
P
LOSS

P
OUT
t d
t
1
t
2

P
C
t d
t
1
t
2

P
R
t d
t
1
t
2

+ +
---------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
P
C
core losses = P
R
copper losses =
r V
1
V
2
r
V
1
aV
2

aV
2
----------------------
V
1
a ' V
2

/ SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
4.
For this exercise, and thus we need to find .
At Node ,
(1)
From the primary circuit,
(2)
Since , , and , it follows that and . By sub-
stitution into (2) we obtain
(3)
Addition of (1) and (3) yields
from which . Then,
and
-
-
2 O
8 O
4 O
1:2
v
S
I
4 O
a 2 =
A
V
1
V
2
I
2 I
1
4 0 Z
P
ave 4 O
1
2
-- - I
4O
( )
2
4 = I
4 O
A
V
2
4
------
V
2
4 0 Z
8
-------------------------- I
2
+ 0 =
3V
2
8
---------- I
2

1
2
--- =
2I
1
V
1
+ 4 =
I
2
I
1
' 1 a ' = V
2
V
1
' a = a 2 = I
1
2I
2
= V
1
V
2
2 ' =
4I
2
V
2
2
------ + 4 =
I
2
V
2
8
------ + 1 =
3V
2
8
----------
V
2
8
------ +
1
2
--- 1 + =
V
2
3 =
I
4 O
V
2
4
------
3
4
--- = =
P
ave 4 O
1
2
-- -
3
4
---

2
4
9
8
-- - w = =
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Modeling 9-71
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
5.
Because the dot on the secondary is at the lower end, . Then,
and
6.
From (9.102)
Then,
or
7. We are told that open- and short-circuit test data for a , , trans-
former are as follows:
Open-circuit test with input to the low side: , ,
Short-circuit test with input to the high side: , ,
-
-
-
-
- -
2 j3 O +
12 0 Z
V
1
1:5
I
1
I
2
V
2
100 j75 O
-
-
-
-
Z
LD
x
y

aV
S
a
2
Z
S
V
2
aV
1
=
I
2
I
1
a ' =

x
y
V
S
a 5 =
aV
S
5 12 0 Z 60 0 Z 60 180 Z = = =
a
2
Z
S
25 2 j3 + ( ) 50 j75 + 90.14 56.31 O Z = = =
Z
LD
100 j75 125 36.87 O Z = =
I
2
aV
S
a
2
Z
S
Z
LD
+
---------------------------
60 180 Z
50 j75 100 j75 + +
-----------------------------------------------
60 180 Z
150
----------------------
2
5
-- - 180 Z = = = =
V
2
Z
LD
I
2
125 36.87 Z
2
5
-- - 180 Z 50 143.13 V Z = = =
-
-
12 0 V Z
1:a 4 O
10 KO
Z
in
Z
LD
a
2
--------- =
a
2
Z
LD
Z
in
---------
10000
4
--------------- 2500 = = =
a 50 =
10KVA 2400 / 240 60 Hz
240 V 0.75 A 72 W
80.5 V 5 A 210 W
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
9-72 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
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The given equivalent circuit is the circuit (a) in Figure 9.41 which is repeated below for conve-
nience and we are asked to compute and . The equivalent circuits (b) and (d) will
also be useful for the solution of this exercise.
Since the input for the open-circuit test is measured at the low side, we will compute the
admittance in circuit (d) above, and we then refer it to the high side in Figure (a) using
the relation .
From the open-circuit test data, the admittance is
and the phase angle is found from
Then, with
Y
eq1
Z
eq1
I
1
V
1
Z
eq2
V
2
Y
eq2
I
2
I
1
V
1
Z
eq2
V
2
Y
eq2
I
2
I
1
V
1
Z
eq1
V
2
Y
eq1
I
2 I
1
V
1
Z
eq1
V
2
Y
eq1
I
2
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Y
eq2
Y
eq1
Y
eq2
a
2
' =
Y
eq2
Y
eq2
I
2 OC
V
2 OC
--------------
0.75
240
---------- 3.1 10
3
O
1
= = =
0
OC
0
OC
cos
P
OC
V
2 OC
I
2 OC

------------------------------
72
240 0.75
------------------------- 0.4 = = =
0
OC
0.4 ( )
1
cos 66.4 (lagging) = =
a 2400 240 ' 10 = =
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Modeling 9-73
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
from which
and
The measurements for the short-circuit test were made at the high side, and thus we will use
the equivalent circuit (b) above. The impedance is found from
and the phase angle is found from
Then,
from which
and
8. We begin with establishing the bases below.
Next, we convert all test data into per-unit values.
Following the same procedure as in Exercise 7, we obtain:
Y
eq1
Y
eq2
a
2
------------
3.1 10
3
O
1
66.4 Z
100
--------------------------------------------------------- 12.4 j28.4 ( ) 10
6
O
1
= = =
G
C1
12.4 10
6
O
1
=
B
M1
28.4 10
6
O
1
=
Z
eq1
Z
eq1
V
1 SC
I
1 SC
-------------
80.5
5
---------- 16.1 O = = =
0
SC
0
SC
cos
P
SC
V
1 SC
I
1 SC

-----------------------------
210
80.5 5
------------------- 0.52 = = =
0
SC
0.52 ( )
1
cos 58.7 (lagging) = =
Z
eq1
16.1 58.7 Z 8.36 j13.76 O + = =
R
eq1
8.36 O =
X
eq1
13.76 O =
P
base
P
a base
10000 VA = = V
1 base
2400 V = V
2 base
240 V =
I
1 base
10000 VA
2400 V
-------------------------- 4.17 A = = I
2 base
10000 VA
240 V
-------------------------- 41.7 A = =
V
OC
pu
V
OC
V
2 base
------------------
240 V
240 V
--------------- 1 pu = = = I
OC pu
I
OC
I
2 base
---------------
0.75 A
41.7 A
----------------- 0.018 pu = = =
P
OC
pu
P
OC
P
a base
-----------------
72 W
10000 VA
-------------------------- 0.0072 pu = = = V
SC
pu
V
SC
V
1 base
------------------
80.5 V
2400 V
------------------ 0.0335 pu = = =
I
SC
pu
I
SC
I
1 base
---------------
5 A
4.17 A
----------------- 1.2 pu = = = P
SC
pu
P
SC
P
a base
-----------------
210 W
10000 VA
-------------------------- 0.021 pu = = =
Chapter 9 Self and Mutual Inductances - Transformers
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2.
+
-
v
1
= 1 V
v
2
= 0
i
1

5 O
20 O 15 O
y
11
i
1
v
1
-----
v
2
0 =
=
short
R
eq
5 20

R
lamp
V
2
rated
P
rated
------------------
120
2
500
----------- 28.8 O = = = =
V
L L
220 V =
V
L N
V
L N
V
L L
3
--------------
220 0 Z
3
------------------- 127 0 Z V = = =
I
A
L
I
Z I
L
Z
Y
Z
L
+
-
V
L N
127 0 Z V =
Z
L
28.8 0 Z =
Z
Y
27.33 77.32 Z =
I
Z
V
L N
Z
Y
--------------
127 0 Z
27.33 77.32 Z
------------------------------- 4.65 77.32 Z 1.02 j4.54 = = = =
I
L
V
L N
Z
L
--------------
127 0 Z
28.8 0 Z
--------------------- 4.41 0 Z 4.41 = = = =
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Modeling 11-25
Copyright Orchard Publications
Measuring Three-Phase Power
and the power delivered by phase is
Finally, the total power delivered to the entire load is three times of , that is,
Check:
Each lamp is rated and but operates at . Thus, each lamp absorbs
and the power absorbed by the three lamps is
The voltage across each impedance in the A-connected load is (see Figure 11.33) .
Then, the current in each impedance is
and the power absorbed by each impedance is
The total power absorbed by the A load is
and the total power delivered to the two loads is
This value is in close agreement with the value on the previous page.
11.9 Measuring Three-Phase Power
A wattmeter is an instrument which measures power in watts or kilowatts. It is constructed with
two sets of coils, a current coil and a voltage coil where the interacting magnetic fields of these
coils produce a torque which is proportional to the product. It would appear then that one
would need three wattmeters to measure the total power in a three-phase system. This is true in a
I
Z
I
L
+ 1.02 j4.54 4.41 + 5.43 j4.54 7.08 39.9 Z = = =
a
P
A
V
L N
I
A
127 7.08 39.9 ( ) cos 690 watts = = =
P
A
P
total
3 690 2070 watts 2.07 Kw = = =
120 V 500 w 127 V
V
oper
V
rated
--------------

2
P
oper
P
rated
------------- = P
oper
127
120
---------

2
500 560 w = =
P
lamps
3 = 560 1680 w =
Z 220 V
Z
I
Z
V
L L
18 j80 +
--------------------
220
82 77.32 Z
------------------------ 2.68 77.32 Z A = = =
Z
P V
L L
I
Z
0 cos 220 2.68 77.32 ( ) cos 129.4 watts = = =
P
A
3 129.4 388 watts = =
P
TOTAL
P
lamps
P
A
+ 2068 watts 2.068 kw = = =
V I
Chapter 11 Balanced Three-Phase Systems
11-26 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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four-wire system where the current in the neutral (fourth wire) is not zero. However, if the neu-
tral carries no current, it can be eliminated thereby reducing the system to a three-wire three-
phase system. In this section, we will show that the total power in a balanced three-wire, three
phase system can be measured with just two wattmeters.
Figure 11.36 shows three wattmeters connected to a load
*
where each wattmeter has its cur-
rent coil connected in one line, and its potential coil from that line to neutral. With this arrange-
ment, Wattmeters , , and measure power in phase , , and respectively.
Figure 11.36. Wattmeter connections in four-wire, three-phase system
Figure 11.37 shows a three-wire, three-phase system without a neutral. This arrangement occurs
in systems where the load, such as an induction motor, has only three terminals. The lower end of
the voltage coils can be connected to any reference point, say . We will now show that with this
arrangement, the sum of the three wattmeters gives the correct total power even though the refer-
ence point was chosen as any reference point.
* If the load were A-connected, each wattmeter would have its current coil in one side of the A and its potential
coil from line to line.
Y
1 2 3 a b c
Load
1
2
3
Wattmeter connections
n
a
b
n
c
p
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Modeling 11-27
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Measuring Three-Phase Power
Figure 11.37. Wattmeter connections in three-wire, three-phase system
We recall that the average power is found from
(11.83)
Then, the total power absorbed by the load of Figure 11.36 is
(11.84)
This is the true power absorbed by the load, not power indicated by the wattmeters.
Now, we will compute the total power indicated by the wattmeters. Each wattmeter measures the
average of the line current times the voltage to point . Then,
(11.85)
But
(11.86)
and by substitution of these into (11.85), we obtain:
(11.87)
and since
(11.88)
Load
1
2
3
Wattmeter connections
n
p
a
c
b
P
ave
P
ave
1
T
--- p t d
0
T

1
T
--- vi t d
0
T

= =
P
total
1
T
--- v
an
i
a
v
bn
i
b
v
cn
i
c
+ + ( ) t d
0
T

=
p
P
wattmeters
1
T
--- v
ap
i
a
v
bp
i
b
v
cp
i
c
+ + ( ) t d
0
T

=
v
ap
v
an
v
np
+ =
v
bp
v
bn
v
np
+ =
v
cp
v
cn
v
np
+ =
P
wattmeters
1
T
--- v
an
i
a
v
bn
i
b
v
cn
i
c
+ + ( ) v
np
i
a
i
b
i
c
+ + ( ) + [ ] t d
0
T

=
i
a
i
b
i
c
+ + 0 =
Chapter 11 Balanced Three-Phase Systems
11-28 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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then (11.87) reduces to
(11.89)
This relation is the same as (11.84); therefore, the power indicated by the wattmeters and the true
power absorbed by the load are the same.
Some thought about the location of the arbitrarily selected point would reveal a very interesting
result. No matter where this point is located, the power relation (11.87) reduces to (11.89). Sup-
pose that we locate point on line . If we do this, the voltage coil of Wattmeter is zero and
thus the reading of this wattmeter is zero. Accordingly, we can remove this wattmeter and still
obtain the true power with just Wattmeters and as shown in Figure 11.38.
Figure 11.38. Two wattmeter method of reading three-phase power
11.10 Practical Three-Phase Transformer Connections
The four possible transformer connections and their applications are listed below.
The A-A connection is used in certain industrial applications.
The A-Y connection is the most common and it is used in both commercial and industrial
applications.
The Y-A connection used for transmissions of high voltage power.
The Y-Y connection causes harmonics and balancing problems and thus is to be avoided.
If three phase transformation is needed and a three phase transformer of the proper size and turns
ratio is not available, three single phase transformers can be connected to form a three phase
bank. When three single phase transformers are used to make a three phase transformer bank,
their primary and secondary windings are connected in a Y or A connection. The three trans-
former windings in Figure 11.39 are labeled H1 and the other end is labeled H2. One end of each
secondary lead is labeled X1 and the other end is labeled X2.
P
wattmeters
1
T
--- v
an
i
a
v
bn
i
b
v
cn
i
c
+ + ( ) t d
0
T

=
p
p c 3
1 2
Load
1
2
Wattmeter connections
n
a
c
b
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Modeling 11-29
Copyright Orchard Publications
Transformers Operated in Open A Configuration
Figure 11.39. Primary and secondary leads labels in a transformer
11.11 Transformers Operated in Open A Configuration
In certain applications where large amounts of power are not required, the open A configuration
is a viable alternative. The solution of Exercise 11.9 at the end of this chapter show that the input
line currents form a symmetrical three-phase set and thus two transformers can also be used for a
symmetrical three-phase system.
If in a closed A configuration one of the transformers is burnt out resulting in an open A configu-
ration, the transformer bank rating is reduced to about 58% of its original capacity. This is
because in the open A configuration the line currents become phase currents and thus they are
reduced to . For instance, if three transformers
were connected to form a closed A connection, the total output would be . If one of
these transformers were removed and the transformer bank operated as an open delta connec-
tion, the output power would be reduced to 57.7% of its original capacity, that is,
.
If, in a bank o three transformers connected in A is burnt out and no replacement is readily avail-
able, capacitors with the proper rating can be used to prevent overloading as illustrated with
Example 11.4 below.
Example 11.4
A bank of three transformers each rated , connected in A-A,
feeds a short distribution line that is terminated in a bank of three , trans-
formers with a , and lagging load.

A
Y

H
1
H
1
H
1
X
1
H
2
H
2
H
2
X
2
X
1
X
1
X
2
X
2
KVA
I
PHASE
I
LINE
3 ( ) ' 0.577 I
LINE
= = 100 KVA
300 KVA
300 KVA 0.577 173.2 KVA =
13200 / 4160 V 833 KVA 60 Hz
833 KVA 4160 / 480 V
1600 KVA 0.8 pf
Chapter 11 Balanced Three-Phase Systems
11-30 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
a. If one of the transformers burns out, what would the voltage, current, and rat-
ing of capacitors on the secondary side of the transformers be to prevent over-
loading of any of the transformers?
b. What would the capacitor ratings be if installed at the side and what would the current
be through this capacitor bank?
c. What would the capacitor ratings be if installed at the side and what would the cur-
rent be through this capacitor bank?
Assume that line and transformer impedances are negligible.
Solution:
a. With the assumption that the line and transformer impedances are negligible, the open A con-
nection still forms a balanced symmetrical system.
*
The rated current per transformer at is
(1)
With the open A connection the at lagging load, the new rating is
, and the actual current per transformer is
(2)
The reduction in is found from the proportion of (1) and (2) above, i.e.,
The real power (kilowatts) at lagging load is
and without capacitors the reactive power (kilovars) is
With capacitors the reactive power (kilovars) will be
* This is illustrated in Exercise 11.9 at the end of this chapter.
13200 / 4160 V
4160 / 480 V
480 V
4160 V
13200 V
I
rated
833 KVA
13.2 KV
------------------------ 63.1 A = =
1600 KVA 0.8 pf KVA
1600 3 ' 923.8 KVA =
I
actual
923.8 KVA
13.2 KV
----------------------------- 70 A = =
KVA
63.1
70
---------- 1600 1443 KVA =
P
KW
0.8 pf
P
Kw
1600 0.8 1280 Kw = =
Q
Kvar1
Q
Kvar1
KVA
old
2
P
Kw
2
1600
2
1280
2
960 Kvar = = =
Q
Kvar2
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 11-31
Copyright Orchard Publications
Three-Phase Systems Modeling with Simulink / SimPowerSystems
Therefore, the required to prevent overloading should be
b. For installation at the side, three single-phase capacitors each rated will be
required, and the current through this capacitor bank must be per phase.
c. For installation at the side, three single-phase capacitors each rated will
be required, and the current through this capacitor bank must be per phase.
11.12 Three-Phase Systems Modeling with Simulink / SimPowerSystems
The MathWorks Simulink / SimPowerSystems toolbox includes several three-phase transformer
and they can be used with three-phase system models that include three-phase transformers.
Two of these are shown in Figure 11.40 below.
Figure 11.40. Two of the three-phase transformer blocks included in the Simulink / SimPowerSystems toolbox
Example 11.5
For the circuit in Figure 11.41, the three-phase transformer bank consists of three transformers
each rated , , connected A-Y connection, and the lighting load is bal-
anced. Each lamp is rated at . Assume that each lamp draws rated current. The
three-phase motor draws at a power factor of lagging. The secondary of the trans-
former is connected Y grounded and provides balanced line-to-line. The distance
between the transformer and the loads is small and the wiring resistance and inductance can be
neglected. The input voltages are:
Q
Kvar2
KVA
new
2
P
Kw
2
1443
2
1280
2
666 Kvar = = =
Kvar
Q
Kvar1
Q
Kvar2
960 666 294 300 Kvar = = =
480 V 100 Kvar
100 0.480 ' 208 A =
13200 V 100 Kvar
100 13.2 ' 24 A =
A1+
A1
B1+
B1
C1+
C1
A2+
A2
B2+
B2
C2+
C2
Thr ee- Phase Tr ansf or mer
12 Ter minals
A
B
C
a
b
c
Thr ee- Phase
Tr ansf or mer
( Two Windings)
5 KVA 440 / 208 V 60 Hz
500 w 120 V
5.0 Kw 0.8
208 V
Chapter 11 Balanced Three-Phase Systems
11-32 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Figure 11.41. Three-phase circuit for Example 11.5
Create a Simulink / SimPowerSystems model to display all voltages and currents.
Solution:
The model is shown in Figure 11.42.
Figure 11.42. Simulink / SimPowerSystems model for the three-phase circuit in Figure 11.41
V
AB
480 0 Z = V
BC
480 120 Z = V
CA
480 120 Z =

L
L
L
L
L L
M

A
B
C
a
b
c
n
Vs1
Vs2
Vs3
Load 1
3-ph motor
Load 2
Lighting
VM = Voltage Measurement
3-Phase V-I = Three-Phase V-I Measurement
Vs1 = 480 V @ 0 deg
Vs2 = 480 V @ -120 deg
Vs3 = 480 V @ +120 deg
Cont inuous
power gui
v
+
-
VM 1
A
B
C
A
B
C
Scope 3
Scope 2
Scope 1
30
Mult imet er
Vabc
I abc
A
B
C
a
b
c
3- Phase V- I 2
Vabc
I abc
A
B
C
a
b
c
3- Phase V- I 1
A
B
C
a
b
c
3- Phase
Tr ansf or mer
( Two Windings)
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 11-33
Copyright Orchard Publications
Three-Phase Systems Modeling with Simulink / SimPowerSystems
For the model in Figure 11.42, the default integration algorithm ode45 was changed to odetb23.
This is done with Simulation>Configuration Parameters>Solver>odetb23.
The dialog box is configured as shown in Figure 11.43, and the dialog box for is shown in Figure
11.44.
Figure 11.43. Block Parameters 3-Phase Transformer - Configuration tab
Figure 11.44. Block Parameters 3-Phase Transformer - Parameters tab
Chapter 11 Balanced Three-Phase Systems
11-34 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

208 volt
60 Hz
c
a b c
15 hp 208 volts 1740 rpm 87% efficiency 0.866 pf
3.5 hp 115 volts 1750 rpm 85% efficiency 0.8 pf
1 Mw 100 Y
0.80 60 Hz
30 O 30 mH Y
20 000 V ,
20 0.6 O
0.27 O 60 Hz
1000 Kw Y 0.80
11000 V
KVA
0.90
66000 V
80 j60 O +
Y 1000 Kw
0.80
Chapter 11 Balanced Three-Phase Systems
11-40 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
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8. Each conductor of a three-phase, three-wire transmission line has an impedance of
at . The potential difference between line conductors is . The load connected to
this system is balanced and absorbs at a lagging power factor that is to be determined.
The current per conductor is . Find:
a. the efficiency of transmission
b. the potential difference between line conductors at the load
c. the power factor at the load
9. Two transformers, each rated , , , are connected in open config-
uration as shown below. Each load is a resistive load of . The input voltages are:
Assuming that the primary and secondary voltages are in phase, and the transformers are
ideal, find:
a. the voltages on the secondary
b. all currents
15 j20 O +
60 Hz 13200 V
1000 Kw
70 A
20 KVA 440 / 220 V 60 Hz A
R
LD
1.27 O
V
AB
440 0 V Z = V
BC
440 120 V Z = V
CA
440 120 V Z =

n
A
B
C
c
b
a
R
LD
R
LD
R
LD
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 11-41
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
11.15 Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
1.
a.
From the circuit above
and with MATLAB,
x=5*sqrt(3)-15j; fprintf(' \n');...
fprintf('mag = %5.2f A \t', abs(x)); fprintf('phase = %5.2f deg', angle(x)*180/pi)
ma g = 17. 32 A pha s e = - 60. 00 de g
Thus,
The phase sequence implies the phase diagram below.
From (11.59)
b.
The wattmeter reads the product where is behind as shown on the phasor
diagram below. Thus, the wattmeter reading is
Z
Z
Z
Wattmeter
Load
a
b
c
V
ab
I
ca
I
c
I
a
I
bc
I
ab
I
ab
V
ab
Z
---------
100 0 Z
10 30 Z
------------------- 10 30 Z 10
3
2
------- j10
1
2
-- - 5 3 j5 = = = = =
I
ca
V
ca
Z
---------
100 240 Z
10 30 Z
---------------------------- 10 270 Z 10 90 Z j10 = = = = =
I
a
I
ab
I
ca
5 3 j5 j10 5 3 j15 = = =
I
a
17.32 A =
a b c
P
total
3 V
ab
I
a
load pf ( ) =
3 100 17.32 30 cos 2 598 w , = =
V
ab
I
c
I
c
240 I
a
P
wattmeter
V
ab
I
c
100 0 10 3 60 240 ( ) cos Z = =
100 17.32 300 ( ) cos 866 w = =
Chapter 11 Balanced Three-Phase Systems
11-42 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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and, as expected, this value is one-third of the total power.
2.
Since the transformers are ideal, and the line-to-neutral voltages on the secondary are in
phase with the input voltages, the line-to-neutral voltages on the secondary are:
With reference to the phase diagram below, the line-to-line voltages on the secondary are:
V
ab
100 0 Z =
V
ca
100 240 Z =
V
bc
100 120 Z =
I
ab
I
ca
30
I
bc
I
bc
I
c
I
ca

I
a
V
AB
2300 0 Z = V
BC
2300 120 Z = V
CA
2300 120 Z =

L
n
A
B
C
a
b
c
V
an
13800 0 Z = V
bn
13800 120 Z = V
cn
13800 120 Z =
V
ab
V
an
V
bn
13800 0 Z 13800 120 Z 23900 30 Z = = =
V
bc
V
bn
V
cn
13800 120 Z 13800 60 Z 23900 90 Z = = =
V
ca
V
cn
V
an
13800 120 Z 13800 180 Z 23900 150 Z = = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 11-43
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
For the above complex number operations and the others below, it is convenient to use the
Simulink model below.
*
The magnitude of the line currents on the secondary is determined by the current drawn by
the load, that is, total three-phase load divided by 3, , and thus

The load power factor is lagging and since , ,
and therefore the currents on the secondary lag the line-to-neutral voltages by . Then,
* For the description of the Simulink blocks used in the model above, please consult The MathWorks, Inc. docu-
mentation, or refer to Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, ISBN 978-1-934404-09-06.
V
ca
V
cn
V
an

V
bc
V
bn
V
cn

V
ab
V
an
V
bn

30
K=180/pi
Polar to
Cartesian1
Polar to
Cartesian
-K-
Gain
30
0.5236
2.39e+004
-1.195e+004
-6900
0
1.38e+004
-2*pi/3
13800
0
13800
Cartesian to
Polar
270 KVA 3 ' 90 KVA =
I
LOAD
(per phase) 90 KVA 13800 V ' 6.52 A = =
0.866 pf 0 cos 0.866 = = 0 0.866
1
cos 30 = =
30
I
na
6.52 0 30 Z 6.52 30 Z = =
I
nb
6.52 120 30 Z 6.52 150 Z = =
I
nc
6.52 120 30 Z 6.52 90 Z = =
Chapter 11 Balanced Three-Phase Systems
11-44 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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To find the values of the currents on the primary side, we make us of the transformers turns
ratio, that is, . Then,
With reference to the phase diagram below, the input line currents are:
3.
The single-phase equivalent circuit is shown below where
and thus
a 2300 13800 1 6 ' = ' =
I
AB
1 a ' ( ) I
na
39 = 30 Z =
I
BC
1 a ' ( ) I
nb
39 = 150 Z =
I
CA
1 a ' ( ) I
nc
39 = 90 Z =
I
A
I
AB
I
CA
39 30 Z 39 90 Z 67.6 60 Z = = =
I
B
I
BC
I
AB
39 150 Z 39 30 Z 67.6 180 Z = = =
I
C
I
CA
I
BC
39 90 Z 39 150 Z 67.6 60 Z = = =
I
c
I
a
I
b
I
ab
I
ca
I
bc
-30
o
-I
ab
-I
ca
-I
bc
R 0.403 O 1000 ft ' 1500 ft 0.605 O = =
X
L
0.143 O 1000 ft ' 1500 ft 0.215 O = =
Z
line
0.605 j0.215 + =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling 11-45
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
Also,
We recall that for a single phase system the real power is given by
where
Then, we find the motor current in terms of the motor voltage as
and since , the motor current is expressed as
The total current is
and the voltage drop across the line is
Next,

Computing and Simulink

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Modeling 11-51
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises
Next,
and since , and are in-phase and the expression above
simplifies to
or
We will use MATLAB to solve this quadratic equation.
syms Vrn
solve(Vrn^2-38100*Vrn+41.7*10^6)
a ns =
19050+50*128481^( 1/ 2)
19050- 50*128481^( 1/ 2)
We can find the magnitude of from either of these two solutions. Thus,
a=19050+50*128481^(1/2); abs(a)
a ns =
3. 6972e +004
That is, , and denoting the potential difference between conductors at the load as
, we obtain
I
L
I
L
0
r
cos 0
r
sin ( )
10
6
2.4 V
rn

----------------------- 0.8 j0.6 ( ) = =

V
sn
ZI
L
V
rn
+ 80 j60 + ( )
10
6
2.4 V
rn

----------------------- 0.8 j0.6 ( ) V

I
2
960 60 j104 + ( ) j 960 ( ) 60 j104 ( )
960
2
2 j 960
2

Modeling A-1
Copyright Orchard Publications
Appendix A
Introduction to MATLAB
his appendix serves as an introduction to the basic MATLAB commands and functions,
procedures for naming and saving the user generated files, comment lines, access to MAT-
LABs Editor / Debugger, finding the roots of a polynomial, and making plots. Several exam-
ples are provided with detailed explanations.
A.1 MATLAB and Simulink
MATLAB and Simulink are products of The MathWorks, Inc. These are two outstanding soft-
ware packages for scientific and engineering computations and are used in educational institu-
tions and in industries including automotive, aerospace, electronics, telecommunications, and
environmental applications. MATLAB enables us to solve many advanced numerical problems
rapidly and efficiently.
A.2 Command Window
To distinguish the screen displays from the user commands, important terms, and MATLAB
functions, we will use the following conventions:
Click: Click the left button of the mouse
Courier Font: Screen displays
Helvetica Font: User inputs at MATLABs command window prompt >> or EDU>>
*
Helvetica Bold: MATLAB functions
Times Bold Italic: Important terms and facts, notes and file names
When we first start MATLAB, we see various help topics and other information. Initially, we are
interested in the command screen which can be selected from the Window drop menu. When the
command screen, we see the prompt >> or EDU>>. This prompt is displayed also after execution
of a command; MATLAB now waits for a new command from the user. It is highly recommended
that we use the Editor/Debugger to write our program, save it, and return to the command screen
to execute the program as explained below.
To use the Editor/Debugger:
1. From the File menu on the toolbar, we choose New and click on M-File. This takes us to the
Editor Window where we can type our script (list of statements) for a new file, or open a previ-
ously saved file. We must save our program with a file name which starts with a letter.
* EDU>> is the MATLAB prompt in the Student Version
T

Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-2 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Important! MATLAB is case sensitive, that is, it distinguishes between upper- and lower-case let-
ters. Thus, t and T are two different letters in MATLAB language. The files that we create are
saved with the file name we use and the extension .m; for example, myfile01.m. It is a good prac-
tice to save the script in a file name that is descriptive of our script content. For instance, if the
script performs some matrix operations, we ought to name and save that file as matrices01.m or
any other similar name. We should also use a floppy disk or an external drive to backup our files.
2. Once the script is written and saved as an m-file, we may exit the Editor/Debugger window by
clicking on Exit Editor/Debugger of the File menu. MATLAB then returns to the command
window.
3. To execute a program, we type the file name without the .m extension at the >> prompt;
then, we press <enter> and observe the execution and the values obtained from it. If we have
saved our file in drive a or any other drive, we must make sure that it is added it to the desired
directory in MATLABs search path. The MATLAB Users Guide provides more information
on this topic.
Henceforth, it will be understood that each input command is typed after the >> prompt and fol-
lowed by the <enter> key.
The command help matlab\iofun will display input/output information. To get help with other
MATLAB topics, we can type help followed by any topic from the displayed menu. For example,
to get information on graphics, we type help matlab\graphics. The MATLAB Users Guide con-
tains numerous help topics.
To appreciate MATLABs capabilities, we type demo and we see the MATLAB Demos menu.
We can do this periodically to become familiar with them. Whenever we want to return to the
command window, we click on the Close button.
When we are done and want to leave MATLAB, we type quit or exit. But if we want to clear all
previous values, variables, and equations without exiting, we should use the command clear. This
command erases everything; it is like exiting MATLAB and starting it again. The command clc
clears the screen but MATLAB still remembers all values, variables and equations that we have
already used. In other words, if we want to clear all previously entered commands, leaving only
the >> prompt on the upper left of the screen, we use the clc command.
All text after the % (percent) symbol is interpreted as a comment line by MATLAB, and thus it is
ignored during the execution of a program. A comment can be typed on the same line as the func-
tion or command or as a separate line. For instance,
conv(p,q) % performs multiplication of polynomials p and q
% The next statement performs partial fraction expansion of p(x) / q(x)
are both correct.
Roots of Polynomials
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling A-3
Copyright Orchard Publications
One of the most powerful features of MATLAB is the ability to do computations involving com-
plex numbers. We can use either , or to denote the imaginary part of a complex number, such as
3- 4i or 3- 4j . For example, the statement
z=3-4j
displays
z = 3.0000-4.0000i
In the above example, a multiplication (*) sign between 4 and was not necessary because the
complex number consists of numerical constants. However, if the imaginary part is a function, or
variable such as , we must use the multiplication sign, that is, we must type cos(x)*j or
j*cos(x) for the imaginary part of the complex number.
A.3 Roots of Polynomials
In MATLAB, a polynomial is expressed as a row vector of the form . These
are the coefficients of the polynomial in descending order. We must include terms whose coeffi-
cients are zero.
We find the roots of any polynomial with the roots(p) function; p is a row vector containing the
polynomial coefficients in descending order.
Example A.1
Find the roots of the polynomial
Solution:
The roots are found with the following two statements where we have denoted the polynomial as
p1, and the roots as roots_ p1.
p1=[1 -10 35 -50 24] % Specify and display the coefficients of p1(x)
p1 =
1 - 10 35 - 50 24
roots_ p1=roots(p1) % Find the roots of p1(x)
r oot s _p1 =
4. 0000
3. 0000
2. 0000
1. 0000
i j
j
x ( ) cos
a
n
a
n 1
. a
2
a
1
a
0
[ ]
p
1
x ( ) x
4
10x
3
35x
2
50x 24 + + =
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-4 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
We observe that MATLAB displays the polynomial coefficients as a row vector, and the roots as a
column vector.
Example A.2
Find the roots of the polynomial
Solution:
There is no cube term; therefore, we must enter zero as its coefficient. The roots are found with
the statements below, where we have defined the polynomial as p2, and the roots of this polyno-
mial as roots_ p2. The result indicates that this polynomial has three real roots, and two complex
roots. Of course, complex roots always occur in complex conjugate
*
pairs.
p2=[1 -7 0 16 25 52]
p2 =
1 - 7 0 16 25 52
roots_ p2=roots(p2)
r oot s _p2 =
6. 5014
2. 7428
- 1. 5711
- 0. 3366 + 1. 3202i
- 0. 3366 - 1. 3202i
A.4 Polynomial Construction from Known Roots
We can compute the coefficients of a polynomial, from a given set of roots, with the poly(r) func-
tion where r is a row vector containing the roots.

Example A.3
It is known that the roots of a polynomial are . Compute the coefficients of this
polynomial.
* By definition, the conjugate of a complex number is
p
2
x ( ) x
5
7x
4
16x
2
25x + + 52 + =
A a jb + = A
-
a jb =
1 2 3 and 4 , , ,
Polynomial Construction from Known Roots
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling A-5
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution:
We first define a row vector, say , with the given roots as elements of this vector; then, we find
the coefficients with the poly(r) function as shown below.
r3=[1 2 3 4] % Specify the roots of the polynomial
r 3 =
1 2 3 4
poly_r3=poly(r3) % Find the polynomial coefficients
pol y_r 3 =
1 - 10 35 - 50 24
We observe that these are the coefficients of the polynomial of Example A.1.
Example A.4
It is known that the roots of a polynomial are . Find the coeffi-
cients of this polynomial.
Solution:
We form a row vector, say , with the given roots, and we find the polynomial coefficients with
the poly(r) function as shown below.
r4=[ -1 -2 -3 4+5j 4-5j ]
r 4 =
Col umns 1 t hr ough 4
- 1. 0000 - 2. 0000 - 3. 0000 - 4. 0000+ 5. 0000i
Col umn 5
- 4. 0000- 5. 0000i
poly_r4=poly(r4)
pol y_r 4 =
1 14 100 340 499 246
Therefore, the polynomial is
r3
p
1
x ( )
1 2 3 4 j5 and 4 , j5 + , , ,
r4
p
4
x ( ) x
5
14x
4
100x
3
340x
2
499x 246 + + + + + =
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-6 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
A.5 Evaluation of a Polynomial at Specified Values
The polyval(p,x) function evaluates a polynomial at some specified value of the indepen-
dent variable .
Example A.5
Evaluate the polynomial
(A.1)
at .
Solution:
p5=[1 -3 0 5 -4 3 2]; % These are the coefficients of the given polynomial
% The semicolon (;) after the right bracket suppresses the
% display of the row vector that contains the coefficients of p5.
%
val_minus3=polyval(p5, -3) % Evaluate p5 at x=-3; no semicolon is used here
% because we want the answer to be displayed
va l _mi nus 3 =
1280
Other MATLAB functions used with polynomials are the following:
conv(a,b) - multiplies two polynomials a and b
[q,r]=deconv(c,d) -divides polynomial c by polynomial d and displays the quotient q and
remainder r.
polyder(p) - produces the coefficients of the derivative of a polynomial p.

Example A.6
Let
and
Compute the product using the conv(a,b) function.
p x ( )
x
p
5
x ( ) x
6
3x
5
5x
3
4x
2
3x 2 + + + =
x 3 =
p
1
x
5
3x
4
5x
2
7x 9 + + + =
p
2
2x
6
8x
4
4x
2
10x 12 + + + =
p
1
p
2

Evaluation of a Polynomial at Specified Values

Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling A-7
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution:
p1=[1 -3 0 5 7 9]; % The coefficients of p1
p2=[2 0 -8 0 4 10 12]; % The coefficients of p2
p1p2=conv(p1,p2) % Multiply p1 by p2 to compute coefficients of the product p1p2
p1p2 =
2 - 6 - 8 34 18 - 24 - 74 - 88 78 166 174 108
Therefore,
Example A.7
Let
and
Compute the quotient using the [q,r]=deconv(c,d) function.
Solution:
% It is permissible to write two or more statements in one line separated by semicolons
p3=[1 0 -3 0 5 7 9]; p4=[2 -8 0 0 4 10 12]; [q,r]=deconv(p3,p4)
q =
0. 5000
r =
0 4 - 3 0 3 2 3
Therefore,
Example A.8
Let
Compute the derivative using the polyder(p) function.
p
1
p
2
2x
11
6x
10
8x
9
34x
8
18x
7
24x
6
+ + =
74x
5
88x
4
78x
3
166x
2
174x 108 + + + +
p
3
x
7
3x
5
5x
3
7x 9 + + + =
p
4
2x
6
8x
5
4x
2
10x 12 + + + =
p
3
p
4
'
q 0.5 = r 4x
5
3x
4
3x
2
2x 3 + + + =
p
5
2x
6
8x
4
4x
2
10x 12 + + + =
d
dx
------p
5
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
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Solution:
p5=[2 0 -8 0 4 10 12]; % The coefficients of p5
der_p5=polyder(p5) % Compute the coefficients of the derivative of p5
de r _p5 =
12 0 - 32 0 8 10
Therefore,
A.6 Rational Polynomials
Rational Polynomials are those which can be expressed in ratio form, that is, as
(A.2)
where some of the terms in the numerator and/or denominator may be zero. We can find the roots
of the numerator and denominator with the roots(p) function as before.
As noted in the comment line of Example A.7, we can write MATLAB statements in one line, if
we separate them by commas or semicolons. Commas will display the results whereas semicolons
will suppress the display.
Example A.9
Let
Express the numerator and denominator in factored form, using the roots(p) function.
Solution:
num=[1 -3 0 5 7 9]; den=[1 0 -4 0 2 5 6]; % Do not display num and den coefficients
roots_num=roots(num), roots_den=roots(den) % Display num and den roots
r oot s _num =
2. 4186 + 1. 0712i 2. 4186 - 1. 0712i - 1. 1633
- 0. 3370 + 0. 9961i - 0. 3370 - 0. 9961i
d
dx
------p
5
12x
5
32x
3
8x 10 + + =
R x ( )
Num x ( )
Den x ( )
--------------------
b
n
x
n
b
n 1
x
n 1
b
n 2
x
n 2
. b
1
x b
0
+ + + + +
a
m
x
m
a
m 1
x
m 1
a
m 2
x
m 2
. a
1
x a
0
+ + + + +
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = =
R x ( )
p
num
p
den
------------
x
5
3x
4
5x
2
7x 9 + + +
x
6
4x
4
2x
2
5x 6 + + +
--------------------------------------------------------- = =
Rational Polynomials
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r oot s _de n =
1. 6760 + 0. 4922i 1. 6760 - 0. 4922i - 1. 9304
- 0. 2108 + 0. 9870i - 0. 2108 - 0. 9870i - 1. 0000
As expected, the complex roots occur in complex conjugate pairs.
For the numerator, we have the factored form
and for the denominator, we have
We can also express the numerator and denominator of this rational function as a combination of
linear and quadratic factors. We recall that, in a quadratic equation of the form
whose roots are and , the negative sum of the roots is equal to the coefficient of the
term, that is, , while the product of the roots is equal to the constant term , that
is, . Accordingly, we form the coefficient by addition of the complex conjugate roots
and this is done by inspection; then we multiply the complex conjugate roots to obtain the con-
stant term using MATLAB as follows:
(2.4186 + 1.0712i)*(2.4186 -1.0712i)
a ns = 6. 9971
(-0.3370+ 0.9961i)*(-0.3370-0.9961i)
a ns = 1. 1058
(1.6760+ 0.4922i)*(1.6760-0.4922i)
a ns = 3. 0512
(-0.2108+ 0.9870i)*(-0.2108-0.9870i)
a ns = 1. 0186
Thus,
p
num
x 2.4186 j1.0712 ( ) x 2.4186 j1.0712 + ( ) x 1.1633 + ( ) =
x 0.3370 j0.9961 + ( ) x 0.3370 j0.9961 + + ( )
p
den
x 1.6760 j0.4922 ( ) x 1.6760 j0.4922 + ( ) x 1.9304 + ( ) =
x 0.2108 j 0.9870 + ( ) x 0.2108 j0.9870 + + ( ) x 1.0000 + ( )
x
2
bx c + + 0 =
x
1
x
2
b x
x
1
x
2
+ ( ) b = c
x
1
x
2
c = b
c
R x ( )
p
num
p
den
------------
x
2
4.8372x 6.9971 + ( ) x
2
0.6740x 1.1058 + + ( ) x 1.1633 + ( )
x
2
3.3520x 3.0512 + ( ) x
2
0.4216x 1.0186 + + ( ) x 1.0000 + ( ) x 1.9304 + ( )
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = =
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
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Modeling
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We can check this result of Example A.9 above with MATLABs Symbolic Math Toolbox which is
a collection of tools (functions) used in solving symbolic expressions. They are discussed in detail
in MATLABs Users Manual. For the present, our interest is in using the collect(s) function that
is used to multiply two or more symbolic expressions to obtain the result in polynomial form. We
must remember that the conv(p,q) function is used with numeric expressions only, that is, poly-
nomial coefficients.
Before using a symbolic expression, we must create one or more symbolic variables such as x, y, t,
and so on. For our example, we use the following script:
syms x % Define a symbolic variable and use collect(s) to express numerator in polynomial form
collect((x^2-4.8372*x+6.9971)*(x^2+0.6740*x+1.1058)*(x+1.1633))
a ns =
x^5- 29999/ 10000*x^4- 1323/ 3125000*x^3+7813277909/
1562500000*x^2+1750276323053/ 250000000000*x+4500454743147/
500000000000
and if we simplify this, we find that is the same as the numerator of the given rational expression
in polynomial form. We can use the same procedure to verify the denominator.
A.7 Using MATLAB to Make Plots
Quite often, we want to plot a set of ordered pairs. This is a very easy task with the MATLAB
plot(x,y) command that plots y versus x, where x is the horizontal axis (abscissa) and y is the ver-
tical axis (ordinate).
Example A.10
Consider the electric circuit of Figure A.1, where the radian frequency c (radians/second) of the
applied voltage was varied from 300 to 3000 in steps of 100 radians/second, while the amplitude
was held constant.
Figure A.1. Electric circuit for Example A.10
A
V
L
C
R
2
R
1
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The ammeter readings were then recorded for each frequency. The magnitude of the impedance
|Z| was computed as and the data were tabulated on Table A.1.
Plot the magnitude of the impedance, that is, |Z| versus radian frequency .
Solution:
We cannot type (omega) in the MATLAB Command prompt, so we will use the English letter
w instead.
If a statement, or a row vector is too long to fit in one line, it can be continued to the next line by
typing three or more periods, then pressing <enter> to start a new line, and continue to enter
data. This is illustrated below for the data of w and z. Also, as mentioned before, we use the semi-
colon (;) to suppress the display of numbers that we do not care to see on the screen.
The data are entered as follows:
w=[300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900....
2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000];
%
z=[39.339 52.789 71.104 97.665 140.437 222.182 436.056....
1014.938 469.830 266.032 187.052 145.751 120.353 103.111....
90.603 81.088 73.588 67.513 62.481 58.240 54.611 51.468....
48.717 46.286 44.122 42.182 40.432 38.845];
Of course, if we want to see the values of w or z or both, we simply type w or z, and we press
TABLE A.1 Table for Example A.10
c (rads/s) |Z| Ohms c (rads/s) |Z| Ohms
300 39.339 1700 90.603
400 52.589 1800 81.088
500 71.184 1900 73.588
600 97.665 2000 67.513
700 140.437 2100 62.481
800 222.182 2200 58.240
900 436.056 2300 54.611
1000 1014.938 2400 51.428
1100 469.83 2500 48.717
1200 266.032 2600 46.286
1300 187.052 2700 44.122
1400 145.751 2800 42.182
1500 120.353 2900 40.432
1600 103.111 3000 38.845
Z V A ' =
c
c
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
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<enter>. To plot (y-axis) versus (x-axis), we use the plot(x,y) command. For this example,
we use plot(w,z). When this command is executed, MATLAB displays the plot on MATLABs
graph screen and MATLAB denotes this plot as Figure 1. This plot is shown in Figure A.2.
Figure A.2. Plot of impedance versus frequency for Example A.10
This plot is referred to as the magnitude frequency response of the circuit.
To return to the command window, we press any key, or from the Window pull-down menu, we
select MATLAB Command Window. To see the graph again, we click on the Window pull-down
menu, and we choose Figure 1.
We can make the above, or any plot, more presentable with the following commands:
grid on: This command adds grid lines to the plot. The grid off command removes the grid. The
command grid toggles them, that is, changes from off to on or vice versa. The default
*
is off.
box off: This command removes the box (the solid lines which enclose the plot), and box on
restores the box. The command box toggles them. The default is on.
title(string): This command adds a line of the text string (label) at the top of the plot.
xlabel(string) and ylabel(string) are used to label the x- and y-axis respectively.
The magnitude frequency response is usually represented with the x-axis in a logarithmic scale.
We can use the semilogx(x,y) command which is similar to the plot(x,y) command, except that
the x-axis is represented as a log scale, and the y-axis as a linear scale. Likewise, the semil-
ogy(x,y) command is similar to the plot(x,y) command, except that the y-axis is represented as a
* A default is a particular value for a variable that is assigned automatically by an operating system and remains
in effect unless canceled or overridden by the operator.
z w
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
z c
Using MATLAB to Make Plots
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log scale, and the x-axis as a linear scale. The loglog(x,y) command uses logarithmic scales for
both axes.
Throughout this text it will be understood that log is the common (base 10) logarithm, and ln is
the natural (base e) logarithm. We must remember, however, the function log(x) in MATLAB is
the natural logarithm, whereas the common logarithm is expressed as log10(x), and the logarithm
to the base 2 as log2(x).
Let us now redraw the plot with the above options by adding the following statements:
semilogx(w,z); grid; % Replaces the plot(w,z) command
title('Magnitude of Impedance vs. Radian Frequency');
xlabel('w in rads/sec'); ylabel('|Z| in Ohms')
After execution of these commands, the plot is as shown in Figure A.3.
If the y-axis represents power, voltage or current, the x-axis of the frequency response is more
often shown in a logarithmic scale, and the y-axis in dB (decibels).
Figure A.3. Modified frequency response plot of Figure A.2.
To display the voltage in a dB scale on the y-axis, we add the relation dB=20*log10(v), and we
replace the semilogx(w,z) command with semilogx(w,dB) provided that v is predefined.
The command gtext(string)
*
switches to the current Figure Window, and displays a cross-hair
that can be moved around with the mouse. For instance, we can use the command gtext(Imped-
ance |Z| versus Frequency), and this will place a cross-hair in the Figure window. Then, using
* With the latest MATLAB Versions 6 and 7 (Student Editions 13 and 14), we can add text, lines and arrows directly into
the graph using the tools provided on the Figure Window. For advanced MATLAB graphics, please refer to The Math-
Works Using MATLAB Graphics documentation.
10
2
10
3
10
4
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Magnitude of Impedance vs. Radian Frequency
w in rads/sec
|
Z
|

i
n

O
h
m
s
v
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-14 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
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the mouse, we can move the cross-hair to the position where we want our label to begin, and we
press <enter>.
The command text(x,y,string) is similar to gtext(string). It places a label on a plot in some
specific location specified by x and y, and string is the label which we want to place at that loca-
tion. We will illustrate its use with the following example which plots a 3-phase sinusoidal wave-
form.
The first line of the script below has the form
linspace(first_value, last_value, number_of_values)
This function specifies the number of data points but not the increments between data points. An
alternate function is
x=first: increment: last
and this specifies the increments between points but not the number of data points.
The script for the 3-phase plot is as follows:
x=linspace(0, 2*pi, 60); % pi is a built-in function in MATLAB;
% we could have used x=0:0.02*pi:2*pi or x = (0: 0.02: 2)*pi instead;
y=sin(x); u=sin(x+2*pi/3); v=sin(x+4*pi/3);
plot(x,y,x,u,x,v); % The x-axis must be specified for each function
grid on, box on, % turn grid and axes box on
text(0.75, 0.65, 'sin(x)'); text(2.85, 0.65, 'sin(x+2*pi/3)'); text(4.95, 0.65, 'sin(x+4*pi/3)')
These three waveforms are shown on the same plot of Figure A.4.
Figure A.4. Three-phase waveforms
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
sin(x) sin(x+2*pi/3) sin(x+4*pi/3)
Using MATLAB to Make Plots
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In our previous examples, we did not specify line styles, markers, and colors for our plots. How-
ever, MATLAB allows us to specify various line types, plot symbols, and colors. These, or a com-
bination of these, can be added with the plot(x,y,s) command, where s is a character string con-
taining one or more characters shown on the three columns of Table A.2. MATLAB has no
default color; it starts with blue and cycles through the first seven colors listed in Table A.2 for
each additional line in the plot. Also, there is no default marker; no markers are drawn unless
they are selected. The default line is the solid line. But with the latest MATLAB versions, we can
select the line color, line width, and other options directly from the Figure Window.
For example, plot(x,y,'m*:') plots a magenta dotted line with a star at each data point, and
plot(x,y,'rs') plots a red square at each data point, but does not draw any line because no line was
selected. If we want to connect the data points with a solid line, we must type plot(x,y,'rs-'). For
additional information we can type help plot in MATLABs command screen.
The plots we have discussed thus far are two-dimensional, that is, they are drawn on two axes.
MATLAB has also a three-dimensional (three-axes) capability and this is discussed next.
The plot3(x,y,z) command plots a line in 3-space through the points whose coordinates are the
elements of x, y and z, where x, y and z are three vectors of the same length.
The general format is plot3(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
,s
1
,x
2
,y
2
,z
2
,s
2
,x
3
,y
3
,z
3
,s
3
,...) where x
n
, y
n
and z
n
are vectors
or matrices, and s
n
are strings specifying color, marker symbol, or line style. These strings are the
same as those of the two-dimensional plots.
TABLE A.2 Styles, colors, and markets used in MATLAB
Symbol Color Symbol Marker Symbol Line Style
b blue . point - solid line
g green o circle : dotted line
r red x x-mark -. dash-dot line
c cyan + plus -- dashed line
m magenta * star
y yellow s square
k black d diamond
w white v triangle down
r triangle up
< triangle left
> triangle right
p pentagram
h hexagram
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-16 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Example A.11
Plot the function
(A.3)
Solution:
We arbitrarily choose the interval (length) shown on the script below.
x= -10: 0.5: 10; % Length of vector x
y= x; % Length of vector y must be same as x
z= -2.*x.^3+x+3.*y.^2-1; % Vector z is function of both x and y
*
plot3(x,y,z); grid
The three-dimensional plot is shown in Figure A.5.
Figure A.5. Three dimensional plot for Example A.11
In a two-dimensional plot, we can set the limits of the x- and y-axes with the axis([xmin xmax
ymin ymax]) command. Likewise, in a three-dimensional plot we can set the limits of all three
axes with the axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax zmin zmax]) command. It must be placed after the
plot(x,y) or plot3(x,y,z) commands, or on the same line without first executing the plot com-
mand. This must be done for each plot. The three-dimensional text(x,y,z,string) command will
place string beginning at the co-ordinate (x,y,z) on the plot.
For three-dimensional plots, grid on and box off are the default states.
* This statement uses the so called dot multiplication, dot division, and dot exponentiation where the multiplication, division,
and exponential operators are preceded by a dot. These important operations will be explained in Section A.9.
z 2x
3
x 3y
2
1 + + =
-10
-5
0
5
10
-10
-5
0
5
10
-2000
-1000
0
1000
2000
3000
Using MATLAB to Make Plots
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We can also use the mesh(x,y,z) command with two vector arguments. These must be defined as
and where . In this case, the vertices of the mesh
lines are the triples . We observe that x corresponds to the columns of Z, and y
corresponds to the rows.
To produce a mesh plot of a function of two variables, say , we must first generate the
X and Y matrices that consist of repeated rows and columns over the range of the variables x and
y. We can generate the matrices X and Y with the [X,Y]=meshgrid(x,y) function that creates the
matrix X whose rows are copies of the vector x, and the matrix Y whose columns are copies of the
vector y.
Example A.12
The volume of a right circular cone of radius and height is given by
(A.4)
Plot the volume of the cone as and vary on the intervals and meters.
Solution:
The volume of the cone is a function of both the radius r and the height h, that is,
The three-dimensional plot is created with the following MATLAB script where, as in the previ-
ous example, in the second line we have used the dot multiplication, dot division, and dot expo-
nentiation. This will be explained in Section A.9.
[R,H]=meshgrid(0: 4, 0: 6); % Creates R and H matrices from vectors r and h;...
V=(pi .* R .^ 2 .* H) ./ 3; mesh(R, H, V);...
xlabel('x-axis, radius r (meters)'); ylabel('y-axis, altitude h (meters)');...
zlabel('z-axis, volume (cubic meters)'); title('Volume of Right Circular Cone'); box on
The three-dimensional plot of Figure A.6 shows how the volume of the cone increases as the
radius and height are increased.
The plots of Figure A.5 and A.6 are rudimentary; MATLAB can generate very sophisticated
three-dimensional plots. The MATLAB Users Manual and the Using MATLAB Graphics Man-
ual contain numerous examples.
length x ( ) n = length y ( ) m = m n , [ ] size Z ( ) =
x j ( ) y i ( ) Z i j , ( ) , , {
z f x y , ( ) =
V r h
V
1
3
---rr
2
h =
r h 0 r 4 s s 0 h 6 s s
V f r h , ( ) =
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-18 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Figure A.6. Volume of a right circular cone.
A.8 Subplots
MATLAB can display up to four windows of different plots on the Figure window using the com-
mand subplot(m,n,p). This command divides the window into an m n matrix of plotting areas
and chooses the pth area to be active. No spaces or commas are required between the three inte-
gers m, n and p. The possible combinations are shown in Figure A.7.
We will illustrate the use of the subplot(m,n,p) command following the discussion on multiplica-
tion, division and exponentiation that follows.
Figure A.7. Possible subplot arrangements in MATLAB
A.9 Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation
MATLAB recognizes two types of multiplication, division, and exponentiation. These are the
matrix multiplication, division, and exponentiation, and the element-by-element multiplication,
division, and exponentiation. They are explained in the following paragraphs.
0
1
2
3
4
0
2
4
6
0
50
100
150
x-axis, radius r (meters)
Volume of Right Circular Cone
y-axis, altitude h (meters)
z
-
a
x
i
s
,

v
o
l
u
m
e

(
c
u
b
i
c

m
e
t
e
r
s
)
111
Full Screen
Default
211
212
221 222
223 224
121
122
221 222
212
211
223 224
221
223
122
121
222
224
Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation
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In Section A.2, the arrays , such a those that contained the coefficients of polynomi-
als, consisted of one row and multiple columns, and thus are called row vectors. If an array has
one column and multiple rows, it is called a column vector. We recall that the elements of a row
vector are separated by spaces. To distinguish between row and column vectors, the elements of a
column vector must be separated by semicolons. An easier way to construct a column vector, is to
write it first as a row vector, and then transpose it into a column vector. MATLAB uses the single
quotation character () to transpose a vector. Thus, a column vector can be written either as
b=[-1; 3; 6; 11]
or as
b=[-1 3 6 11]'
As shown below, MATLAB produces the same display with either format.
b=[-1; 3; 6; 11]
b =
- 1
3
6
11
b=[-1 3 6 11]' % Observe the single quotation character ()
b =
- 1
3
6
11
We will now define Matrix Multiplication and Element-by-Element multiplication.
1. Matrix Multiplication (multiplication of row by column vectors)
Let
and

be two vectors. We observe that is defined as a row vector whereas is defined as a col-
umn vector, as indicated by the transpose operator (). Here, multiplication of the row vector
by the column vector , is performed with the matrix multiplication operator (*). Then,
(A.5)
a b c . [ ]
A a
1
a
2
a
3
. a
n
[ ] =
B b
1
b
2
b
3
. b
n
[ ]' =
A B
A B
A*B a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
a
3
b
3
. a
n
b
n
+ + + + [ ] gle value sin = =
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For example, if
and
the matrix multiplication produces the single value 68, that is,
and this is verified with the MATLAB script
A=[1 2 3 4 5]; B=[ -2 6 -3 8 7]'; A*B % Observe transpose operator () in B
a ns =
68
Now, let us suppose that both and are row vectors, and we attempt to perform a row-by-
row multiplication with the following MATLAB statements.
A=[1 2 3 4 5]; B=[-2 6 -3 8 7]; A*B % No transpose operator () here
When these statements are executed, MATLAB displays the following message:
??? Error using ==> *
Inner matrix dimensions must agree.
Here, because we have used the matrix multiplication operator (*) in A*B, MATLAB expects
vector to be a column vector, not a row vector. It recognizes that is a row vector, and
warns us that we cannot perform this multiplication using the matrix multiplication operator
(*). Accordingly, we must perform this type of multiplication with a different operator. This
operator is defined below.
2. Element-by-Element Multiplication (multiplication of a row vector by another row vector)
Let
and

be two row vectors. Here, multiplication of the row vector by the row vector is per-
formed with the dot multiplication operator (.*). There is no space between the dot and the
multiplication symbol. Thus,
(A.6)
This product is another row vector with the same number of elements, as the elements of
A 1 2 3 4 5 [ ] =
B 2 6 3 8 7 [ ]' =
A*B
A
-
B 1 2 ( ) 2 6 3 3 ( ) 4 8 5 7 + + + + 68 = =
A B
B B
C c
1
c
2
c
3
. c
n
[ ] =
D d
1
d
2
d
3
. d
n
[ ] =
C D
C.
-
D c
1
d
1
c
2
d
2
c
3
d
3
. c
n
d
n
[ ] =
C
Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling A-21
Copyright Orchard Publications
and .
As an example, let
and
Dot multiplication of these two row vectors produce the following result.
Check with MATLAB:
C=[1 2 3 4 5]; % Vectors C and D must have
D=[-2 6 -3 8 7]; % same number of elements
C.*D % We observe that this is a dot multiplication
ans =
-2 12 -9 32 35
Similarly, the division (/) and exponentiation (^) operators, are used for matrix division and
exponentiation, whereas dot division (./) and dot exponentiation (.^) are used for element-
by-element division and exponentiation, as illustrated in Examples A.11 and A.12 above.
We must remember that no space is allowed between the dot (.) and the multiplication, divi-
sion, and exponentiation operators.
Note: A dot (.) is never required with the plus (+) and minus (-) operators.
Example A.13
Write the MATLAB script that produces a simple plot for the waveform defined as
(A.7)
in the seconds interval.
Solution:
The MATLAB script for this example is as follows:
t=0: 0.01: 5; % Define t-axis in 0.01 increments
y=3 .* exp(-4 .* t) .* cos(5 .* t)-2 .* exp(-3 .* t) .* sin(2 .* t) + t .^2 ./ (t+1);
plot(t,y); grid; xlabel('t'); ylabel('y=f(t)'); title('Plot for Example A.13')
The plot for this example is shown in Figure A.8.
D
C 1 2 3 4 5 [ ] =
D 2 6 3 8 7 [ ] =
C.
-
D 1 2 ( ) 2 6 3 3 ( ) 4 8 5 7 2 12 9 32 35 = =
y f t ( ) 3e
4t
5t cos 2e
3t
2t sin
t
2
t 1 +
----------- + = =
0 t 5 s s
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-22 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Figure A.8. Plot for Example A.13
Had we, in this example, defined the time interval starting with a negative value equal to or less
than , say as , MATLAB would have displayed the following message:
Wa r ni ng: Di vi de by z e r o.
This is because the last term (the rational fraction) of the given expression, is divided by zero
when . To avoid division by zero, we use the special MATLAB function eps, which is a
number approximately equal to . It will be used with the next example.
The command axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax]) scales the current plot to the values specified by
the arguments xmin, xmax, ymin and ymax. There are no commas between these four argu-
ments. This command must be placed after the plot command and must be repeated for each plot.
The following example illustrates the use of the dot multiplication, division, and exponentiation,
the eps number, the axis([xmin xmax ymin ymax]) command, and also MATLABs capability
of displaying up to four windows of different plots.
Example A.14
Plot the functions
in the interval using 100 data points. Use the subplot command to display these func-
tions on four windows on the same graph.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
t
y
=
f
(
t
)
Plot for Example A.13
1 3 t 3 s s
t 1 =
2.2 10
16

y x
2
sin z , x
2
cos w , x
2
sin x
2
cos v , x
2
sin x
2
cos ' = = = =
0 x 2r s s
Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling A-23
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution:
The MATLAB script to produce the four subplots is as follows:
x=linspace(0,2*pi,100); % Interval with 100 data points
y=(sin(x).^ 2); z=(cos(x).^ 2);
w=y.* z;
v=y./ (z+eps);% add eps to avoid division by zero
subplot(221);% upper left of four subplots
plot(x,y); axis([0 2*pi 0 1]);
title('y=(sinx)^2');
subplot(222); % upper right of four subplots
plot(x,z); axis([0 2*pi 0 1]);
title('z=(cosx)^2');
subplot(223); % lower left of four subplots
plot(x,w); axis([0 2*pi 0 0.3]);
title('w=(sinx)^2*(cosx)^2');
subplot(224); % lower right of four subplots
plot(x,v); axis([0 2*pi 0 400]);
title('v=(sinx)^2/(cosx)^2');
These subplots are shown in Figure A.9.
Figure A.9. Subplots for the functions of Example A.14
The next example illustrates MATLABs capabilities with imaginary numbers. We will introduce
the real(z) and imag(z) functions that display the real and imaginary parts of the complex quan-
tity z = x + iy, the abs(z), and the angle(z) functions that compute the absolute value (magni-
tude) and phase angle of the complex quantity z = x + iy = rZ0. We will also use the
polar(theta,r) function that produces a plot in polar coordinates, where r is the magnitude, theta
0 2 4 6
0
0.5
1
y=(sinx)
2
0 2 4 6
0
0.5
1
z=(cosx)
2
0 2 4 6
0
0.1
0.2
w=(sinx)
2
*(cosx)
2
0 2 4 6
0
200
400
v=(sinx)
2
/(cosx)
2
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-24 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
is the angle in radians, and the round(n) function that rounds a number to its nearest integer.
Example A.15
Consider the electric circuit of Figure A.10.
Figure A.10. Electric circuit for Example A.15
With the given values of resistance, inductance, and capacitance, the impedance as a func-
tion of the radian frequency c can be computed from the following expression:
(A.8)
a. Plot (the real part of the impedance Z) versus frequency c.
b. Plot (the imaginary part of the impedance Z) versus frequency c.
c. Plot the impedance Z versus frequency c in polar coordinates.
Solution:
The MATLAB script below computes the real and imaginary parts of which, for simplicity,
are denoted as , and plots these as two separate graphs (parts a & b). It also produces a polar
plot (part c).
w=0: 1: 2000; % Define interval with one radian interval;...
z=(10+(10 .^ 4 -j .* 10 .^ 6 ./ (w+eps)) ./ (10 + j .* (0.1 .* w -10.^5./ (w+eps))));...
%
% The first five statements (next two lines) compute and plot Re{z}
real_part=real(z); plot(w,real_part);...
xlabel('radian frequency w'); ylabel('Real part of Z'); grid
a
b
10 O
10 O
0.1 H
10 F Z
ab
Z
ab
Z
ab
Z 10
10
4
j 10
6
c ' ( )
10 j 0.1c 10
5
c ' ( ) +
-------------------------------------------------------- + = =
Re Z {
Im Z {
Z
ab
z
Multiplication, Division, and Exponentiation
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling A-25
Copyright Orchard Publications
Figure A.11. Plot for the real part of the impedance in Example A.15
% The next five statements (next two lines) compute and plot Im{z}
imag_part=imag(z); plot(w,imag_part);...
xlabel('radian frequency w'); ylabel('Imaginary part of Z'); grid
Figure A.12. Plot for the imaginary part of the impedance in Example A.15
% The last six statements (next five lines) below produce the polar plot of z
mag=abs(z); % Computes |Z|;...
rndz=round(abs(z)); % Rounds |Z| to read polar plot easier;...
theta=angle(z); % Computes the phase angle of impedance Z;...
polar(theta,rndz); % Angle is the first argument
ylabel('Polar Plot of Z'); grid
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
radian frequency w
R
e
a
l

p
a
r
t

o
f

Z
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
radian frequency w
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

p
a
r
t

o
f

Z
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-26 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Figure A.13. Polar plot of the impedance in Example A.15
Example A.15 clearly illustrates how powerful, fast, accurate, and flexible MATLAB is.
A.10 Script and Function Files
MATLAB recognizes two types of files: script files and function files. Both types are referred to as
m-files since both require the .m extension.
A script file consists of two or more built-in functions such as those we have discussed thus far.
Thus, the script for each of the examples we discussed earlier, make up a script file. Generally, a
script file is one which was generated and saved as an m-file with an editor such as the MAT-
LABs Editor/Debugger.
A function file is a user-defined function using MATLAB. We use function files for repetitive
tasks. The first line of a function file must contain the word function, followed by the output argu-
ment, the equal sign ( = ), and the input argument enclosed in parentheses. The function name
and file name must be the same, but the file name must have the extension .m. For example, the
function file consisting of the two lines below
function y = myfunction(x)
y=x.^ 3 + cos(3.* x)
is a function file and must be saved as myfunction.m
For the next example, we will use the following MATLAB functions:
fzero(f,x) - attempts to find a zero of a function of one variable, where f is a string containing the
name of a real-valued function of a single real variable. MATLAB searches for a value near a
point where the function f changes sign, and returns that value, or returns NaN if the search fails.
500
1000
1500
30
210
60
240
90
270
120
300
150
330
180 0
P
o
l
a
r

P
l
o
t

o
f

Z
Script and Function Files
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling A-27
Copyright Orchard Publications
Important: We must remember that we use roots(p) to find the roots of polynomials only, such as
those in Examples A.1 and A.2.
fplot(fcn,lims) - plots the function specified by the string fcn between the x-axis limits specified
by lims = [xmin xmax]. Using lims = [xmin xmax ymin ymax] also controls the y-axis limits.
The string fcn must be the name of an m-file function or a string with variable .
NaN (Not-a-Number) is not a function; it is MATLABs response to an undefined expression
such as , , or inability to produce a result as described on the next paragraph. We can
avoid division by zero using the eps number, which we mentioned earlier.
Example A.16
Find the zeros, the minimum, and the maximum values of the function
(A.9)
in the interval
Solution:
We first plot this function to observe the approximate zeros, maxima, and minima using the fol-
lowing script.
x=-1.5: 0.01: 1.5;
y=1./ ((x-0.1).^ 2 + 0.01) -1./ ((x-1.2).^ 2 + 0.04) -10;
plot(x,y); grid
The plot is shown in Figure A.14.
Figure A.14. Plot for Example A.16 using the plot command
x
0 0 ' '
f x ( )
1
x 0.1 ( )
2
0.01 +
----------------------------------------
1
x 1.2 ( )
2
0.04 +
---------------------------------------- 10 =
1.5 x 1.5 s s
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-28 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
The roots (zeros) of this function appear to be in the neighborhood of and . The
maximum occurs at approximately where, approximately, , and the minimum
occurs at approximately where, approximately, .
Next, we define and save f(x) as the funczero01.m function m-file with the following script:
function y=funczero01(x)
% Finding the zeros of the function shown below
y=1/((x-0.1)^2+0.01)-1/((x-1.2)^2+0.04)-10;
To save this file, from the File drop menu on the Command Window, we choose New, and when
the Editor Window appears, we type the script above and we save it as funczero01. MATLAB
appends the extension .m to it.
Now, we can use the fplot(fcn,lims) command to plot as follows:
fplot('funczero01', [-1.5 1.5]); grid
This plot is shown in Figure A.15. As expected, this plot is identical to the plot of Figure A.14
which was obtained with the plot(x,y) command as shown in Figure A.14.
Figure A.15. Plot for Example A.16 using the fplot command
We will use the fzero(f,x) function to compute the roots of in Equation (A.9) more precisely.
The MATLAB script below will accomplish this.
x1= fzero('funczero01', -0.2);
x2= fzero('funczero01', 0.3);
fprintf('The roots (zeros) of this function are r1= %3.4f', x1);
fprintf(' and r2= %3.4f \n', x2)
x 0.2 = x 0.3 =
x 0.1 = y
max
90 =
x 1.2 = y
min
34 =
f x ( )
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
f x ( )
Script and Function Files
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling A-29
Copyright Orchard Publications
MATLAB displays the following:
The r oot s ( z e r os ) of t hi s f unc t i on a r e r 1= - 0. 1919 a nd r 2= 0. 3788
The earlier MATLAB versions included the function fmin(f,x1,x2) and with this function we
could compute both a minimum of some function or a maximum of since a maximum of
is equal to a minimum of . This can be visualized by flipping the plot of a function
upside-down. This function is no longer used in MATLAB and thus we will compute the maxima
and minima from the derivative of the given function.
From elementary calculus, we recall that the maxima or minima of a function can be
found by setting the first derivative of a function equal to zero and solving for the independent
variable . For this example we use the diff(x) function which produces the approximate deriva-
tive of a function. Thus, we use the following MATLAB script:
syms x ymin zmin; ymin=1/((x-0.1)^2+0.01)-1/((x-1.2)^2+0.04)-10;...
zmin=diff(ymin)
z mi n =
- 1/ ( ( x- 1/ 10) ^2+1/ 100) ^2*( 2*x- 1/ 5) +1/ ( ( x- 6/ 5) ^2+1/ 25) ^2*( 2*x- 12/ 5)
When the command
solve(zmin)
is executed, MATLAB displays a very long expression which when copied at the command
prompt and executed, produces the following:
a ns =
0. 6585 + 0. 3437i
a ns =
0. 6585 - 0. 3437i
a ns =
1. 2012
The real value above is the value of at which the function has its minimum value as
we observe also in the plot of Figure A.15.
To find the value of y corresponding to this value of x, we substitute it into , that is,
x=1.2012; ymin=1 / ((x-0.1) ^ 2 + 0.01) -1 / ((x-1.2) ^ 2 + 0.04) -10
ymin = -34.1812
We can find the maximum value from whose plot is produced with the script
x=-1.5:0.01:1.5; ymax=-1./((x-0.1).^2+0.01)-1./((x-1.2).^2+0.04)-10; plot(x,ymax); grid
and the plot is shown in Figure A.16.
f x ( ) f x ( )
f x ( ) f x ( ) f x ( )
y f x ( ) =
x
1.2012 x y
f x ( )
f x ( )
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-30 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Figure A.16. Plot of for Example A.16
Next we compute the first derivative of and we solve for to find the value where the max-
imum of occurs. This is accomplished with the MATLAB script below.
syms x ymax zmax; ymax=-(1/((x-0.1)^2+0.01)-1/((x-1.2)^2+0.04)-10); zmax=diff(ymax)
z ma x =
1/ ( ( x- 1/ 10) ^2+1/ 100) ^2*( 2*x- 1/ 5) - 1/ ( ( x- 6/ 5) ^2+1/ 25) ^2*( 2*x- 12/ 5)
solve(zmax)
When the command
solve(zmax)
is executed, MATLAB displays a very long expression which when copied at the command
prompt and executed, produces the following:
a ns =
0. 6585 + 0. 3437i
a ns =
0. 6585 - 0. 3437i
a ns =
1. 2012
a ns =
0. 0999
From the values above we choose which is consistent with the plots of Figures A.15
and A.16. Accordingly, we execute the following script to obtain the value of .
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
f x ( )
f x ( ) x
ymax
x 0.0999 =
ymin
Display Formats
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling A-31
Copyright Orchard Publications
x=0.0999; % Using this value find the corresponding value of ymax
ymax=1 / ((x-0.1) ^ 2 + 0.01) -1 / ((x-1.2) ^ 2 + 0.04) -10
yma x = 89. 2000
A.11 Display Formats
MATLAB displays the results on the screen in integer format without decimals if the result is an
integer number, or in short floating point format with four decimals if it a fractional number. The
format displayed has nothing to do with the accuracy in the computations. MATLAB performs all
computations with accuracy up to 16 decimal places.
The output format can changed with the format command. The available MATLAB formats can
be displayed with the help format command as follows:
help format
FORMAT Se t out put f or ma t .
Al l c omput a t i ons i n MATLAB a r e done i n doubl e pr e c i s i on.
FORMAT ma y be us e d t o s wi t c h be t we e n di f f e r e nt out put di s pl a y f or ma t s
a s f ol l ows :
FORMAT De f a ul t . Sa me a s SHORT.
FORMAT SHORT Sc a l e d f i xe d poi nt f or ma t wi t h 5 di gi t s .
FORMAT LONG Sc a l e d f i xe d poi nt f or ma t wi t h 15 di gi t s .
FORMAT SHORT E Fl oa t i ng poi nt f or ma t wi t h 5 di gi t s .
FORMAT LONG E Fl oa t i ng poi nt f or ma t wi t h 15 di gi t s .
FORMAT SHORT G Be s t of f i xe d or f l oa t i ng poi nt f or ma t wi t h 5 di gi t s .
FORMAT LONG G Be s t of f i xe d or f l oa t i ng poi nt f or ma t wi t h 15 di gi t s .
FORMAT HEX He xa de c i ma l f or ma t .
FORMAT + The s ymbol s +, - a nd bl a nk a r e pr i nt e d f or pos i t i ve , ne ga t i ve ,
a nd z e r o e l e me nt s . I ma gi na r y pa r t s a r e i gnor e d.
FORMAT BANK Fi xe d f or ma t f or dol l a r s a nd c e nt s .
FORMAT RAT Appr oxi ma t i on by r a t i o of s ma l l i nt e ge r s .
Spa c i ng:
FORMAT COMPACT Suppr e s s e xt r a l i ne - f e e ds .
FORMAT LOOSE Put s t he e xt r a l i ne - f e e ds ba c k i n.
Some e xa mpl e s wi t h di f f e r e nt f or ma t di s pl a ys a ge gi ve n be l ow.
f or ma t s hor t 33. 3335 Four de c i ma l di gi t s ( de f a ul t )
f or ma t l ong 33. 33333333333334 16 di gi t s
f or ma t s hor t e 3. 3333e +01 Four de c i ma l di gi t s pl us e xpone nt
f or ma t s hor t g 33. 333 Be t t e r of f or ma t s hor t or f or ma t s hor t e
f or ma t ba nk 33. 33 t wo de c i ma l di gi t s
f or ma t + onl y + or - or z e r o a r e pr i nt e d
Appendix A Introduction to MATLAB
A-32 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
f or ma t r a t 100/ 3 r a t i ona l a ppr oxi ma t i on
The disp(X) command displays the array X without printing the array name. If X is a string, the
text is displayed.
The fprintf(format,array) command displays and prints both text and arrays. It uses specifiers to
indicate where and in which format the values would be displayed and printed. Thus, if %f is
used, the values will be displayed and printed in fixed decimal format, and if %e is used, the val-
ues will be displayed and printed in scientific notation format. With this command only the real
part of each parameter is processed.
This appendix is just an introduction to MATLAB.
*
This outstanding software package consists
of many applications known as Toolboxes. The MATLAB Student Version contains just a few of
these Toolboxes. Others can be bought directly from The MathWorks, Inc., as add-ons.
* For more MATLAB applications, please refer to Numerical Analysis Using MATLAB and Excel, ISBN 978-
1-934404-03-4.
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling B-1
Copyright Orchard Publications
Appendix B
Introduction to Simulink

his appendix is a brief introduction to Simulink. This author feels that we can best intro-
duce Simulink with a few examples. Some familiarity with MATLAB is essential in under-
standing Simulink, and for this purpose, Appendix A is included as an introduction to
MATLAB.
B.1 Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
The MATLAB

and Simulink

environments are integrated into one entity, and thus we can

analyze, simulate, and revise our models in either environment at any point. We invoke Simulink
from within MATLAB. We will introduce Simulink with a few illustrated examples.
Example B.1
For the circuit of Figure B.1, the initial conditions are , and . We will
compute .
Figure B.1. Circuit for Example B.1
For this example,
(B.1)
and by Kirchoffs voltage law (KVL),
(B.2)
Substitution of (B.1) into (B.2) yields
T
i
L
0
-
( ) 0 = v
c
0
-
( ) 0.5 V =
v
c
t ( )
-
+
R
L
+
-
C
1 O
v
s
t ( ) u
0
t ( ) =
v
C
t ( )
i t ( )
1 4 ' H
4 3 ' F
i i
L
i
C
C
dv
C
dt
--------- = = =
Ri
L
L
di
L
dt
------- v
C
+ + u
0
t ( ) =

Introduction to Simulink
B-2 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
(B.3)
Substituting the values of the circuit constants and rearranging we obtain:
(B.4)
(B.5)
To appreciate Simulinks capabilities, for comparison, three different methods of obtaining the
solution are presented, and the solution using Simulink follows.
First Method - Assumed Solution
Equation (B.5) is a second-order, non-homogeneous differential equation with constant coeffi-
cients, and thus the complete solution will consist of the sum of the forced response and the natu-
ral response. It is obvious that the solution of this equation cannot be a constant since the deriva-
tives of a constant are zero and thus the equation is not satisfied. Also, the solution cannot
contain sinusoidal functions (sine and cosine) since the derivatives of these are also sinusoids.
However, decaying exponentials of the form where k and a are constants, are possible candi-
dates since their derivatives have the same form but alternate in sign.
It is shown in Appendix H that if and where and are constants and and
are the roots of the characteristic equation of the homogeneous part of the given differential
equation, the natural response is the sum of the terms and . Therefore, the total
solution will be
(B.6)
The values of and are the roots of the characteristic equation
(B.7)
Solution of (B.7) yields of and and with these values (B.6) is written as
RC
dv
C
dt
--------- LC
d
2
v
C
dt
2
----------- v
C
+ + u
0
t ( ) =
1
3
-- -
d
2
v
C
dt
2
-----------
4
3
-- -
dv
C
dt
--------- v
C
+ + u
0
t ( ) =
d
2
v
C
dt
2
----------- 4
dv
C
dt
--------- 3v
C
+ + 3u
0
t ( ) =
d
2
v
C
dt
2
----------- 4
dv
C
dt
--------- 3v
C
+ + 3 = t 0 >
ke
at
k
1
e
s
1
t
k
2
e
s
2
t
k
1
k
2
s
1
s
2
k
1
e
s
1
t
k
2
e
s
2
t
v
c
t ( ) natural response forced response + v
cn
t ( ) v
cf
t ( ) + k
1
e
s
1
t
k
2
e
s
2
t
v
cf
t ( ) + + = = =
s
1
s
2
s
2
4s 3 + + 0 =
s
1
1 = s
2
3 =
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Modeling B-3
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Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
(B.8)
The forced component is found from (B.5), i.e.,
(B.9)
Since the right side of (B.9) is a constant, the forced response will also be a constant and we
denote it as . By substitution into (B.9) we obtain
or
(B.10)
Substitution of this value into (B.8), yields the total solution as
(B.11)
The constants and will be evaluated from the initial conditions. First, using
and evaluating (B.11) at , we obtain
(B.12)
Also,
and
(B.13)
Next, we differentiate (B.11), we evaluate it at , and equate it with (B.13). Thus,
(B.14)
By equating the right sides of (B.13) and (B.14) we obtain
(B.15)
v
c
t ( ) k
1
e
t
k
2
e
3 t
v
cf
t ( ) + + =
v
cf
t ( )
d
2
v
C
dt
2
----------- 4
dv
C
dt
--------- 3v
C
+ + 3 = t 0 >
v
Cf
k
3
=
0 0 3k
3
+ + 3 =
v
Cf
k
3
1 = =
v
C
t ( ) v
Cn
t ( ) v
Cf
+ = k
1
e
t
k
2
e
3 t
1 + + =
k
1
k
2
v
C
0 ( ) 0.5 V =
t 0 =
v
C
0 ( ) k
1
e
0
k
2
e
0
1 + + 0.5 = =
k
1
k
2
+ 0.5 =
i
L
i
C
C
dv
C
dt
--------- = =
dv
C
dt
---------
i
L
C
---- = ,

dv
C
dt
---------
t 0 =
i
L
0 ( )
C
------------
0
C
---- 0 = = =
t 0 =

dv
C
dt
---------
t 0 =
k
1
3k
2
=
k
1
3k
2
0 =
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Simultaneous solution of (B.12) and (B.15), gives and . By substitution into
(B.8), we obtain the total solution as
(B.16)
Check with MATLAB:
syms t % Define symbolic variable t
y0=-0.75*exp(-t)+0.25*exp(-3*t)+1; % The total solution y(t), for our example, vc(t)
y1=diff(y0) % The first derivative of y(t)
y1 =
3/ 4*e xp( - t ) - 3/ 4*e xp( - 3*t )
y2=diff(y0,2) % The second derivative of y(t)
y2 =
- 3/ 4*e xp( - t ) +9/ 4*e xp( - 3*t )
y=y2+4*y1+3*y0 % Summation of y and its derivatives
y =
3
Thus, the solution has been verified by MATLAB. Using the expression for in (B.16), we
find the expression for the current as
(B.17)
Second Method - Using the Laplace Transformation
The transformed circuit is shown in Figure B.2.
Figure B.2. Transformed Circuit for Example B.1
k
1
0.75 = k
2
0.25 =
v
C
t ( ) 0.75 e
t
0.25e
3 t
1 + + ( )u
0
t ( ) =
v
C
t ( )
i i
L
= i
C
C
dv
C
dt
----------
4
3
---
3
4
---e
t 3
4
--- e
3t

e
t
e
3t
A = = = =
-
+
R L
+
-
C
1
V
s
s ( ) 1 s ' =
V
C
s ( )
I s ( )
0.25s
3 4s '
+
-
V
C
0 ( )
0.5 s '
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Modeling B-5
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Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
By the voltage division
*
expression,
Using partial fraction expansion,

we let
(B.18)
and by substitution into (B.18)
Taking the Inverse Laplace transform

we find that
Third Method - Using State Variables
**
* For derivation of the voltage division and current division expressions, please refer to Circuit Analysis I with
MATLAB Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems , ISBN 978-1-934404-17-1.
Partial fraction expansion is discussed in Chapter 5, this text.
For an introduction to Laplace Transform and Inverse Laplace Transform, please refer Chapters 4 and 5, this
text.
** Usually, in State-Space and State Variables Analysis, denotes any input. For distinction, we will denote
the Unit Step Function as . For a detailed discussion on State-Space and State Variables Analysis, please
refer to Chapter 7, this text.
V
C
s ( )
3 4s '
1 0.25s 3 4s ' + + ( )
----------------------------------------------
1
s
-- -
0.5
s
-------

0.5
s
------- + =
1.5
s s
2
4s 3 + + ( )
---------------------------------
0.5
s
------- +
0.5s
2
2s 3 + +
s s 1 + ( ) s 3 + ( )
------------------------------------ = =
0.5s
2
2s 3 + +
s s 1 + ( ) s 3 + ( )
------------------------------------
r
1
s
----
r
2
s 1 + ( )
----------------
r
3
s 3 + ( )
---------------- + + =
r
1
0.5s
2
2s 3 + +
s 1 + ( ) s 3 + ( )
----------------------------------
s 0 =
1 = =
r
2
0.5s
2
2s 3 + +
s s 3 + ( )
----------------------------------
s 1 =
0.75 = =
r
3
0.5s
2
2s 3 + +
s s 1 + ( )
----------------------------------
s 3 =
0.25 = =
V
C
s ( )
0.5s
2
2s 3 + +
s s 1 + ( ) s 3 + ( )
------------------------------------
1
s
-- -
0.75
s 1 + ( )
----------------
0.25
s 3 + ( )
---------------- + + = =
v
C
t ( ) 1 0.75e
t
0.25e
3t
+ =
Ri
L
L
di
L
dt
------- v
C
+ + u
0
t ( ) =
u t ( )
u
0
t ( )
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By substitution of given values and rearranging, we obtain
or
(B.19)
Next, we define the state variables and . Then,
*
(B.20)
and
(B.21)
Also,
and thus,
or
(B.22)
Therefore, from (B.19), (B.20), and (B.22), we obtain the state equations
and in matrix form,
(B.23)
Solution

of (B.23) yields
* The notation (x dot) is often used to denote the first derivative of the function , that is, .
The detailed solution of (B.23) is given in Chapter 7, Example 7.10, Page 7-23, this text.
1
4
-- -
di
L
dt
------- 1 ( )i
L
v
C
1 + =
di
L
dt
------- 4i
L
4v
C
4 + =
x
1
i
L
= x
2
v
C
=
x

1
di
L
dt
------- =
x

x x

dx dt ' =
x

2
dv
C
dt
--------- =
i
L
C
dv
C
dt
--------- =
x
1
i
L
C
dv
C
dt
--------- Cx

2
4
3
---x

2
= = = =
x

2
3
4
-- -x
1
=
x

1
4x
1
4x
2
4 + =
x

2
3
4
--- x
1
=
x

1
x

2
4 4
3 4 ' 0
x
1
x
2
4
0
u
0
t ( ) + =
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Modeling B-7
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Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
Then,
(B.24)
and
(B.25)
Modeling the Differential Equation of Example B.1 with Simulink
To run Simulink, we must first invoke MATLAB. Make sure that Simulink is installed in your sys-
tem. In the MATLAB Command prompt, we type:
simulink
Alternately, we can click on the Simulink icon shown in Figure B.3. It appears on the top bar on
MATLABs Command prompt.
Figure B.3. The Simulink icon
Upon execution of the Simulink command, the Commonly Used Blocks appear as shown in Fig-
ure B.4.
In Figure B.4, the left side is referred to as the Tree Pane and displays all Simulink libraries
installed. The right side is referred to as the Contents Pane and displays the blocks that reside in
the library currently selected in the Tree Pane.
Let us express the differential equation of Example B.1 as
(B.26)
A block diagram representing relation (B.26) above is shown in Figure B.5. We will use Simulink
to draw a similar block diagram.
*
* Henceforth, all Simulink block diagrams will be referred to as models.
x
1
x
2
e
t
e
3t
1 0.75 e
t
0.25e
3t
+
=
x
1
i
L
e
t
e
3t
= =
x
2
v
C
1 0.75e
t
0.25e
3t
+ = =
d
2
v
C
dt
2
----------- 4
dv
C
dt
--------- 3v
C
3u
0
t ( ) + =
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Figure B.4. The Simulink Library Browser
Figure B.5. Block diagram for equation (B.26)
To model the differential equation (B.26) using Simulink, we perform the following steps:
1. On the Simulink Library Browser, we click on the leftmost icon shown as a blank page on the
top title bar. A new model window named untitled will appear as shown in Figure B.6.
3
u
0
t ( )
Z
dt

-4
-3
d
2
v
C
dt
2
-----------
dv
C
dt
---------
v
C
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Modeling B-9
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Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
Figure B.6. The Untitled model window in Simulink.
The window of Figure B.6 is the model window where we enter our blocks to form a block dia-
gram. We save this as model file name Equation_1_26. This is done from the File drop menu of
Figure B.6 where we choose Save as and name the file as Equation_1_26. Simulink will add
the extension .mdl. The new model window will now be shown as Equati on_1_26, and all
saved files will have this appearance. See Figure B.7.
Figure B.7. Model window for Equation_1_26.mdl file
2. With the Equation_1_26 model window and the Simulink Library Browser both visible, we
click on the Sources appearing on the left side list, and on the right side we scroll down until
we see the unit step function shown as Step. See Figure B.8. We select it, and we drag it into
the Equation_1_26 model window which now appears as shown in Figure B.8. We save file
Equation_1_26 using the File drop menu on the Equation_1_26 model window (right side of
Figure B.8).
3. With reference to block diagram of Figure B.5, we observe that we need to connect an ampli-
fier with Gain 3 to the unit step function block. The gain block in Simulink is under Com-
monly Used Blocks (first item under Simulink on the Simulink Library Browser). See Figure
B.8. If the Equation_1_26 model window is no longer visible, it can be recalled by clicking on
the white page icon on the top bar of the Simulink Library Browser.
4. We choose the gain block and we drag it to the right of the unit step function. The triangle on
the right side of the unit step function block and the > symbols on the left and right sides of
the gain block are connection points. We point the mouse close to the connection point of the
unit step function until is shows as a cross hair, and draw a straight line to connect the two
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blocks.
*
We double-click on the gain block and on the Function Block Parameters, we
change the gain from 1 to 3. See Figure B.9.
Figure B.8. Dragging the unit step function into File Equation_1_26
Figure B.9. File Equation_1_26 with added Step and Gain blocks
* An easy method to interconnect two Simulink blocks by clicking on the source block to select it, then hold down
the Ctrl key and left-click on the destination block.
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Modeling B-11
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Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
5. Next, we need to add a thee-input adder. The adder block appears on the right side of the
Simulink Library Browser under Math Operations. We select it, and we drag it into the
Equation_1_26 model window. We double click it, and on the Function Block Parameters
window which appears, we specify 3 inputs. We then connect the output of the of the gain
block to the first input of the adder block as shown in Figure B.10.
Figure B.10. File Equation_1_26 with added gain block
6. From the Commonly Used Blocks of the Simulink Library Browser, we choose the Integra-
tor block, we drag it into the Equation_1_26 model window, and we connect it to the output
of the Add block. We repeat this step and to add a second Integrator block. We click on the
text Integrator under the first integrator block, and we change it to Integrator 1. Then, we
change the text Integrator 1 under the second Integrator to Integrator 2 as shown in Fig-
ure B.11.
Figure B.11. File Equation_1_26 with the addition of two integrators
7. To complete the block diagram, we add the Scope block which is found in the Commonly
Used Blocks on the Simulink Library Browser, we click on the Gain block, and we copy and
paste it twice. We flip the pasted Gain blocks by using the Flip Block command from the For-
mat drop menu, and we label these as Gain 2 and Gain 3. Finally, we double-click on these
gain blocks and on the Function Block Parameters window, we change the gains from to -4
and -3 as shown in Figure B.12.
Figure B.12. File Equation_1_26 complete block diagram
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8. The initial conditions , and are entered by double
clicking the Integrator blocks and entering the values for the first integrator, and for the
second integrator. We also need to specify the simulation time. This is done by specifying the
simulation time to be seconds on the Configuration Parameters from the Simulation drop
menu. We can start the simulation on Start from the Simulation drop menu or by clicking on
the icon.
9. To see the output waveform, we double click on the Scope block, and then clicking on the
Autoscale icon, we obtain the waveform shown in Figure B.13.
Figure B.13. The waveform for the function for Example B.1
Another easier method to obtain and display the output for Example B.1, is to use State-
Space block from Continuous in the Simulink Library Browser, as shown in Figure B.14.
Figure B.14. Obtaining the function for Example B.1 with the State-Space block.
i
L
0
-
( ) C
dv
C
dt
---------
t 0 =
0 = = v
c
0
-
( ) 0.5 V =
0 0.5
10
v
C
t ( )
v
C
t ( )
v
C
t ( )
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Modeling B-13
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Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
The simout To Workspace block shown in Figure B.14 writes its input to the workspace. The
data and variables created in the MATLAB Command window, reside in the MATLAB Work-
space. This block writes its output to an array or structure that has the name specified by the
block's Variable name parameter. This gives us the ability to delete or modify selected variables.
We issue the command who to see those variables. From Equation B.23, Page B-6,
The output equation is
or
We double-click on the State-Space block, and in the Functions Block Parameters window we
enter the constants shown in Figure B.15.
Figure B.15. The Function block parameters for the State-Space block.
x

1
x

2
4 4
3 4 ' 0
x
1
x
2
4
0
u
0
t ( ) + =
y Cx du + =
y 0 1 [ ]
x
1
x
2
0 [ ]u + =
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The initials conditions are specified in MATLABs Command prompt as
x1=0; x2=0.5;
As before, to start the simulation we click clicking on the icon, and to see the output wave-
form, we double click on the Scope block, and then clicking on the Autoscale icon, we
obtain the waveform shown in Figure B.16.
Figure B.16. The waveform for the function for Example B.1 with the State-Space block.
The state-space block is the best choice when we need to display the output waveform of three or
more variables as illustrated by the following example.
Example B.2
A fourth-order network is described by the differential equation
(B.27)
where is the output representing the voltage or current of the network, and is any input,
and the initial conditions are .
a. We will express (B.27) as a set of state equations
x1 x2 [ ]'
v
C
t ( )
d
4
y
dt
4
--------- a
3
d
3
y
dt
3
--------- a
2
d
2
y
dt
2
-------- a
1
dy
dt
------ a
0
y t ( ) + + + + u t ( ) =
y t ( ) u t ( )
y 0 ( ) y' 0 ( ) y'' 0 ( ) y''' 0 ( ) 0 = = = =
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Modeling B-15
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Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
b. It is known that the solution of the differential equation
(B.28)
subject to the initial conditions , has the solution
(B.29)
In our set of state equations, we will select appropriate values for the coefficients
so that the new set of the state equations will represent the differential equa-
tion of (B.28), and using Simulink, we will display the waveform of the output .
1. The differential equation of (B.28) is of fourth-order; therefore, we must define four state vari-
ables that will be used with the four first-order state equations.
We denote the state variables as , and , and we relate them to the terms of the
given differential equation as
(B.30)
We observe that
(B.31)
and in matrix form
(B.32)
In compact form, (B.32) is written as
(B.33)
Also, the output is
(B.34)
where
d
4
y
dt
4
-------- 2
d
2
y
dt
2
-------- y t ( ) + + t sin =
y 0 ( ) y' 0 ( ) y'' 0 ( ) y''' 0 ( ) 0 = = = =
y t ( ) 0.125 3 t
2
( ) 3t t cos [ ] =
a
3
a
2
a
1
and a
0
, , ,
y t ( )
x
1
x
2
x
3
, , x
4
x
1
y t ( ) = x
2
dy
dt
------ = x
3
d
2
y
dt
2
--------- = x
4
d
3
y
dt
3
--------- =
x

1
x
2
=
x

2
x
3
=
x

3
x
4
=
d
4
y
dt
4
--------- x

4
a
0
x
1
a
1
x
2
a
2
x
3
a
3
x
4
u t ( ) + = =
x

1
x

2
x

3
x

4
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3

x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
0
0
0
1
u t ( ) + =
x

Ax bu + =
y Cx du + =
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(B.35)
and since the output is defined as
relation (B.34) is expressed as
(B.36)
2. By inspection, the differential equation of (B.27) will be reduced to the differential equation of
(B.28) if we let
and thus the differential equation of (B.28) can be expressed in state-space form as
(B.37)
where
(B.38)
Since the output is defined as
in matrix form it is expressed as
x

1
x

2
x

3
x

4
= A
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3

= x
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
= b
0
0
0
1
and u , = , , , u t ( ) =
y t ( ) x
1
=
y 1 0 0 0 [ ]
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
0 [ ]u t ( ) + =
a
3
0 = a
2
2 = a
1
0 = a
0
1 = u t ( ) t sin =
x

1
x

2
x

3
x

4
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
a
0
0 2 0
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
0
0
0
1
t sin + =
x

1
x

2
x

3
x

4
= A
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
a
0
0 2 0
= x
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
= b
0
0
0
1
and u , = , , , t sin =
y t ( ) x
1
=
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling B-17
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Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
(B.39)
We invoke MATLAB, we start Simulink by clicking on the Simulink icon, on the Simulink
Library Browser we click on the Create a new model (blank page icon on the left of the top
bar), and we save this model as Example_1_2. On the Simulink Library Browser we select
Sources, we drag the Signal Generator block on the Example_1_2 model window, we click
and drag the State-Space block from the Continuous on Simulink Library Browser, and we
click and drag the Scope block from the Commonly Used Blocks on the Simulink Library
Browser. We also add the Display block found under Sinks on the Simulink Library
Browser. We connect these four blocks and the complete block diagram is as shown in Figure
B.17.
Figure B.17. Block diagram for Example B.2
We now double-click on the Signal Generator block and we enter the following in the Func-
tion Block Parameters:
Wave form: sine
Time (t): Use simulation time
Amplitude: 1
Frequency: 2
Units: Hertz
Next, we double-click on the state-space block and we enter the following parameter values
in the Function Block Parameters:
A: [0 1 0 0; 0 0 1 0; 0 0 0 1; -a0 -a1 -a2 -a3]
B: [0 0 0 1]
C: [1 0 0 0]
D: [0]
Initial conditions: x0
y 1 0 0 0 [ ]
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
0 [ ] t sin + =
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Absolute tolerance: auto
Now, we switch to the MATLAB Command prompt and we type the following:
>> a0=1; a1=0; a2=2; a3=0; x0=[0 0 0 0];
We change the Simulation Stop time to , and we start the simulation by clicking on the
icon. To see the output waveform, we double click on the Scope block, then clicking on the
Autoscale icon, we obtain the waveform shown in Figure B.18.
Figure B.18. Waveform for Example B.2
The Display block in Figure B.17 shows the value at the end of the simulation stop time.
Examples B.1 and B.2 have clearly illustrated that the State-Space is indeed a powerful block. We
could have obtained the solution of Example B.2 using four Integrator blocks by this approach
would have been more time consuming.

Example B.3
Using Algebraic Constraint blocks found in the Math Operations library, Display blocks found
in the Sinks library, and Gain blocks found in the Commonly Used Blocks library, we will create
a model that will produce the simultaneous solution of three equations with three unknowns.
The model will display the values for the unknowns , , and in the system of the equations
(B.40)
25
z
1
z
2
z
3
a
1
z
1
a
2
z
2
a
3
z
3
k
1
+ + + 0 =
a
4
z
1
a
5
z
2
a
6
z
3
k
2
+ + + 0 =
a
7
z
1
a
8
z
2
a
9
z
3
k
3
+ + + 0 =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling B-19
Copyright Orchard Publications
Simulink and its Relation to MATLAB
The model is shown in Figure B.19.
Figure B.19. Model for Example B.3
Next, we go to MATLABs Command prompt and we enter the following values:
a1=2; a2=-3; a3=-1; a4=1; a5=5; a6=4; a7=-6; a8=1; a9=2;...
k1=-8; k2=-7; k3=5;
After clicking on the simulation icon, we observe the values of the unknowns as ,
, and .These values are shown in the Display blocks of Figure B.19.
The Algebraic Constraint block constrains the input signal to zero and outputs an algebraic
state . The block outputs the value necessary to produce a zero at the input. The output must
affect the input through some feedback path. This enables us to specify algebraic equations for
index 1 differential/algebraic systems (DAEs). By default, the Initial guess parameter is zero. We
can improve the efficiency of the algebraic loop solver by providing an Initial guess for the alge-
braic state z that is close to the solution value.
z
1
2 =
z
2
3 = z
3
5 =
f z ( )
z
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An outstanding feature in Simulink is the representation of a large model consisting of many
blocks and lines, to be shown as a single Subsystem block.
*
For instance, we can group all blocks
and lines in the model of Figure B.19 except the display blocks, we choose Create Subsystem
from the Edit menu, and this model will be shown as in Figure B.20

where in MATLABs Com-

mand prompt we have entered:
a1=5; a2=-1; a3=4; a4=11; a5=6; a6=9; a7=-8; a8=4; a9=15;...
k1=14; k2=-6; k3=9;
Figure B.20. The model of Figure B.19 represented as a subsystem
The Display blocks in Figure B.20 show the values of , , and for the values specified at the
MATLAB command prompt.
B.2 Simulink Demos
At this time, the reader with no prior knowledge of Simulink, should be ready to learn Simulinks
additional capabilities. It is highly recommended that the reader becomes familiar with the block
libraries found in the Simulink Library Browser. Then, the reader can follow the steps delineated
in The MathWorks Simulink Users Manual to run the Demo Models beginning with the thermo
model. This model can be seen by typing
thermo
at the MATLAB command prompt.
* The Subsystem block is described in detail in Chapter 2, Section 2.1, Page 2-2, Introduction to Simulink with
Engineering Applications, 978-1-934404-09-6.
The contents of the Subsystem block are not lost. We can double-click on the Subsystem block to see its con-
tents. The Subsystem block replaces the inputs and outputs of the model with Inport and Outport blocks. These
blocks are described in Section 2.1, Chapter 2, Page 2-2, Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applica-
tions, ISBN 978-1-934404-09-6.
z
1
z
2
z
3
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Appendix C
Introduction to SimPowerSystems

his appendix is a brief introduction to SimPowerSystems

blockset that operates in the

Simulink

environment. An introduction to Simulink is presented in Appendix B. For

additional help with Simulink, please refer to the Simulink documentation.
C.1 Simulation of Electric Circuits with SimPowerSystems
As stated in Appendix B, the MATLAB

and Simulink

environments are integrated into one

entity, and thus we can analyze, simulate, and revise our models in either environment at any
point. We can invoke Simulink from within MATLAB or by typing simulink at the MATLAB
command prompt, and we can invoke SimPowerSystems from within Simulink or by typing pow-
erlib at the MATLAB command prompt. We will introduce SimPowerSystems with two illus-
trated examples, a DC electric circuit, and an AC electric circuit
Example C.1
For the simple resistive circuit in Figure C.1, , , and . From the volt-
age division expression, and from Ohms law,
.
Figure C.1. Circuit for Example C.1
To model the circuit in Figure C.1, we enter the following command at the MATLAB prompt.
powerlib
and upon execution of this command, the powerlib window shown in Figure C.2 is displayed.
From the File menu in Figure C.2, we open a new window and we name it Sim_Fig_C3 as shown
in Figure C.3.
T
v
S
12v = R
1
7O = R
2
5O =
v
R2
R
2
v
S
R
1
R
2
+ ( ) ' 5 12 12 ' 5v = = =
i v
S
R
1
R
2
+ ( ) ' 1A = =
+
-
v
S
R
2
R
1
i

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Figure C.2. Library blocks for SimPowerSystems
Figure C.3. New window for modeling the circuit shown in Figure C.1
The powergui block in Figure C.2 is referred to as the Environmental block for SimPowerSys-
tems models and it must be included in every model containing SimPowerSystems blocks.
Accordingly, we begin our model by adding this block as shown in Figure C.4.
We observe that in Figure C.4, the powergui block is named Continuous. This is the default
method of solving an electric circuit and uses a variable step Simulink solver. Other methods are
the Discrete method used when the discretization of the system at fixed time steps is desired, and
the Phasors method which performs phasor simulation at the frequency specified by the Phasor
frequency parameter. These methods are described in detail in the SimPowerSystems documen-
tation.
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Simulation of Electric Circuits with SimPowerSystems
Figure C.4. Window with the addition of the powergui block
Next, we need to the components of the electric circuit shown in Figure C.1. From the Electrical
Sources library in Figure C.2 we select the DC Voltage Source block and drag it into the model,
from the Elements library we select and drag the Series RLC Branch block and the Ground
block, from the Measurements library we select the Current Measurement and the Voltage
Measurement blocks, and from the Simulink Sinks library we select and drag the Display block.
The model now appears as shown in Figure C.5.
Figure C.5. The circuit components for our model
From the Series RLC Branch block we only need the resistor, and to eliminate the inductor and
the capacitor, we double click it and from the Block Parameters window we select the R compo-
nent with value set at as shown in Figure C.6. 7 O
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Figure C.6. The Block Parameters window for the Series RLC Branch
We need two resistors for our model and thus we copy and paste the resistor into the model, using
the Block Parameters window we change its value to , and from the Format drop window we
click the Rotate block option and we rotate it clockwise. We also need two Display blocks, one
for the current measurement and the second for the voltage measurement and thus we copy and
paste the Display block into the model. We also copy and paste twice the Ground block and the
model is now as shown in Figure C.7 where we also have renamed the blocks to shorter names.
Figure C.7. Model with blocks renamed
From Figure C.7 above, we observe that both terminals of the voltage source and the resistors are
shown with small square ( ) ports, the left ports of the CM (Current Measurement), and VM
(Voltage Measurement) are also shown with ports, but the terminals on the right are shown with
the Simulink output ports as >. The rules for the SimPowerSystems electrical terminal ports
and connection lines are as follows:
5 O
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Simulation of Electric Circuits with SimPowerSystems
1. We can connect Simulink ports (>) only to other Simulink ports.
2. We can connect SimPowerSystems ports ( ) only to other SimPowerSystems ports.
*
3. If it is necessary to connect Simulink ports (>) to SimPowerSystems ports ( ), we can use
SimPowerSystems blocks that contain both Simulink and SimPowerSystems ports such as the
Current Measurement (CM) block and the Voltage Measurement (VM) block shown in Fig-
ure C.7.
The model for the electric circuit in Figure C.1 is shown in Figure C.8.
Figure C.8. The final form of the SimPowerSystems model for the electric circuit in Figure C.1
For the model in Figure C.8 we used the DC Voltage Source block. The SimPowerSystems doc-
umentation states that we can also use the AC Voltage Source block as a DC Voltage Source
block provided that we set the frequency at and the phase at in the Block
Parameters window as shown in Figure C.9.
* As in Simulink, we can autoconnect two SimPowerSystems blocks by selecting the source block, then holding
down the Ctrl key, and left-clicking the destination block.
0 Hz 90 degrees
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Figure C.9. Block parameter settings when using an AC Voltage Source block as a DC Voltage Source
Figure C.10. Model with AC Voltage Source used as DC Voltage Source
A third option is to use a Controlled Voltage Source block with a Constant block set to the
numerical value of the DC voltage Source as shown in the model of Figure C.11.
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Simulation of Electric Circuits with SimPowerSystems
Figure C.11. Model with Controlled Voltage Source block
Example C.2
Consider the AC electric circuit in Figure C.12
Figure C.12. Electric circuit for Example C.2
The current I and the voltage Vc across the capacitor are computed with MATLAB as follows:
Vs=120; f=60; R=1; L=0.2; C=10^(-3); XL=2*pi*f*L; XC=1/(2*pi*f*C);...
Z=sqrt(R^2+(XL-XC)^2); I=Vs/Z, Vc=XC*I
I =
1. 6494
Vc =
4. 3752
The SimPowerSystems model and the waveforms for the current I and the voltage Vc are shown
in Figures C.13 and C.14 respectively.
V
S
I
0.2H
C
120 0 V Z
1 O
L R
10
3
F
60 Hz
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Figure C.13. SimPowerSystems model for the electric circuit in Figure C.12
Figure C.14. Waveforms for the current I and voltage Vc across the capacitor in Figure C.12
The same results are obtained if we replace the applied AC voltage source block in the model of
Figure C.13 with a Controlled Voltage Source (CVS) block as shown in Figure C.15.
Figure C.15. The model in Figure C.13 with the AC Voltage Source block replaced with a CVS block
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Appendix D
Review of Complex Numbers
his appendix is a review of the algebra of complex numbers. The basic operations are
defined and illustrated by several examples. Applications using Eulers identities are pre-
sented, and the exponential and polar forms are discussed and illustrated with examples.
D.1 Definition of a Complex Number
In the language of mathematics, the square root of minus one is denoted as , that is, .
In the electrical engineering field, we denote as to avoid confusion with current . Essentially,
is an operator that produces a 90-degree counterclockwise rotation to any vector to which it is
applied as a multiplying factor. Thus, if it is given that a vector has the direction along the
right side of the x-axis as shown in Figure D.1, multiplication of this vector by the operator will
result in a new vector whose magnitude remains the same, but it has been rotated counter-
clockwise by .
Figure D.1. The j operator
Also, another multiplication of the new vector by will produce another counterclock-
wise direction. In this case, the vector has rotated and its new value now is . When
this vector is rotated by another for a total of , its value becomes . A
fourth rotation returns the vector to its original position, and thus its value is again .
Therefore, we conclude that , , and .
T
i i 1 =
i j i
j
A
j
jA
90
x
y
jA
j jA ( ) j
2
A A = =
j A ( ) j
3
A jA = =
j jA ( ) j
2
A A = =
A
jA j 90
A 180 A
90 270 j A ( ) jA =
90 A
j
2
1 = j
3
j = j
4
1 =

Review of Complex Numbers
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Modeling
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Note: In our subsequent discussion, we will denote the x-axis (abscissa) as the real axis, and the
y-axis (ordinate) as the imaginary axis with the understanding that the imaginary axis is just as
real as the real axis. In other words, the imaginary axis is just as important as the real axis.
*
An imaginary number is the product of a real number, say , by the operator . Thus, is a real
number and is an imaginary number.
A complex number is the sum (or difference) of a real number and an imaginary number. For
example, the number where and are both real numbers, is a complex number.
Then, and where denotes real part of A, and
the imaginary part of .
By definition, two complex numbers and where and , are equal if
and only if their real parts are equal, and also their imaginary parts are equal. Thus, if and
only if and .
D.2 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers
The sum of two complex numbers has a real component equal to the sum of the real components,
and an imaginary component equal to the sum of the imaginary components. For subtraction, we
change the signs of the components of the subtrahend and we perform addition. Thus, if
and
then
and
Example D.1
It is given that , and . Find and
Solution:
and
* We may think the real axis as the cosine axis and the imaginary axis as the sine axis.
r j r
jr
A a jb + = a b
a Re A { = b Im A { = Re A { b Im A { =
A
A B A a jb + = B c jd + =
A B =
a c = b d =
A a jb + = B c jd + =
A B + a c + ( ) j b d + ( ) + =
A B a c ( ) j b d ( ) + =
A 3 j4 + = B 4 j2 = A B + A B
A B + 3 j4 + ( ) = 4 j2 ( ) + 3 4 + ( ) j 4 2 ( ) + 7 j2 + = =
A B 3 j4 + ( ) = 4 j2 ( ) 3 4 ( ) j 4 2 + ( ) + 1 j6 + = =
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Multiplication of Complex Numbers
D.3 Multiplication of Complex Numbers
Complex numbers are multiplied using the rules of elementary algebra, and making use of the
fact that . Thus, if
and
then
and since , it follows that
(D.1)
Example D.2
It is given that and . Find
Solution:
The conjugate of a complex number, denoted as , is another complex number with the same
real component, and with an imaginary component of opposite sign. Thus, if , then
.
Example D.3
It is given that . Find
Solution:
The conjugate of the complex number has the same real component, but the imaginary com-
ponent has opposite sign. Then,
If a complex number is multiplied by its conjugate, the result is a real number. Thus, if
, then
j
2
1 =
A a jb + = B c jd + =
A B a jb + ( ) c jd + ( ) ac jad jbc j
2
bd + + + = =
j
2
1 =
A B ac jad jbc b d + + =
ac bd ( ) j ad bc + ( ) + =
A 3 j4 + = B 4 j2 = A B
A B 3 j4 + ( ) 4 j2 ( ) 12 j6 j16 j
2
8 + 20 j10 + = = =
A
-
A a jb + =
A
-
a j b =
A 3 j5 + = A
-
A
A
-
3 j 5 =
A
A a jb + =
A A
-
a jb + ( ) a jb ( ) a
2
jab jab j
2
b
2
+ a
2
b
2
+ = = =
Review of Complex Numbers
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Example D.4
It is given that . Find
Solution:
D.4 Division of Complex Numbers
When performing division of complex numbers, it is desirable to obtain the quotient separated
into a real part and an imaginary part. This procedure is called rationalization of the quotient, and it
is done by multiplying the denominator by its conjugate. Thus, if and ,
then,
(D.2)
In (D.2), we multiplied both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denomina-
tor to eliminate the j operator from the denominator of the quotient. Using this procedure, we see
that the quotient is easily separated into a real and an imaginary part.
Example D.5
It is given that , and . Find
Solution:
Using the procedure of (D.2), we obtain
D.5 Exponential and Polar Forms of Complex Numbers
The relations
(D.3)
and
A 3 j5 + = A A
-

A A
-
3 j5 + ( ) 3 j5 ( ) 3
2
5
2
+ 9 25 34 = + = = =
A a jb + = B c jd + =
A
B
----
a jb +
c jd +
--------------
a jb + ( ) c jd ( )
c jd + ( ) c jd ( )
-------------------------------------
A
B
----
B
-
B
-
-------
ac bd + ( ) j bc ad ( ) +
c
2
d
2
+
------------------------------------------------------ = = = =
ac bd + ( )
c
2
d
2
+
----------------------- j
bc ad ( )
c
2
d
2
+
---------------------- + =
A 3 j4 + = B 4 j3 + = A B '
A
B
----
3 j4 +
4 j3 +
--------------
3 j4 + ( ) 4 j3 ( )
4 j3 + ( ) 4 j3 ( )
--------------------------------------
12 j9 j16 12 + +
4
2
3
2
+
--------------------------------------------
24 j7 +
25
-----------------
24
25
------ j
7
25
------ + 0.96 j0.28 + = = = = = =
e
j0
0 j 0 sin + cos =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Exponential and Polar Forms of Complex Numbers
(D.4)
are known as the Eulers identities.
Multiplying (D.3) by the real positive constant C we obtain:
(D.5)
This expression represents a complex number, say , and thus
(D.6)
where the left side of (D.6) is the exponential form, and the right side is the rectangular form.
Equating real and imaginary parts in (D.5) and (D.6), we obtain
(D.7)
Squaring and adding the expressions in (D.7), we obtain
Then,
or
(D.8)
Also, from (D.7)
or
(D.9)
To convert a complex number from rectangular to exponential form, we use the expression
(D.10)
To convert a complex number from exponential to rectangular form, we use the expressions
(D.11)
e
j0
0 j 0 sin cos =
Ce
j0
C 0 jC 0 sin + cos =
a jb +
Ce
j0
a jb + =
a C 0 cos = and b C 0 sin =
a
2
b
2
+ C 0 cos ( )
2
C 0 sin ( )
2
+ C
2
0
2
cos 0
2
sin + ( ) C
2
= = =
C
2
a
2
b
2
+ =
C a
2
b
2
+ =
b
a
---
C 0 sin
C 0 cos
--------------- 0 tan = =
0
b
a
---

1
tan =
a jb + a
2
b
2
+ e
j tan
1

b
a
---

=
Ce
j0
C 0 jC 0 sin + cos =
Ce
j0
C 0 j C 0 sin cos =
Review of Complex Numbers
D-6 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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The polar form is essentially the same as the exponential form but the notation is different, that
is,
(D.12)
where the left side of (D.12) is the exponential form, and the right side is the polar form.
We must remember that the phase angle is always measured with respect to the positive real
axis, and rotates in the counterclockwise direction.
Example D.6
Convert the following complex numbers from rectangular
*
to exponential and polar forms:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Solution:
a. The real and imaginary components of this complex number are shown in Figure D.2.
Figure D.2. The components of
Then,
Check with MATLAB:
x=3+j*4; magx=abs(x); thetax=angle(x)*180/pi; disp(magx); disp(thetax)
5
* The rectangular form is also known as Cartesian form.
Ce
j0
C 0 Z =
0
3 j4 +
1 j2 +
2 j
4 j3
Re
Im
4
3
5
53.1
3 j4 +
3 j4 + 3
2
4
2
+ e
j
4
3
---
1
tan

5e
j53.1
5 53.1 Z = = =
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Exponential and Polar Forms of Complex Numbers
53. 1301
Check with the Simulink Complex to Magnitude-Angle block
*
shown in the Simulink
model of Figure D.3.
Figure D.3. Simulink model for Example D.6a
b. The real and imaginary components of this complex number are shown in Figure D.4.
Figure D.4. The components of
Then,
Check with MATLAB:
y=-1+j*2; magy=abs(y); thetay=angle(y)*180/pi; disp(magy); disp(thetay)
2. 2361
116. 5651
c. The real and imaginary components of this complex number are shown in Figure D.5.
* For a detailed description and examples with this and other related transformation blocks, please refer to Intro-
duction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, ISBN 978-1-934404-09-6.
Re
Im
2
-1
116.6
63.4
5
1 j2 +
1 j2 + 1
2
2
2
+ e
j
2
1
------
1
tan

5e
j116.6
5 116.6 Z = = =
Re
Im
-2
-1
206.6
-153.4(Measured
26.6
Clockwise) 5
Review of Complex Numbers
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Figure D.5. The components of
Then,
Check with MATLAB:
v=-2-j*1; magv=abs(v); thetav=angle(v)*180/pi; disp(magv); disp(thetav)
2. 2361
- 153. 4349
d. The real and imaginary components of this complex number are shown in Figure D.6.
Figure D.6. The components of
Then,
Check with MATLAB:
w=4-j*3; magw=abs(w); thetaw=angle(w)*180/pi; disp(magw); disp(thetaw)
5
- 36. 8699
Example D.7
Express the complex number in exponential and in rectangular forms.
Solution:
We recall that . Since each rotates a vector by counterclockwise, then is
the same as rotated counterclockwise by . Therefore,
2 j
2 j 1 2
2
1
2
+ e
j
1
2
------
1
tan

5e
j206.6
= = 5 206.6 Z 5e
j 153.4 ( )
5 153.4 Z = = =
Re
Im
4
-3
5
323.1
-36.9
4 j3
4 j 3 4
2
3
2
+ e
j
3
4
------
1
tan

5e
j323.1
= = 5 323.1 Z 5e
j36.9
5 36.9 Z = = =
2 30 Z
1 j
2
= j 90 2 30 Z
2 30 Z 180
2 30 Z 2 30 180 + ( ) Z 2 210 Z 2 150 Z = = =
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Exponential and Polar Forms of Complex Numbers
The components of this complex number are shown in Figure D.7.
Figure D.7. The components of
Then,
Note: The rectangular form is most useful when we add or subtract complex numbers; however,
the exponential and polar forms are most convenient when we multiply or divide complex
numbers.
To multiply two complex numbers in exponential (or polar) form, we multiply the magnitudes
and we add the phase angles, that is, if
then,
(D.13)
Example D.8
Multiply by
Solution:
Multiplication in polar form yields
and multiplication in exponential form yields
To divide one complex number by another when both are expressed in exponential or polar
form, we divide the magnitude of the dividend by the magnitude of the divisor, and we subtract
the phase angle of the divisor from the phase angle of the dividend, that is, if
Re
Im
-1.73
-1
210
2
-150(Measured
30
Clockwise)
2 150 Z
2 150 Z 2e
j 150
= 2 150 j 150 sin cos ( ) 2 0.866 j0.5 ( ) 1.73 j = = =
A M 0 Z = and B N o Z =
AB MN 0 o + ( ) Z Me
j0
Ne
jo
MNe
j 0 o + ( )
= = =
A 10 53.1 Z = B 5 36.9 Z =
AB 10 5 ( ) 53.1 36.9 ( ) + [ ] Z 50 16.2 Z = =
AB 10e
j53.1
( ) 5e
j 36.9
( ) 50e
j 53.1 36.9 ( )
50e
j16.2
= = =
Review of Complex Numbers
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then,
(D.14)
Example D.9
Divide by
Solution:
Division in polar form yields
Division in exponential form yields
A M 0 Z = and B N o Z =
A
B
----
M
N
----- 0 o ( ) Z
Me
j0
Ne
jo
-------------
M
N
----e
j 0 o ( )
= = =
A 10 53.1 Z = B 5 36.9 Z =
A
B
----
10 53.1 Z
5 36.9 Z
------------------------ 2 53.1 36.9 ( ) [ ] Z 2 90 Z = = =
A
B
----
10e
j53.1
5e
j36.9
--------------------- 2e
j53.1
e
j36.9
2e
j90
= = =
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Modeling E-1
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Appendix E
Matrices and Determinants
his appendix is an introduction to matrices and matrix operations. Determinants, Cramers
rule, and Gausss elimination method are reviewed. Some definitions and examples are not
applicable to the material presented in this text, but are included for subject continuity,
and academic interest. They are discussed in detail in matrix theory textbooks. These are
denoted with a dagger () and may be skipped.
E.1 Matrix Definition
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers such as those shown below.
In general form, a matrix A is denoted as
(E.1)
The numbers are the elements of the matrix where the index indicates the row, and indi-
cates the column in which each element is positioned. For instance, indicates the element
positioned in the fourth row and third column.
A matrix of rows and columns is said to be of order matrix.
If , the matrix is said to be a square matrix of order (or ). Thus, if a matrix has five
rows and five columns, it is said to be a square matrix of order 5.
T
2 3 7
1 1 5
or
1 3 1
2 1 5
4 7 6
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
. a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
23
. a
2n
a
31
a
32
a
33
. a
3n
. . . . .
a
m1
a
m2
a
m3
. a
mn
=
a
ij
i j
a
43
m n m n
m n = m n

Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-2 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
In a square matrix, the elements are called the main diagonal elements.
Alternately, we say that the matrix elements , are located on the main
diagonal.
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix is called the trace
*
of .
A matrix in which every element is zero, is called a zero matrix.
E.2 Matrix Operations
Two matrices and are equal, that is, , if and only if
(E.2)
Two matrices are said to be conformable for addition (subtraction), if they are of the same order
.
If and are conformable for addition (subtraction), their sum (difference) will
be another matrix with the same order as and , where each element of is the sum (dif-
ference) of the corresponding elements of and , that is,
(E.3)
Example E.1
Compute and given that
and
Solution:
and
* Henceforth, all paragraphs and topics preceded by a dagger ( ) may be skipped. These are discussed in matrix
theory textbooks.
a
11
a
22
a
33
. a
nn
, , , ,
a
11
a
22
a
33
. a
nn
, , , ,
A A
A
a
ij
= B
b
ij
= A B =
a
ij
b
ij
= i 1 2 3 . m , , , , = j 1 2 3 . n , , , , =
m n
A
a
ij
= B
b
ij
=
C A B C
A B
C A B a
ij
b
ij
[ ] = =
A B + A B
A
1 2 3
0 1 4
= B
2 3 0
1 2 5
=
A B +
1 2 + 2 3 + 3 0 +
0 1 1 2 + 4 5 +
3 5 3
1 3 9
= =
A B
1 2 2 3 3 0
0 1 + 1 2 4 5
1 1 3
1 1 1
= =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-3
Copyright Orchard Publications
Matrix Operations
Check with MATLAB:
A=[1 2 3; 0 1 4]; B=[2 3 0; -1 2 5]; % Define matrices A and B
A+B, A-B % Add A and B, then Subtract B from A
a ns =
3 5 3
- 1 3 9
a ns =
- 1 - 1 3
1 - 1 - 1
Check with Simulink:
If is any scalar (a positive or negative number), and not which is a matrix, then mul-
tiplication of a matrix by the scalar is the multiplication of every element of by .
Example E.2
Multiply the matrix
by
a.
b.
Note: The elements of matrices
A and B are specified in
MATLAB's Command prompt
Sum 2
Sum 1
-1
1
-1
-1
3
-1
Display 2 (A-B)
3
-1
5
3
3
9
Display 1 (A+B)
B
Constant 2
A
Constant 1
k k [ ] 1 1
A k A k
A
1 2
2 3
=
k
1
5 =
k
2
3 j2 + =
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-4 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution:
a.
b.
Check with MATLAB:
k1=5; k2=(-3 + 2*j); % Define scalars k
1
and k
2
A=[1 -2; 2 3]; % Define matrix A
k1*A, k2*A % Multiply matrix A by scalars k
1
and k
2
a ns =
5 - 10
10 15
a ns =
- 3. 0000+ 2. 0000i 6. 0000- 4. 0000i
- 6. 0000+ 4. 0000i - 9. 0000+ 6. 0000i
Two matrices and are said to be conformable for multiplication in that order, only
when the number of columns of matrix is equal to the number of rows of matrix . That is, the
product (but not ) is conformable for multiplication only if is an matrix and
matrix is an matrix. The product will then be an matrix. A convenient way
to determine if two matrices are conformable for multiplication is to write the dimensions of the
two matrices side-by-side as shown below.

For the product we have:
k
1
A 5
1 2
2 3

5 1 5 2 ( )
5 2 5 3
5 10
10 15
= = =
k
2
A 3 j2 + ( )
1 2
2 3

3 j2 + ( ) 1 3 j2 + ( ) 2 ( )
3 j2 + ( ) 2 3 j2 + ( ) 3
3 j2 + 6 j4
6 j4 + 9 j6 +
= = =
A B A B
A B
A B B A A m p
B p n A B m n
m p p n
A B
Shows that A and B are conformable for multiplication
Indicates the dimension of the product A B
B A
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-5
Copyright Orchard Publications
Matrix Operations
For matrix multiplication, the operation is row by column. Thus, to obtain the product , we
multiply each element of a row of by the corresponding element of a column of ; then, we
add these products.
Example E.3
Matrices and are defined as
and
Compute the products and
Solution:
The dimensions of matrices and are respectively ; therefore the product is
feasible, and will result in a , that is,
The dimensions for and are respectively and therefore, the product is
also feasible. Multiplication of these will produce a matrix as follows:
Check with MATLAB:
C=[2 3 4]; D=[1 -1 2]; % Define matrices C and D. Observe that D is a column vector
C*D, D*C % Multiply C by D, then multiply D by C
a ns =
7
Here, B and A are not conformable for multiplication
B A
p n m p
A B
A B
C D
C
2 3 4
= D
1
1
2
=
C D D C
C D 1 3 3 1 C D
1 1
C D
2 3 4
1
1
2
2 ( ) 1 ( ) 3 ( ) 1 ( ) 4 ( ) 2 ( ) + + 7
= = =
D C 3 1 1 3 D C
3 3
D C
1
1
2
2 3 4
1 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 3 ( ) 1 ( ) 4 ( )
1 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 3 ( ) 1 ( ) 4 ( )
2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 4 ( )
2 3 4
2 3 4
4 6 8
= = =
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-6 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
a ns =
2 3 4
- 2 - 3 - 4
4 6 8
Division of one matrix by another, is not defined. However, an analogous operation exists, and it
will become apparent later in this chapter when we discuss the inverse of a matrix.
E.3 Special Forms of Matrices
A square matrix is said to be upper triangular when all the elements below the diagonal are
zero. The matrix of (E.4) is an upper triangular matrix. In an upper triangular matrix, not
all elements above the diagonal need to be non-zero.
(E.4)
A square matrix is said to be lower triangular, when all the elements above the diagonal are
zero. The matrix of (E.5) is a lower triangular matrix. In a lower triangular matrix, not all
elements below the diagonal need to be non-zero.
(E.5)
A square matrix is said to be diagonal, if all elements are zero, except those in the diagonal. The
matrix of (E.6) is a diagonal matrix.
A
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
. a
1n
0 a
22
a
23
. a
2n
0 0 . . .
. . 0 . .
0 0 0 . a
mn
=
B
B
a
11
0 0 . 0
a
21
a
22
0 . 0
. . . 0 0
. . . . 0
a
m1
a
m2
a
m3
. a
mn
=
C
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-7
Copyright Orchard Publications
Special Forms of Matrices
(E.6)
A diagonal matrix is called a scalar matrix, if where is a
scalar. The matrix of (E.7) is a scalar matrix with .
(E.7)
A scalar matrix with , is called an identity matrix . Shown below are , , and
identity matrices.
(E.8)
The MATLAB eye(n) function displays an identity matrix. For example,
eye(4) % Display a 4 by 4 identity matrix
a ns =
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Likewise, the eye(size(A)) function, produces an identity matrix whose size is the same as matrix
. For example, let matrix be defined as
A=[1 3 1; -2 1 -5; 4 -7 6] % Define matrix A
A =
1 3 1
- 2 1 - 5
4 - 7 6
C
a
11
0 0 . 0
0 a
22
0 . 0
0 0 . 0 0
0 0 0 . 0
0 0 0 . a
mn
=
a
11
a
22
a
33
. a
nn
k = = = = = k
D k 4 =
D
4 0 0 0
0 4 0 0
0 0 4 0
0 0 0 4
=
k 1 = I 2 2 3 3
4 4
1 0
0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
n n
A A
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-8 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Then,
eye(size(A))
displays
a ns =
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
The transpose of a matrix , denoted as , is the matrix that is obtained when the rows and
columns of matrix are interchangeE. For example, if
(E.9)
In MATLAB, we use the apostrophe () symbol to denote and obtain the transpose of a matrix.
Thus, for the above example,
A=[1 2 3; 4 5 6] % Define matrix A
A =
1 2 3
4 5 6
A' % Display the transpose of A
a ns =
1 4
2 5
3 6
A symmetric matrix is a matrix such that , that is, the transpose of a matrix is the
same as . An example of a symmetric matrix is shown below.
(E.10)
If a matrix has complex numbers as elements, the matrix obtained from by replacing each
element by its conjugate, is called the conjugate of , and it is denoted as , for example,
A A
T
A
A
1 2 3
4 5 6
= then A
T
1 4
2 5
3 6
=
A A
T
A = A
A
A
1 2 3
2 4 5
3 5 6
= A
T
1 2 3
2 4 5
3 5 6
A = =
A A
A A
-
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-9
Copyright Orchard Publications
Special Forms of Matrices
MATLAB has two built-in functions which compute the complex conjugate of a number. The
first, conj (x), computes the complex conjugate of any complex number, and the second,
conj(A), computes the conjugate of a matrix . Using MATLAB with the matrix defined
as above, we obtain
A = [1+2j j; 3 2-3j] % Define and display matrix A
A =
1. 0000 + 2. 0000i 0 + 1. 0000i
3. 0000 2. 0000 - 3. 0000i
conj_A=conj(A) % Compute and display the conjugate of A
c onj _A =
1. 0000 - 2. 0000i 0 - 1. 0000i
3. 0000 2. 0000 + 3. 0000i
A square matrix such that is called skew-symmetric. For example,
Therefore, matrix above is skew symmetric.
A square matrix such that is called Hermitian. For example,
Therefore, matrix above is Hermitian.
A square matrix such that is called skew-Hermitian. For example,
Therefore, matrix above is skew-Hermitian.
A
1 j2 + j
3 2 j3
= A
-
1 j2 j
3 2 j3 +
=
A A
A A
T
A =
A
0 2 3
2 0 4
3 4 0
= A
T
0 2 3
2 0 4
3 4 0
A = =
A
A A
T-
A =
A
1 1 j 2
1 j + 3 j
2 j 0
A
T
1 1 j + 2
1 j 3 j
2 j 0
A
T*
1 1 j + 2
1 j 3 j
2 j 0
A = = = =
A
A A
T-
A =
A
j 1 j 2
1 j 3j j
2 j 0
A
T
j 1 j 2
1 j 3j j
2 j 0
A
T*
j 1 j + 2
1 j + 3j j
2 j 0
A = = = =
A
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-10 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
E.4 Determinants
Let matrix be defined as the square matrix
(E.11)
then, the determinant of , denoted as , is defined as
(E.12)
The determinant of a square matrix of order n is referred to as determinant of order n.
Let be a determinant of order , that is,
(E.13)
Then,
(E.14)
Example E.4
Matrices and are defined as
and
Compute and .
Solution:
Check with MATLAB:
A=[1 2; 3 4]; B=[2 -1; 2 0]; % Define matrices A and B
det(A), det(B) % Compute the determinants of A and B
A
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
. a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
23
. a
2n
a
31
a
32
a
33
. a
3n
. . . . .
a
n1
a
n2
a
n3
. a
nn
=
A detA
detA a
11
a
22
a
33
.a
nn
a
12
a
23
a
34
.a
n1
a
13
a
24
a
35
.a
n2
.
a
n1
.a
22
a
13
. a
n2
.a
23
a
14
a
n3
.a
24
a
15
.
+ + + =
A 2
A
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
=
detA a
11
a
22
a
21
a
12
=
A B
A
1 2
3 4
= B
2 1
2 0
=
detA detB
detA 1 4 3 2 4 6 2 = = =
detB 2 0 2 1 ( ) 0 2 ( ) 2 = = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-11
Copyright Orchard Publications
Determinants
a ns =
- 2
a ns =
2
Let be a matrix of order , that is,
(E.15)
then, is found from
(E.16)
A convenient method to evaluate the determinant of order , is to write the first two columns to
the right of the matrix, and add the products formed by the diagonals from upper left to
lower right; then subtract the products formed by the diagonals from lower left to upper right as
shown on the diagram of the next page. When this is done properly, we obtain (E.16) above.
This method works only with second and third order determinants. To evaluate higher order
determinants, we must first compute the cofactors; these will be defined shortly.
Example E.5
Compute and if matrices and are defined as
and
A 3
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
=
detA
detA a
11
a
22
a
33
a
12
a
23
a
31
a
11
a
22
a
33
+ + =
a
11
a
22
a
33
a
11
a
22
a
33
a
11
a
22
a
33

3
3 3
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
a
31
a
32 +
-
detA detB A B
A
2 3 5
1 0 1
2 1 0
= B
2 3 4
1 0 2
0 5 6
=
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-12 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution:
or
Likewise,
or
Check with MATLAB:
A=[2 3 5; 1 0 1; 2 1 0]; det(A) % Define matrix A and compute detA
a ns =
9
B=[2 -3 -4; 1 0 -2; 0 -5 -6];det(B) % Define matrix B and compute detB
a ns =
- 18
E.5 Minors and Cofactors
Let matrix be defined as the square matrix of order as shown below.
(E.17)
If we remove the elements of its row, and column, the remaining square matrix is
called the minor of , and it is denoted as .
detA
2 3 5 2 3
1 0 1 1 0
2 1 0 2 1
=
detA 2 0 0 ( ) 3 1 1 ( ) 5 1 1 ( )
2 0 5 ( ) 1 1 2 ( ) 0 1 3 ( )
+ +
11 2 9 = =
=
detB
2 3 4 2 3
1 0 2 1 2
0 5 6 2 6
=
detB 2 0 6 ( ) [ ] 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 0 [ ] 4 ( ) 1 5 ( ) [ ]
0 0 4 ( ) [ ] 5 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 [ ] 6 ( ) 1 3 ( ) [ ]
+ +
20 38 18 = =
=
A n
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
. a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
23
. a
2n
a
31
a
32
a
33
. a
3n
. . . . .
a
n1
a
n2
a
n3
. a
nn
=
ith jth n 1
A
M
ij
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-13
Copyright Orchard Publications
Minors and Cofactors
The signed minor is called the cofactor of and it is denoted as .
Example E.6
Matrix is defined as
(E.18)
Compute the minors , , and the cofactors , and .
Solution:
and
The remaining minors
and cofactors
are defined similarly.
Example E.7
Compute the cofactors of matrix defined as
(E.19)
Solution:
(E.20)
1 ( )
i j +
M
ij
a
ij
o
ij
A
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
=
M
11
M
12
M
13
o
11
o
12
o
13
M
11
a
22
a
23
a
32
a
33
=
M
12
a
21
a
23
a
31
a
33
=
M
11
a
21
a
22
a
31
a
32
=
o
11
1 ( )
1 1 +
M
11
M
11
o
12
1 ( )
1 2 +
M
12
M
12
o
13
M
13
1 ( )
1 3 +
M
13
= = = = = =
M
21

M
22

M
23

M
31

M
32

M
33
, , , , ,
o
21
o
22
o
23
o
31
o
32
and o
33
, , , , ,
A
A
1 2 3
2 4 2
1 2 6
=
o
11
1 ( )
1 1 +
4 2
2 6
20 = = o
12
1 ( )
1 2 +
2 2
1 6
10 = =
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-14 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
(E.21)
(E.22)
(E.23)
(E.24)
It is useful to remember that the signs of the cofactors follow the pattern below
that is, the cofactors on the diagonals have the same sign as their minors.
Let be a square matrix of any size; the value of the determinant of is the sum of the products
obtained by multiplying each element of any row or any column by its cofactor.
Example E.8
Matrix is defined as
(E.25)
Compute the determinant of using the elements of the first row.
Solution:
o
13
1 ( )
1 3 +
2 4
1 2
0 o
21
1 ( )
2 1 +
2 3
2 6
6 = = = =
o
22
1 ( )
2 2 +
1 3
1 6
9 = = o
23
1 ( )
2 3 +
1 2
1 2
4 = =
o
31
1 ( )
3 1 +
2 3
4 2
8 = = o
32
1 ( )
3 2 +
1 3
2 2
8 = = ,
o
33
1 ( )
3 3 +
1 2
2 4
8 = =
+ - + - +
- + - + -
+ - + - +
- + - + -
+ - + - +
A A
A
A
1 2 3
2 4 2
1 2 6
=
A
detA 1
4 2
2 6
= 2
2 2
1 6
3
2 4
1 2
1 20 2 10 ( ) 3 0 40 = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-15
Copyright Orchard Publications
Minors and Cofactors
Check with MATLAB:
A=[1 2 -3; 2 -4 2; -1 2 -6]; det(A) % Define matrix A and compute detA
a ns =
40
We must use the above procedure to find the determinant of a matrix of order or higher.
Thus, a fourth-order determinant can first be expressed as the sum of the products of the ele-
ments of its first row by its cofactor as shown below.
(E.26)
Determinants of order five or higher can be evaluated similarly.
Example E.9
Compute the value of the determinant of the matrix defined as
(E.27)
Solution:
Using the above procedure, we will multiply each element of the first column by its cofactor.
Then,
A 4
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
14
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
24
a
31
a
32
a
33
a
34
a
41
a
42
a
43
a
44
a
11
a
22
a
23
a
24
a
32
a
33
a
34
a
42
a
43
a
44
a
21
a
12
a
13
a
14
a
32
a
33
a
34
a
42
a
43
a
44

+a
31
a
12
a
13
a
14
a
22
a
23
a
24
a
42
a
43
a
44
a
41
a
12
a
13
a
14
a
22
a
23
a
24
a
32
a
33
a
34

= =
A
A
2 1 0 3
1 1 0 1
4 0 3 2
3 0 0 1
=
A=2
1 0 1
0 3 2
0 0 1
a [ ]
1 ( )
1 0 3
0 3 2
0 0 1

b [ ]

+4
1 0 3
1 0 1
0 0 1
c [ ]
3 ( )
1 0 3
1 0 1
0 3 2

d [ ]

Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-16 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Next, using the procedure of Example E.5 or Example E.8, we find
, , ,
and thus
We can verify our answer with MATLAB as follows:
A=[ 2 -1 0 -3; -1 1 0 -1; 4 0 3 -2; -3 0 0 1]; delta = det(A)
de l t a =
- 33
Some useful properties of determinants are given below.
Property 1: If all elements of one row or one column are zero, the determinant is zero. An exam-
ple of this is the determinant of the cofactor above.
Property 2: If all the elements of one row or column are m times the corresponding elements of
another row or column, the determinant is zero. For example, if
(E.28)
then,
(E.29)
Here, is zero because the second column in is times the first column.
Check with MATLAB:
A=[2 4 1; 3 6 1; 1 2 1]; det(A)
a ns =
0
Property 3: If two rows or two columns of a matrix are identical, the determinant is zero. This
follows from Property 2 with .
E.6 Cramers Rule
Let us consider the systems of the three equations below:
a [ ] 6 = b [ ] 3 = c [ ] 0 = d [ ] 36 =
detA a [ ] b [ ] c [ ] d [ ] + + + 6 3 0 36 + 33 = = =
c [ ]
A
2 4 1
3 6 1
1 2 1
=
detA
2 4 1
3 6 1
1 2 1
2 4
3 6
1 2
12 4 6 6 4 12 + + 0 = = =
detA A 2
m 1 =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-17
Copyright Orchard Publications
Cramers Rule
(E.30)
and let
Cramers rule states that the unknowns x, y, and z can be found from the relations
(E.31)
provided that the determinant A (delta) is not zero.
We observe that the numerators of (E.31) are determinants that are formed from A by the substi-
tution of the known values , , and , for the coefficients of the desired unknown.
Cramers rule applies to systems of two or more equations.
If (E.30) is a homogeneous set of equations, that is, if , then,
are all zero as we found in Property 1 above. Then, also.
Example E.10
Use Cramers rule to find , , and if
(E.32)
and verify your answers with MATLAB.
Solution:
Rearranging the unknowns , and transferring known values to the right side, we obtain
(E.33)
By Cramers rule,
a
11
x a
12
y a
13
z + + A =
a
21
x a
22
y a
23
z + + B =
a
31
x a
32
y a
33
z + + C =
A
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
D
1
A a
11
a
13
B a
21
a
23
C a
31
a
33
D
2
a
11
A a
13
a
21
B a
23
a
31
C a
33
D
3
a
11
a
12
A
a
21
a
22
B
a
31
a
32
C
= = = =
x
D
1
A
------ = y
D
2
A
------ = z
D
3
A
------ =
A B C
A B C 0 = = = D
1
D
2
and D
3
, ,
x y z 0 = = =
v
1
v
2
v
3
2v
1
5 v
2
3v
3
+ 0 =
2v
3
3v
2
4v
1
8 =
v
2
3v
1
4 v
3
+ 0 =
v
2v
1
v
2
3v
3
+ 5 =
4v
1
3v
2
2v
3
8 =
3v
1
v
2
v
3
+ 4 =
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-18 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Using relation (E.31) we obtain
(E.34)
We will verify with MATLAB as follows:
% The following script will compute and display the values of v
1
, v
2
and v
3
.
format rat % Express answers in ratio form
B=[2 -1 3; -4 -3 -2; 3 1 -1]; % The elements of the determinant D of matrix B
delta=det(B); % Compute the determinant D of matrix B
d1=[5 -1 3; 8 -3 -2; 4 1 -1]; % The elements of D
1
detd1=det(d1); % Compute the determinant of D
1
d2=[2 5 3; -4 8 -2; 3 4 -1]; % The elements of D
2
detd2=det(d2); % Compute the determinant of D
2
d3=[2 -1 5; -4 -3 8; 3 1 4]; % The elements of D
3
detd3=det(d3); % Compute he determinant of D
3
v1=detd1/delta; % Compute the value of v
1
v2=detd2/delta; % Compute the value of v
2
v3=detd3/delta; % Compute the value of v
3
%
disp('v1=');disp(v1); % Display the value of v
1
disp('v2=');disp(v2); % Display the value of v
2
disp('v3=');disp(v3); % Display the value of v
3
A
2 1 3
4 3 2
3 1 1
2 1
4 3
3 1
6 6 12 27 4 4 + + + + 35 = = =
D
1
5 1 3
8 3 2
4 1 1
5 1
8 3
4 1
15 8 24 36 10 8 + + + + 85 = = =
D
2
2 5 3
4 8 2
3 4 1
2 5
4 8
3 4
16 30 48 72 16 20 + 170 = = =
D
3
2 1 5
4 3 8
3 1 4
2 1
4 3
3 1
24 24 20 45 16 16 + 55 = = =
x
1
D
1
A
------
85
35
------
17
7
------ = = = x
2
D
2
A
------
170
35
---------
34
7
------ = = = x
3
D
3
A
------
55
35
------
11
7
------ = = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-19
Copyright Orchard Publications
Gaussian Elimination Method
v1=
17/ 7
v2=
- 34/ 7
v3=
- 11/ 7
These are the same values as in (E.34)
E.7 Gaussian Elimination Method
We can find the unknowns in a system of two or more equations also by the Gaussian elimina-
tion method. With this method, the objective is to eliminate one unknown at a time. This can be
done by multiplying the terms of any of the equations of the system by a number such that we
can add (or subtract) this equation to another equation in the system so that one of the
unknowns will be eliminated. Then, by substitution to another equation with two unknowns, we
can find the second unknown. Subsequently, substitution of the two values found can be made
into an equation with three unknowns from which we can find the value of the third unknown.
This procedure is repeated until all unknowns are found. This method is best illustrated with the
following example which consists of the same equations as the previous example.
Example E.11
Use the Gaussian elimination method to find , , and of the system of equations
(E.35)
Solution:
As a first step, we add the first equation of (E.35) with the third to eliminate the unknown v
2
and
we obtain the equation
(E.36)
Next, we multiply the third equation of (E.35) by 3, and we add it with the second to eliminate
, and we obtain the equation
(E.37)
Subtraction of (E.37) from (E.36) yields
v
1
v
2
v
3
2v
1
v
2
3v
3
+ 5 =
4v
1
3v
2
2v
3
8 =
3v
1
v
2
v
3
+ 4 =
5v
1
2v
3
+ 9 =
v
2
5v
1
5v
3
20 =
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-20 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
(E.38)
Now, we can find the unknown from either (E.36) or (E.37). By substitution of (D.38) into
(E.36) we obtain
(E.39)
Finally, we can find the last unknown from any of the three equations of (E.35). By substitu-
tion into the first equation we obtain
(E.40)
These are the same values as those we found in Example E.10.
The Gaussian elimination method works well if the coefficients of the unknowns are small inte-
gers, as in Example E.11. However, it becomes impractical if the coefficients are large or fractional
numbers.
E.8 The Adjoint of a Matrix
Let us assume that is an n square matrix and is the cofactor of . Then the adjoint of ,
denoted as , is defined as the n square matrix below.
(E.41)
We observe that the cofactors of the elements of the ith row (column) of are the elements of
the ith column (row) of .
Example E.12
Compute if Matrix is defined as
7v
3
11 or v
3
11
7
------ = =
v
1
5v
1
2
11
7
------
\ .
| |
+ 9 or v
1
17
7
------ = =
v
2
v
2
2v
1
3v
3
5 +
34
7
------
33
7
------
35
7
------
34
7
------ = = =
A o
ij
a
ij
A
adjA
adjA
o
11
o
21
o
31
. o
n1
o
12
o
22
o
32
. o
n2
o
13
o
23
o
33
. o
n3
. . . . .
o
1n
o
2n
o
3n
. o
nn
=
A
adjA
adjA A
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-21
Copyright Orchard Publications
Singular and Non-Singular Matrices
(E.42)
Solution:
E.9 Singular and Non-Singular Matrices
An square matrix is called singular if ; if , is called non-singular.
Example E.13
Matrix is defined as
(E.43)
Determine whether this matrix is singular or non-singular.
Solution:
Therefore, matrix is singular.
A
1 2 3
1 3 4
1 4 3
=
adjA

3 4
4 3
2 3
4 3

2 3
3 4
1 4
1 3

1 3
1 3
2 3
3 4

1 3
1 4

1 2
1 4

1 2
1 3
7 6 1
1 0 1
1 2 1
= =
n A detA 0 = detA 0 A
A
A
1 2 3
2 3 4
3 5 7
=
detA
1 2 3
2 3 4
3 5 7
1 2
2 3
3 5
21 24 30 27 20 28 + + 0 = = =
A
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-22 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
E.10 The Inverse of a Matrix
If and are square matrices such that , where is the identity matrix, is
called the inverse of , denoted as , and likewise, is called the inverse of , that is,
If a matrix is non-singular, we can compute its inverse from the relation
(E.44)
Example E.14
Matrix is defined as
(E.45)
Compute its inverse, that is, find
Solution:
Here, , and since this is a non-zero value, it is possible to com-
pute the inverse of using (E.44).
From Example E.12,
Then,
(E.46)
Check with MATLAB:
A=[1 2 3; 1 3 4; 1 4 3], invA=inv(A) % Define matrix A and compute its inverse
A =
1 2 3
1 3 4
1 4 3
A B n AB BA I = = I B
A B A
1
= A B
A B
1
=
A A
1
A
1 1
detA
------------adjA =
A
A
1 2 3
1 3 4
1 4 3
=
A
1
detA 9 8 12 9 16 6 + + 2 = =
A
adjA
7 6 1
1 0 1
1 2 1
=
A
1 1
detA
------------adjA
1
2
------
7 6 1
1 0 1
1 2 1
3.5 3 0.5
0.5 0 0.5
0.5 1 0.5
= = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-23
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution of Simultaneous Equations with Matrices
i nvA =
3. 5000 - 3. 0000 0. 5000
- 0. 5000 0 0. 5000
- 0. 5000 1. 0000 - 0. 5000
Multiplication of a matrix by its inverse produces the identity matrix , that is,
(E.47)
Example E.15
Prove the validity of (E.47) for the Matrix defined as
Proof:
Then,
and
E.11 Solution of Simultaneous Equations with Matrices
Consider the relation
(E.48)
where and are matrices whose elements are known, and is a matrix (a column vector)
whose elements are the unknowns. We assume that and are conformable for multiplica-
tion.
Multiplication of both sides of (E.48) by yields:
(E.49)
or
A A
1
I
AA
1
I or A
1
A I = =
A
A
4 3
2 2
=
detA 8 6 2 and adjA
2 3
2 4
= = =
A
1 1
detA
------------adjA
1
2
---
2 3
2 4
1 3 2 '
1 2
= = =
AA
1 4 3
2 2
1 3 2 '
1 2
4 3 6 6 +
2 2 3 4 +
1 0
0 1
I = = = =
AX B =
A B X
A X
A
1
A
1
AX A
1
B IX A
1
B = = =
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-24 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
(E.50)
Therefore, we can use (E.50) to solve any set of simultaneous equations that have solutions. We
will refer to this method as the inverse matrix method of solution of simultaneous equations.
Example E.16
For the system of the equations
(E.51)
compute the unknowns using the inverse matrix method.
Solution:
In matrix form, the given set of equations is where
(E.52)
Then,
(E.53)
or
(E.54)
Next, we find the determinant , and the adjoint .
Therefore,
X=A
1
B
2x
1
3x
2
x
3
+ + 9 =
x
1
2x
2
3x
3
+ + 6 =
3x
1
x
2
2x
3
+ + 8 =
)

`

x
1
x
2
and x
3
, ,
AX B =
A
2 3 1
1 2 3
3 1 2
= X
x
1
x
2
x
3
= B
9
6
8
= , ,
X A
1
B =
x
1
x
2
x
3
2 3 1
1 2 3
3 1 2
1
9
6
8
=
detA adjA
detA 18 = and adjA
1 5 7
7 1 5
5 7 1
=
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-25
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution of Simultaneous Equations with Matrices
and with relation (E.53) we obtain the solution as follows:
(E.55)
To verify our results, we could use the MATLABs inv(A) function, and then multiply by .
However, it is easier to use the matrix left division operation ; this is MATLABs solu-
tion of for the matrix equation , where matrix is the same size as matrix .
For this example,
A=[2 3 1; 1 2 3; 3 1 2]; B=[9 6 8]'; X=A \ B
X =
1. 9444
1. 6111
0. 2778
Example E.17
For the electric circuit of Figure E.1,

Figure E.1. Electric circuit for Example E.17
the loop equations are
(E.56)
A
1 1
detA
------------ adjA
1
18
------
1 5 7
7 1 5
5 7 1
= =
X
x
1
x
2
x
3
1
18
------
1 5 7
7 1 5
5 7 1
9
6
8
1
18
------
35
29
5
35 18 '
29 18 '
5 18 '
1.94
1.61
0.28
= = = = =
A
1
B
X A \ B =
A
1
B A X B = X B
+
-
V = 100 v
9 O 9 O 4 O
2 O 2 O 1 O
I
1
I
3
I
2
10I
1
9I
2
100 =
9I
1
20I
2
9I
3
+ 0 =
9I
2
15I
3
+ 0 =
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-26 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Use the inverse matrix method to compute the values of the currents , , and
Solution:
For this example, the matrix equation is or , where
The next step is to find . It is found from the relation
(E.57)
Therefore, we must find the determinant and the adjoint of . For this example, we find that
(E.58)
Then,
and
Check with MATLAB:
R=[10 -9 0; -9 20 -9; 0 -9 15]; V=[100 0 0]'; I=R\V; fprintf(' \n');...
fprintf('I1 = %4.2f \t', I(1)); fprintf('I2 = %4.2f \t', I(2)); fprintf('I3 = %4.2f \t', I(3)); fprintf(' \n')
I 1 = 22. 46 I 2 = 13. 85 I 3 = 8. 31
We can also use subscripts to address the individual elements of the matrix. Accordingly, the
MATLAB script above could also have been written as:
R(1,1)=10; R(1,2)=-9; % No need to make entry for A(1,3) since it is zero.
R(2,1)=-9; R(2,2)=20; R(2,3)=-9; R(3,2)=-9; R(3,3)=15; V=[100 0 0]'; I=R\V; fprintf(' \n');...
fprintf('I1 = %4.2f \t', I(1)); fprintf('I2 = %4.2f \t', I(2)); fprintf('I3 = %4.2f \t', I(3)); fprintf(' \n')
I
1
I
2
I
3
RI V = I R
1
V =
R
10 9 0
9 20 9
0 9 15
= V
100
0
0
and I
I
1
I
2
I
3
= = ,
R
1
R
1 1
detR
------------ adjR =
R
detR 975 = adjR
219 135 81
135 150 90
81 90 119
= ,
R
1 1
detR
------------adjR
1
975
---------
219 135 81
135 150 90
81 90 119
= =
I
I
1
I
2
I
3
1
975
---------
219 135 81
135 150 90
81 90 119
100
0
0
100
975
---------
219
135
81
22.46
13.85
8.31
= = = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-27
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution of Simultaneous Equations with Matrices
I 1 = 22. 46 I 2 = 13. 85 I 3 = 8. 31
Spreadsheets also have the capability of solving simultaneous equations with real coefficients
using the inverse matrix method. For instance, we can use Microsoft Excels MINVERSE (Matrix
Inversion) and MMULT (Matrix Multiplication) functions, to obtain the values of the three cur-
rents in Example E.17.
The procedure is as follows:
1. We begin with a blank spreadsheet and in a block of cells, say B3:D5, we enter the elements of
matrix R as shown in Figure D.2. Then, we enter the elements of matrix in G3:G5.
2. Next, we compute and display the inverse of , that is, . We choose B7:D9 for the ele-
ments of this inverted matrix. We format this block for number display with three decimal
places. With this range highlighted and making sure that the cell marker is in B7, we type the
formula
=MININVERSE(B3:D5)
and we press the Crtl-Shift-Enter keys simultaneously. We observe that appears in these
cells.
3. Now, we choose the block of cells G7:G9 for the values of the current . As before, we high-
light them, and with the cell marker positioned in G7, we type the formula
=MMULT(B7:D9,G3:G5)
and we press the Crtl-Shift-Enter keys simultaneously. The values of then appear in G7:G9.
Figure E.2. Solution of Example E.17 with a spreadsheet
Example E.18
For the phasor circuit of Figure E.18
V
R R
1
R
1
I
I
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
A B C D E F G H
Spreadsheet for Matrix Inversion and Matrix Multiplication
10 -9 0 100
R= -9 20 -9 V= 0
0 -9 15 0
0.225 0.138 0.083 22.462
R
-1
= 0.138 0.154 0.092 I= 13.846
0.083 0.092 0.122 8.3077
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-28 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Figure E.3. Circuit for Example E.18
the current can be found from the relation
(E.59)
and the voltages and can be computed from the nodal equations
(E.60)
and
(E.61)
Compute, and express the current in both rectangular and polar forms by first simplifying like
terms, collecting, and then writing the above relations in matrix form as , where
, , and
Solution:
The matrix elements are the coefficients of and . Simplifying and rearranging the nodal
equations of (E.60) and (E.61), we obtain
(E.62)
Next, we write (E.62) in matrix form as
(E.63)
+
-
R
1 85 O
50 O
R
2
C
L
R
3
= 100 O
I
X
V
S
-j100 O
j200 O
170ZO
V
1
V
2
I
X
I
X
V
1
V
2

R
3
------------------- =
V
1
V
2
V
1
170 0 Z
85
--------------------------------
V
1
V
2

100
-------------------
V
1
0
j200
--------------- + + 0 =
V
2
170 0 Z
j100
--------------------------------
V
2
V
1

100
-------------------
V
2
0
50
--------------- + + 0 =
I
x
YV I =
Y Admit ce tan = V Voltage = I Current =
Y V
1
V
2
0.0218 j0.005 ( )V
1
0.01V
2
2 =
0.01 V
1
0.03 j0.01 + ( )V
2
+ j1.7 =
0.0218 j0.005 0.01
0.01 0.03 j0.01 +
Y
V
1
V
2
V
2
j1.7
I
=

Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling E-29
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solution of Simultaneous Equations with Matrices
where the matrices , , and are as indicated.
We will use MATLAB to compute the voltages and , and to do all other computations.
The script is shown below.
Y=[0.0218-0.005j -0.01; -0.01 0.03+0.01j]; I=[2; 1.7j]; V=Y\I; % Define Y, I, and find V
fprintf('\n'); % Insert a line
disp('V1 = '); disp(V(1)); disp('V2 = '); disp(V(2)); % Display values of V1 and V2
V1 =
1. 0490e +002 + 4. 9448e +001i
V2 =
53. 4162 + 55. 3439i
Next, we find from
R3=100; IX=(V(1)-V(2))/R3 % Compute the value of I
X
I X =
0. 5149 - 0. 0590i
This is the rectangular form of . For the polar form we use the MATLAB script
magIX=abs(IX), thetaIX=angle(IX)*180/pi % Compute the magnitude and the angle in
degrees
ma gI X =
0. 5183
t he t a I X =
- 6. 5326
Therefore, in polar form,
Spreadsheets have limited capabilities with complex numbers, and thus we cannot use them to
compute matrices that include complex numbers in their elements as in Example E.18.
Y V I
V
1
V
2
I
X
I
X
I
X
0.518 6.53 Z =
Appendix E Matrices and Determinants
E-30 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
E.12 Exercises
For Exercises 1, 2, and 3 below, the matrices , , , and are defined as:
1. Perform the following computations, if possible. Verify your answers with MATLAB.
a. b. c. d.
e. f. g. h.
2. Perform the following computations, if possible. Verify your answers with MATLAB.
a. b. c. d.
e. f. g. h.
3. Perform the following computations, if possible. Verify your answers with MATLAB.
a. b. c. d. e. f.
4. Solve the following systems of equations using Cramers rule. Verify your answers with MAT-
LAB.
a. b.
5. Repeat Exercise 4 using the Gaussian elimination method.
6. Solve the following systems of equations using the inverse matrix method. Verify your answers
with MATLAB.
a. b.
A B C D
A
1 1 4
5 7 2
3 5 6
= B
5 9 3
2 8 2
7 4 6
= C=
4 6
3 8
5 2
D
1 2 3
3 6 4
=
A B + A C + B D + C D +
A B A C B D C D
A B A C B D C D
B A C A D A D

C
detA detB detC detD det A B ( ) det A C ( )
x
1
2x
2
x
3
+ 4 =
2x
1
3x
2
x
3
+ + 9 =
3x
1
4x
2
5x
3
+ 0 =
x
1
2x
2
3x
3
5x
4
+ + 14 =
x
1
3x
2
2x
3
x
4
+ + 9 =
3x
1
3 x
2
2x
3
4x
4
+ + 19 =
4x
1
2x
2
5x
3
x
4
+ + + 27 =
1 3 4
3 1 2
2 3 5
x
1
x
2
x
3

3
2
0
=
2 4 3 2
2 4 1 3
1 3 4 2
2 2 2 1
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4

1
10
14
7
=
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling F-1
Copyright Orchard Publications
Appendix F
Scaling
his chapter discusses magnitude and frequency scaling procedures that allow us to trans-
form circuits that contain passive devices with unrealistic values to equivalent circuits with
realistic values.
F.1 Magnitude Scaling
Magnitude scaling is the process by which the impedance of a two terminal network is changed by
a factor which is a real positive number greater or smaller than unity.
If we increase the input impedance by a factor , we must increase the impedance of each
device of the network by the same factor. Thus, if a network consists of , , and devices and
we wish to scale this network by this factor, the magnitude scaling process entails the following
transformations where the subscript m denotes magnitude scaling.
(F.1)
These transformations are consistent with the time-domain to frequency domain transformations
(F.2)
and the -domain to -domain transformations
(F.3)
F.2 Frequency Scaling
Frequency scaling is the process in which we change the values of the network devices so that at
the new frequency the impedance of each device has the same value as at the original frequency.
T
k
m
k
m
R L C
R
m
k
m
R
L
m
k
m
L
C
m
C
k
m
------
R R
L jcL
C
1
jcC
----------
t s
R R
L sL
C
1
sC
------

Appendix F Scaling
F-2 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
The frequency scaling factor is denoted as . This factor is also a real positive number and can be
greater or smaller than unity.
The resistance value is independent of the frequency. However, the complex impedance of any
inductor is , and in order to maintain the same impedance at a frequency times as great, we
must replace the inductor value by another which is equal to . Similarly, a capacitor with value
must be replaced with another having a capacitance value equal to . For frequency scaling then, the
following transformations are necessary where the subscript denotes magnitude scaling.
(F.4)
A circuit can be scaled simultaneously in both magnitude and frequency using the scales values
below where the subscript denotes simultaneous magnitude and frequency scaling.
(F.5)
Example F.1
For the network of Figure F.6 compute
Figure F.6. Network for Example F.1
a. the resonant frequency .
b. the maximum impedance .
c. the quality factor .
d. the bandwidth BW.
e. the magnitude of the input impedance , and using MATLAB sketch it as a function of fre-
quency.
k
f
sL k
f
L k
f
' C
C k
f
'
f
R
f
R
L
f
L
k
f
----
C
f
C
k
f
----
mf
R
mf
k
m
R
L
mf
k
m
k
f
------L
C
mf
1
k
m
k
f
-----------C
Z
R
L
C
2.5 O 0.5 H
2 F
c
0
Z
max
Q
0P
Z
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling F-3
Copyright Orchard Publications
Frequency Scaling
f. Scale this circuit so that the impedance will have a maximum value of at a resonant fre-
quency of
Solution:
a. The resonant frequency of the given circuit is
and thus the circuit is parallel resonant.
b. The impedance is maximum at parallel resonance. Therefore,
c. The quality factor at parallel resonance is
d. The bandwidth of this circuit is
e. The magnitude of the input impedance versus radian frequency is shown in Figure F.7 and
was generated with the MATLAB script below.
w=0.01: 0.005: 5; R=2.5; G=1/R; C=2; L=0.5; Y=G+j.*(w.*C-1./(w.*L));...
magY=abs(Y); magZ=1./magY; plot(w,magZ); grid
f. Using (F.1), we obtain
Then,
and
After being scaled in magnitude by the factor , the network constants are as shown
in Figure F.8, and the plot is shown in Figure F.9.
5 KO
5 10
6
rad s '
c
0
1
LC
------------ 1 rad s ' = =
Z
max
2.5 O =
Q
0P
c
0
C
G
---------- c
0
CR 1 2 2.5 5 = = = =
BW
c
0
Q
0P
---------
1
5
-- - 0.2 = = =
c
k
m
R
m
R
-------
5000
2.5
------------ 2000 = = =
L
m
k
m
L 2000 0.5 1000 H = = =
C
m
C
k
m
------
2
2000
------------ 10
3
F = = =
k
m
2000 =
Appendix F Scaling
F-4 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Figure F.7. Plot for Example F.1
Figure F.8. The network in Figure F.6 scaled by the factor
Figure F.9. Plot for the network of Figure F.6 after being scaled by the factor
The final step is to scale the above circuit to . Using (F.4), we obtain:
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Z
R
L
C
5 KO 10
3
H
10
-3
F
k
m
2000 =
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
k
m
2000 =
5 10
6
rad s '
R
f
R 5 kO = =
L
f
L k
f
' 1000 5 10
6
( ) ' 200 H = = =
C
f
C k
f
' 10
3
5 10
6
' 200 pF = = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling F-5
Copyright Orchard Publications
Frequency Scaling
The network constants and its response, in final form, are as shown in Figures F.10 and F.11
respectively.
Figure F.10. The network in Figure F.6 scaled to its final form
Figure F.11. Plot for Example F.1 scaled to its final form
The plot of Figure F.11 was generated with the following MATLAB script:
w=1: 10^3: 10^7; R=5000; G=1/R; C=200.*10.^(-12); L=200.*10.^(-6); ...
magY=sqrt(G.^2+(w.*C-1./(w.*L)).^2); magZ=1./magY; plot(w,magZ); grid
Check:
The resonant frequency of the scaled circuit is
and thus the circuit is parallel resonant at this frequency.
The impedance is maximum at parallel resonance. Therefore,
The quality factor at parallel resonance is
and the bandwidth is
Z
R
L C
5 KO 200 H
200 pF
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x 10
6
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
c
0
1
LC
------------
1
0.2 10
3
0.2 10
9

-----------------------------------------------------------
1
0.2 10
6

------------------------ 5 10
6
rad s ' = = = =
Z
max
5 KO =
Q
0P
c
0
C
G
---------- c
0
CR 5 10
6
2 10
10
5 10
3
5 = = = =
Appendix F Scaling
F-6 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
The values of the circuit devices could have been obtained also by direct application of (F.5),
that is,
and these values are the same as obtained before.
Example F.2
A series circuit has resistance , inductance , and capacitance .
Use scaling to compute the new values of and which will result in a circuit with the same
quality factor , resonant frequency at and the new value of the capacitor to be .
Solution:
The resonant frequency of the circuit before scaling is
and we want the resonant frequency of the scaled circuit to be or .
Therefore, the frequency scaling factor must be
Now, we must compute the magnitude scale factor, and since we want the capacitor value to be
, we use (F.5), that is,
BW
c
0
Q
0P
---------
5 10
6

5
----------------- 10
6
= = =
R
mf
k
m
R
L
mf
k
m
k
f
------L
C
mf
k
m
k
f
------C
R
mf
k
m
R 2000 2.5 5 KO = = =
L
mf
k
m
k
f
------L
2000
5 10
6

----------------- 0.5 200 H = = =

C
mf
1
k
m
k
f
-----------C
1
2 10
3
5 10
6

----------------------------------------- 2 200 pf = = =
RLC R 1 O = L 1 H = C 1 F =
R L
Q
OS
500 Hz 2 F
c
0
1
LC
------------ 1 rad s ' = =
500 Hz 2r 500 3142 rad s ' =
k
f
3142
1
------------ 3142 = =
2 F
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling F-7
Copyright Orchard Publications
Frequency Scaling
or
Then, the scaled values for the resistance and inductance are
and
C
mf
1
k
m
k
f
-----------C =
k
m
C
k
f
C
mf
--------------
1
3142 2 10
6

-------------------------------------- 159 = = =
R
m
k
m
R 159 1 159 O = = =
L
mf
k
m
k
f
------L
159
3142
------------ 1 50.6 mH = = =
Appendix F Scaling
F-8 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
F.3 Exercises
1. A series resonant circuit has a bandwidth of , and . Compute
the new resonant frequency and inductance if the circuit is scaled
a. in magnitude by a factor of 5
b. in frequency by a factor of 5
c. in both magnitude and frequency by factors of 5
2. A scaled parallel resonant circuit consists of , , and . Com-
pute and if the original circuit had the following values before scaling.
a. and
b. and
c. and
100 rad s ' Q
0s
20 = C 50 F =
R 4 KO = L 0.1 H = C 0.3 F =
k
m
k
f
R 10 O = L 1 H =
R 10 O = C 5 F =
L 1 H = C 5 F =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling F-9
Copyright Orchard Publications
Solutions to End-of-Appendix Exercises
F.4 Solutions to End-of-Appendix Exercises
1. a. It is given that and ; then,

Since , , and with ,
. Also,
and
or
b. It is given that and from (a) . Then, with ,

Also,
and
or

c. and . Then, from (F.5)
Also from (F.5)
and
or
2. a. From (F.1), and from (F.5)
b. From (a) and from (F.5),
BW c
0
Q
OS
' = 100 = Q
OS
20 =
c
0
BW Q
OS
100 20 2000 rad s ' = = =
c
0
2
1 LC ' = L
OLD
1 c
0
2
' C 1 4 10
6
50 10
6
( ) ' 5 mH = = = k
m
5 =
L
NEW
k
m
L
OLD
5 5 mH 25 mH = = = C
NEW
C
OLD
k
m
' 50 10
6
5 ' 10 F = = =
c
0 NEW
2
1 L
NEW
C
NEW
' 1 25 10
3
10 10
6
( ) ' 10
8
25 ' = = = c
0 NEW
2000 r s ' =
C
OLD
50 10
6
= L
OLD
5 mH = k
f
5 =
L
NEW
L
OLD
k
f
' 5 10
3
5 ' 1 mH = = =
C
NEW
C
OLD
k
f
' 50 10
6
5 ' 10 F = = =
c
0 NEW
2
1 L
NEW
C
NEW
' 1 10
3
10 10
6
( ) ' 10
8
= = =
c
0 NEW
10000 r s ' =
L
OLD
5 mH = C
OLD
50 10
6
=
L
NEW
k
m
k
f
' ( ) L
OLD
5 5 ' ( ) 5 mH 5 mH = = =
C
NEW
1 k
m
k
f
( ) ' ( ) C
OLD
50 F 5 5 ( ) ' 2 F = = =
c
0 NEW
2
1 L
NEW
C
NEW
' 1 5 10
3
2 10
6
( ) ' 10
8
= = = c
0 NEW
10000 r s ' =
k
m
R
NEW
R
OLD
' 4000 10 ' 400 = = =
k
f
L
OLD
L
NEW
' ( ) k
m
1 0.1 ' ( ) 400 4000 = = =
k
m
400 =
k
f
1 k
m
' ( ) C
OLD
C
NEW
' ( ) 1 400 ' ( ) 5 0.3 10
6
' ( ) 41677 = = =
Appendix F Scaling
F-10 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
c. From (F.5) and thus (1)
Also from (F.5), (2)
Substitution of (1) into (2) yields , , or ,
and from (1)
k
f
k
m
' L
OLD
L
NEW
' 1 0.1 ' 10 = = = k
f
10k
m
=
k
m
k
f
C
OLD
C
NEW
' 5 0.3 10
6
' 5 10
6
0.3 ' = = =
10k
m
k
m
5 10
6
0.3 ' = k
m
2
5 10
6
3 ' = k
m
1291 =
k
f
1291 10 12910 = =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling G-1
Copyright Orchard Publications
Appendix G
Per Unit System
his chapter introduces the per unit system. This system allows us to work with normalized
power, voltage current, impedance, and admittance values known as per unit (pu) values.
The relationship between units in a per-unit system depends on whether the system is sin-
gle-phase or three-phase. Three-phase systems are discussed in Chapters 11 and 12.
G.1 Per Unit Defined
By definition,
(G.1)
A per unit (pu) system defines per unit values for volt-ampere (VA) power, voltage, current,
impedance, and admittance, and of these only two of these are independent. It is customary to
choose VA (or KVA) power and nominal voltage as the independent base values, and others are
specified as multiples of selected base values.
For single-phase systems, the pu values are based on rated VA (or KVA) rated power and on the
nominal voltage of the equipment, e.g., single-phase transformer, single-phase motor.
Example G.1
A single-phase transformer is rated and the nominal voltage on the primary winding is
. Compute its pu impedance.
Solution:
(G.2)
and assuming that the actual primary winding voltage, current, and impedance are
, , and , respectively, the per unit values are computed as follows:
T
Per Unit Value
Actual Value
Base Value
--------------------------------- =
10 KVA
480 V RMS
Base Current (amperes)
Base KVA
Base Volts
---------------------------
10000 VA
480 V
------------------------- 20.83 A RMS = = =
Base Impedance (Ohms)
Base Volts
Base Current
--------------------------------
480 V
20.83 A
------------------- 23.04 O = = =
436 Volts RMS 15 A RMS 5 O

Appendix G Per Unit System
G-2 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

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Copyright Orchard Publicationss
(G.3)
The base impedance in (G.2) is also expressed as
(G.4)
Thus, the pu impedance can also be expressed as
(G.5)
and using the values above we obtain
as before.
The pu values allow us to express quantities in percentages, that is,
(G.6)
and thus
The per unit values in three-phase systems are based on
(G.7)
Example G.2
A three-phase Y-connected transformer is rated and the line-to-line voltage is
. Compute its per phase (line-to-neutral) pu impedance.
Solution:
The per phase (line-to-neutral) pu values are computed as follows:
Voltage
pu
Actual Volts
Base Volts
--------------------------------
436 V
480 V
--------------- 0.91 pu = = =
Current
pu
Actual Current
Base Current
-------------------------------------
15 A
20.83 A
------------------- 0.72 pu = = =
Impedance
pu
Actual Impedance
Base Impedance
-------------------------------------------------
5 O
23.04 O
-------------------- 0.22 pu = = =
Base Impedance (Ohms)
Base Volts
Base Current
--------------------------------
Base Volts
Base KVA ( ) Base Volts ( ) '
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Base Volts ( )
2
Base KVA ( )
---------------------------------- = = =
Impedance
pu
Actual Impedance
Base Impedance
-------------------------------------------------
Actual Impedance
Base Volts ( )
2
Base KVA ( ) '
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Actual Impedance
Base KVA ( )
Base Volts ( )
2
----------------------------------
= =
=
Impedance
pu
O ( ) 5
10000
480
2
--------------- 0.22 pu = =
% pu 100 =
0.22 pu 22% =
Base VA 3-phase VA =
Base Volts Line-to-Line Volts RMS =
7.5 KVA
480 V RMS
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

/ SimPowerSystems

/ SimPowerSystems

Modeling H-21
Copyright Orchard Publications
Using the Method of Variation of Parameters for the Forced Response
(H.71)
a. Using the method of undetermined coefficients we let (a constant). Then, by substi-
tution into (H.70) we obtain and thus the total solution is
(H.72)
b. With the method of variation of parameters we start with the natural response found above as
(H.71) and we let the solutions and be represented as
(H.73)
Then by (H.67), the total solution is
or
(H.74)
Also, from (H.68),
or
(H.75)
and from (H.69),
or
(H.76)
Next, we find and by Cramers rule as follows:
(H.77)
and
(H.78)
Now, integration of (H.77) and (H.78) and substitution into (H.75) yields
y
N
k
1
e
t
k
2
e
3 t
+ =
y
F
k
3
=
k
3
4 =
y t ( ) y
N
y
F
+ k
1
e
t
k
2
e
3 t
4 + + = =
y
1
y
2
y
1
e
t
= and y
2
e
3t
=
y u
1
y
1
u
2
y
2
+ =
y u
1
e
t
u
2
e
3t
+ =
du
1
dt
--------y
1
du
2
dt
--------y
2
+ 0 =

du
1
dt
--------e
t
du
2
dt
--------e
3t
+ 0 =
du
1
dt
-------
dy
1
dt
-------
du
2
dt
--------
dy
2
dt
-------- + f t ( ) =

du
1
dt
-------- e
t
( )
du
2
dt
-------- 3e
3t
( ) + 12 =
du
1
dt ' du
2
dt '
du
1
dt
--------
0 e
3t
12 3e
3t

e
t
e
3t
e
t
3e
3t

------------------------------------------
12e
3t

3e
4t
e
4t
+
------------------------------
12e
3t

2e
4t

----------------- 6e
t
= = = =
du
2
dt
--------
e
t
0
e
t
12
2e
4t

---------------------------------
12e
t
2e
4t

-------------- 6 e
3t
= = =
Review of Differential Equations
H-22 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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/ SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
(H.79)
(H.80)
We observe that the last expression in (H.80) is the same as (H.72) of part (a).
Check with MATLAB:
% Must have Symbolic Math Tool box installed
y=dsolve('D2y+4*Dy+3*y=12')
y =
( 4*e xp( t ) +C1*e xp( - 3*t ) *e xp( t ) +C2) / e xp( t )
Example H.13
Find the total solution of
(H.81)
in terms of the constants and by any method.
Solution:
This ODE cannot be solved by the method of undetermined coefficients; therefore, we will use
the method of variation of parameters.
The characteristic equation is from which and thus the natural response is
(H.82)
We let
(H.83)
Then, by (H.67) the solution is
(H.84)
Also, from (H.68),
or
(H.85)
u
1
6 e
t
t d
}
6e
t
k
1
+ = = u
2
6 e
3t
t d
}
2 e
3t
k
2
+ = =
y u
1
e
t
u
2
e
3t
+ =
6e
t
k
1
+ ( )e
t
2 e
3t
k
2
+ ( )e
3t
+ ( ) =
6 k
1
e
t
2 k
2
e
3t
+ + ( ) =
k
1
e
t
k
2
e
3t
4 + + ( ) =
d
2
y
dt
2
-------- 4y + 2t tan =
k
1
k
2
s
2
4 + 0 = s j2 =
y
N
k
1
e
j 2t
k
2
e
j 2t
+ =
y
1
2t cos = and y
2
2t sin =
y u
1
y
1
u
2
y
2
+ u
1
2t cos u
2
2t sin + = =
du
1
dt
-------y
1
du
2
dt
--------y
2
+ 0 =

du
1
dt
------- 2t cos
du
2
dt
-------- 2t sin + 0 =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink

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Modeling H-23
Copyright Orchard Publications
Using the Method of Variation of Parameters for the Forced Response
and from (H.69),
(H.86)
Next, we find and by Cramers rule as follows:
(H.87)
and
(H.88)
Now, integration of (H.87) and (H.88) and substitution into (H.84) yields
(H.89)
(H.90)
(H.91)
Check with MATLAB:
% Must have Symbolic Math Tool box installed
y=dsolve('D2y+4*y=tan(2*t)')
y =
- 1/ 4*c os ( 2*t ) *l og( ( 1+s i n( 2*t ) ) / c os ( 2*t ) ) +C1*c os ( 2*t ) +C2*s i n( 2*t )
du
1
dt
-------
dy
1
dt
-------
du
2
dt
--------
dy
2
dt
-------- + f t ( )
du
1
dt
------- = = 2 2t sin ( )
du
2
dt
-------- 2 2t cos ( ) + 2t tan =
du
1
dt ' du
2
dt '
du
1
dt
-------
0 2t sin
2t tan 2 2t cos
2t cos 2t sin
2 2t sin 2 2t cos
------------------------------------------------------
2t
2
sin
2t cos
--------------
2 2t
2
cos 2 2t
2
sin +
-------------------------------------------
2t
2
sin
2 2t cos
------------------ = = =
du
2
dt
--------
2t cos 0
2 2t sin 2t tan
2
--------------------------------------------------
2t sin
2
------------ = =
u
1
1
2
---
2t
2
sin
2t cos
-------------- t d
}
2t sin
4
------------
1
4
--- 2t sec 2t tan + ( ) ln k
1
+ = =
u
2
1
2
-- - 2t sin t d
}
2t cos
4
------------- k
2
+ = =
y u
1
y
1
u
2
y
2
+
2t 2t cos sin
4
---------------------------
1
4
-- - 2t 2t sec 2t tan + ( ) ln cos k
1
2t cos +
2t 2t cos sin
4
--------------------------- k
2
2t sin + = =
1
4
-- - 2t 2t sec 2t tan + ( ) ln cos k
1
2t cos k
2
2t sin + + =
Review of Differential Equations
H-24 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

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Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
H.7 Exercises
Solve the following ODEs by any method.
1.

Answer:

2.

Answer:
3.
Hint: Use
Answer:
4.

Answer:
d
2
y
dt
2
-------- 4
dy
dt
------ 3y + + t 1 =
y k
1
e
t
k
2
e
3t 1
3
---t
7
9
-- - + + =
d
2
y
dt
2
-------- 4
dy
dt
------ 3y + + 4e
t
=
y k
1
e
t
k
2
e
3t
2te
t
+ + =
d
2
y
dt
2
-------- 2
dy
dt
------ y + + t
2
cos = t
2
cos
1
2
-- - 2t 1 + cos ( ) =
y k
1
e
t
k
2
te
t 1
2
-- -
3 2t cos 4 2t sin
50
--------------------------------------- + + =
d
2
y
dt
2
-------- y + t sec =
y k
1
t cos k
2
t sin t t sin t t cos ln ( ) cos + + + =
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling I1
Copyright Orchard Publications
Appendix I
Constructing Semilog Paper with Excel and with MATLAB
his appendix contains instructions for constructing semilog plots with the Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet. Semilog, short for semilogarithmic, paper is graph paper having one logarithmic
and one linear scale. It is used in many scientific and engineering applications including fre-
quency response illustrations and Bode Plots.
I.1 Instructions for Constructing Semilog Paper with Excel
Figure I.1 shows the Excel spreadsheet workspace and identifies the different parts of the Excel win-
dow when we first start Excel.

Figure I.1. The Excel Spreadsheet Workspace
T
Menu bar
ChartWizard
Chart toolbar (hidden)

Constructing Semilog Paper with Excel and with MATLAB
I2 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
Figure I.2 shows that whenever a chart is selected, as shown by the visible handles around the
selected chart, the Chart drop menu appears on the Menu bar and that the Chart toolbar now is visi-
ble. We can now use the Chart Objects Edit Box and Format Chart Area tools to edit our chart.
Figure I.2. The Excel Spreadsheet with Chart selected
1. Begin with a blank spreadsheet as shown in Figure I.1.
2. Click Chart Wizard.
3. Click XY (Scatter) Chart type under the Standard Types tab on the Chart Wizard menu.
4. The Chart subtype shows five different subtypes. Click the upper right (the one showing two
continuous curves without square points.)
5. Click Next, Series tab, Add, Next.
6. Click Gridlines tab and click all square boxes under Value Xaxis and Value Yaxis to place
check marks on Major and Minor gridlines.
Menu bar
ChartWizard
Chart Objects Edit Box Format Chart Area
Handles
Chart drop menu
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling I3
Copyright Orchard Publications
Instructions for Constructing Semilog Paper with Excel
7. Click Next, Finish, click Series 1 box to select it, and press the Delete key on the keyboard to
delete it.
8. The plot area normally appears in gray color. To change it to white, first make sure that the chart
is selected, that is, the handles (black squares) around the plot are visible. Point the mouse on the
Chart Objects Edit Box tool (refer to Figure I.2), scroll down, click Plot Area, then click For-
mat Plot Area (shown as Format Chart Area tool in Figure I.2).
9. The Area section on the Patterns tab shows several squares with different colors. Click the white
square, fifth row, rightmost column, and click OK to return to the Chart display. You will
observe that the Plot Area has now a white background.
10. Click anywhere near the xaxis (lowest horizontal line on the plot) and observe that the Chart
Objects Edit box now displays Value (X) axis. Click the Format Chart Area tool which now
displays Format Axis, click the Scale tab and make the following entries:
Minimum: 1 Maximum: 100000 Major Unit: 10 Minor Unit: 10
Make sure that the squares to the left of these values are not checked.
Click Logarithmic scale to place a check mark, and click OK to return to the plot.
11. Click anywhere near the yaxis (leftmost vertical line on the plot) and observe that the Chart
Objects Edit box now displays Value (Y) axis. Click the Format Chart Area tool which now
displays Format Axis, click he Scale tab and make the following entries:
Minimum: 80 Maximum: 80 Major Unit: 20 Minor Unit: 20
Make sure that the squares to the left of these values are not checked. Also, make sure that the
Logarithmic scale is not checked. Click OK to return to the plot.
12. You will observe that the xaxis values appear at the middle of the plot. To move them below the
plot, click Format Chart Area tool, click Patterns tab, click Tick mark labels (lower right sec-
tion), and click OK to return to the plot area.
13. To expand the plot so that it will look more useful and presentable, make sure that the chart is
selected (the handles are visible). This is done by clicking anywhere in the chart area. Bring the
mouse close to the lower center handle until a bidirectional arrow appears and stretch down-
wards. Repeat with the right center handle to stretch the plot to the right. Alternately, you may
bring the mouse near the lower right handle and stretch the plot diagonally.
14. You may wish to display the xaxis values in exponential (scientific) format. To do that, click any-
where near the xaxis (zero point), and observe that the Chart Objects Edit box now displays
Value (X) axis. Click the Format Chart Area tool which now displays Format Axis, click the
Number tab and under Category click Scientific with zero decimal places.
15. If you wish to enter title and labels for the x and yaxes, with the chart selected, click Chart (on
the Menu bar), click Chart Options, and on the Titles tab enter the Title and the x and yaxis
Constructing Semilog Paper with Excel and with MATLAB
I4 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
labels. Remember that the Chart drop menu on the Menu bar and the Chart toolbar are hidden
when the chart is deselected.
16. With the values used for this example, your semilog plot should look like the one in Figure I.3,
and it can be printed for creating Bode plots.
Figure I.3. Semilog paper created with Excel
I.2 Instructions for Constructing Semilog Paper with MATLAB
It is much easier to construct semilog paper with MATLAB. The procedure is as follows:
1. Begin with the MATLAB script below.
x=linspace(1,10^6,7); y=linspace(-40,90,7); semilogx(x,y);...
grid; xlabel('Frequency (log scale)'); ylabel('Gain (linear scale)')
With this script, MATLAB creates the plot shown in Figure I.4.
2. To change the background from gray to white, scroll down the Figure Color icon and
select the white (blank) square by clicking it.
3. To erase the unwanted line segment, click it, and now the plot appears as shown in Figure I.5.
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling I5
Copyright Orchard Publications
Instructions for Constructing Semilog Paper with MATLAB
Figure I.4. MATLAB plot generated with the script above
Figure I.5. Selecting the unwanted line segment to erase it
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Frequency (log scale)
G
a
i
n

(
l
i
n
e
a
r

s
c
a
l
e
)
Constructing Semilog Paper with Excel and with MATLAB
I6 Circuit Analysis II with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
4. Change the Line parameter shown in Figure 1.6 to no line
*
. The plot now appears as shown in
Figure 1.7, and can be printed for use with Bode plots.
Figure I.6. Changing line to no line
Figure I.7. Semilog paper created with MATLAB
*. The unwanted line segment can also be erased with the Delete key.
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Frequency (log scale)
G
a
i
n

(
l
i
n
e
a
r

s
c
a
l
e
)
Circuit Analysis I with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling R1
Copyright Orchard Publications
References and Suggestions for Further Study
A. The following publications by The MathWorks, are highly recommended for further study. They
are available from The MathWorks, 3 Apple Hill Drive, Natick, MA, 01760,
www.mathworks.com.
1. Getting Started with MATLAB

2. Using MATLAB

3. Using MATLAB

Graphics
4. Using Simulink

5. SimPowerSystems

for Use with Simulink

6. FixedPoint Toolbox
7. Simulink

FixedPoint
8. RealTime Workshop
9. Signal Processing Toolbox
10. Getting Started with Signal Processing Blockset
10. Signal Processing Blockset
11. Control System Toolbox
12. Stateflow

B. Other references indicated in text pages and footnotes throughout this text, are listed below.
1. Mathematics for Business, Science, and Technology, ISBN 9781934404010
2. Numerical Analysis Using MATLAB

and Excel

, ISBN 9781934404034
3. Circuit Analysis I with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPoweStems Modeling,

ISBN 9781934404171
4. Signals and Systems with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink

Modeling,
ISBN 9781934404119
5. Electronic Devices and Amplifier Circuits with MATLAB

Applications, ISBN 9781934404133

6. Digital Circuit Analysis and Design with Simulink Modeling and Introduction to CPLDs and FPGAs,
ISBN 9781934404058
R2 Circuit Analysis I with MATLAB

Computing and Simulink / SimPowerSystems

Modeling
Copyright Orchard Publications
7. Introduction to Simulink

with Engineering Applications, ISBN 9781934404096

8. Introduction to Stateflow

with Applications, ISBN 9781934404072

9. Reference Data for Radio Engineers, ISBN 0672212188, Howard W. Sams & Co.
10. Electronic Engineers Handbook, ISBN 0070209812, McGrawHill
Index
Symbols and Numerics coefficient of coupling 9-18 deconv in MATLAB A-6
cofactor 10-3, E-11, E-13 default color in MATLAB A-15
% (percent) symbol in MATLAB A-2 collect(s) MATLAB function 5-12 default line in MATLAB A-15
3-phase systems - see column vector in MATLAB A-20 default marker in MATLAB A-15
three-phase systems command screen in MATLAB A-1 degree of differential equation H-3
command window in MATLAB A-1 delta function 3-8
A commas in MATLAB A-8 sampling property 3-12
comment line in MATLAB A-2 sifting property 3-13
abs(z) in MATLAB A-23 Commonly Used blocks Delta to Wye conversion 11-11
AC Voltage Source C-5 in Simulink B-7 Delta-Wye transformation 12-7
adjoint of a matrix E-20 complex conjugate A-4 demo in MATLAB A-2
admittance Y(s) 6-13 complex conjugate pairs 5-5 detector circuit 2-19
driving-point 10-5 complex number A-3, D-2 determinant E-10
algebraic constrain blocks B-18 complex poles 5-5 diagonal of a matrix E-6
all-day efficiency 9-45 complex roots of diagonal elements of a matrix. E-2j
alpha coefficient 1-3, 1-16 characteristic equation H-9 differential equations
alternate method of partial computation by reduction auxiliary equation H-8
fraction expansion 5-14 to single phase 11-19 characteristic equation H-8
amplitude plots 8-24 computation of the state classification H-3
angle(z) in MATLAB A-23 transition matrix 7-10 degree H-3
antenna 2-18 configuration parameters B-12 most general solution H-6
antiresonance 2-6 conformable for addition E-2 solution by the
asymptotes 8-4, 8-6 conformable for multiplicatio E-4 method of undetermined
audio frequency amplifier 2-19 congugate of a matrix E-8 coefficients H-10
autoscale icon in Simulink B-12 conj(x) in MATLAB E-9 method of variation
autotransformer 9-36 conjugate of a complex number D-3 of parameters H-20
axis in MATLAB A-16, A-22 contents pane in Simulink B-7 differentiation
Continuous method in in time domain 4-4
B SimPowerSystems C-2 in complex frequency domain 4-5
Controlled Voltage Source in Dirac(t) in MATLAB 3-18
balanced currents 11-2 SimPowerSystems C-6 direct term in MATLAB 5-4
bandwidth 2-11, 8-3 conv(a,b) in MATLAB A-6 discontinuous function 3-1
beta coefficient 1-3, 1-16 convolution Discrete method in SimPowerSystems C-2
bilateral Laplace transform 4-1 in the complex frequency domain 4-11 Display block in Simulink B-18
Bode plots 8-4 in the time domain 4-11 display formats in MATLAB A-31
bode(sys,w) MATLAB function 8-20 copper losses in transformer 9-42 distinct poles 5-2
bodemag(sys,w) MATLAB function 8-20 corner frequency - see frequency distinct roots of characteristic equation H-9
box in MATLAB A-12 Cramers rule E-17 division of complex numbers D-4
bridged network 10-31 critically damped natural response 1-3 dot convention in transformers 9-8
Current Measurement block in dot multiplication, division, and
C SimPowerSystems C-3 exponentiation in MATLAB A-20
cutoff frequency 8-3 doublet function 3-13
capacitive network transformation 6-2 driving-point admittance 10-4
Cartesian form of complex numbrs D-6 D
Cayley-Hamilton theorem 7-11 E
characteristic (auxiliary) equation H-8 damped natural frequency 1-3, 1-16
characteristic equation 7-19 damping coefficient 1-3, 1-16, 8-14 eddy current 9-37, 9-42, 9-61, 9-64
circuit analysis with Laplace transforms 6-1 data points in MATLAB A-14 editor window in MATLAB A-1
circuit analysis with state variables 7-22 dB - see decibel editor/debugger in MATLAB A-1
classification of differential equations H-3 DC isolation in transformers 9-19 eig(x) MATLAB function 7-17
clc in MATLAB A-2 DC Voltage Source block C-3 eigenvalues 7-10
clear in MATLAB A-2 decade 8-4 eigenvector 7-18
close-coupled transformer 9-18 decibel 8-1, A-13 electrokinetic momentum 9-1
IN-1
element-by-element division and frequency scaling F-1 integration in
exponentiation in MATLAB A-21 frequency selectivity 2-5 complex frequency domain 4-7
element-by-element multiplication frequency shifting property 4-3 time domain 4-6
in MATLAB A-18, A-20 full rectification waveform 4-31 inverse hybrid parameters 10-27
Elements library in function block parameters inverse Laplace transform 4-1
SimPowerSystems C-3 in Simulink B-10 inverse Laplace transform integral 5-1
elements of the matrix E-1 function file in MATLAB A-26 inverse matrix method of solution E-24
energy efficiencyin transformers 9-45 fzero in MARLAB A-26, A-28 inverse of a matrix E-22
Environmental block C-2
eps in MATLAB A-22, A-27 G J
equivalent circuit 9-34
Equivalent Delta and g parameters 10-26 j operator D-1
Y-connected loads 11-10 Gain block in Simulink B-18
Eulers identities D-5 gamma function 4-14 L
exit in MATLAB A-2 Gaussian elimination method E-19
expand(s) MATLAB function 5-10 generalized factorial function 4-14 LHpitals rule 1-22, 4-15
exponential and polar forms geometric mean 2-14 laplace MATLAB function 4-26
of complex numbers D-4 grid in MATLAB A-12 Laplace transform of
exponential order function 4-2 Ground block in common functions 4-12
eye(n) in MATLAB E-7 SimPowerSystems C-3 Laplace transform of
gtext in MATLAB A-13 several waveforms 4-21
F Laplace transformation 4-1
H leakage flux 9-37
factor(s) MATLAB function 5-4 left-hand rule 9-2
Faradays law of h parameters 10-22 Leibnitzs rule 4-6
electromagnetic induction 9-2 half-power bandwidth 2-12 Lenzs law 9-3
feedback path 8-3 half-power frequencies 2-11, 2-12 lims = in MATLAB A-27
negative 8-4 half-power point 2-12, 8-3 line currents 11-5
path 8-3 half-rectified sine wave 4-25 linear inductor 9-2
positive 8-4 Heavyside(t) in MATLAB 3-18 linear transformer 9-4, 9-19
figure window in MATLAB A-13 Hermitian matrix E-9 linearity property 4-2, 5-2
filter higher order delta functions 3-13 line-to-line voltages 11-6
low-pass homogeneous differential equation 1-1 linkage flux 9-4, 9-6
multiple feed back 1-30 hybrid parameters 10-22 linspace in MATLAB A-14
final value theorem 4-10 hysteresis 9-37, 9-42, 9-61, 9-64 ln A-13
first-order circuit 7-1 log A-13
first-order simultaneous I log(x) in MATLAB A-13
differential equations 7-1 log10(x) in MATLAB A-13
Flip block command in Simulink B-11 ideal transformer 9-27 log2(x) in MATLAB A-13
flux linkage 9-2 identity matrix E-7 loglog(x,y) in MATLAB A-13
fmin in MATLAB A-27 IF amplifier 2-19 loose-coupled transformer 9-18
forced response H-7 ilaplace MATLAB function 5-4 lower triangular matrix E-6
format in MATLAB A-31 imag(z) in MATLAB A-23
four-wire, three-phase system image-frequency interference 2-18 M
11-12, 11-3 imaginary axis D-2
fplot in MATLAB A-27 imaginary number D-2 magnetic flux 9-2
frequency impedance matching 9-30 magnitude scaling F-1
corner 8-9 impedance Z(s) 6-11 Math operations in Simulink B-11
cutoff 8-3 impractical connections 12-8 MATLAB demos A-2
half-power 2-13 improper integral 4-15 MATLABs editor/debugger A-1
natural improper rational function 5-1 matrix, matrices
damped 1-3, 1-15, 7-14 increments between points adjoint of E-20
resonant 1-3, 2-2, 2-8 in MATLAB A-14 cofactor of E-12
response A-12 inductive network transformation 6-1 conformable for addition E-2
scaling F-1 initial value theorem 4-9 conformable for multiplication E-4
selectivity 2-5 instantaneous power in congugate of E-8
frequency response A-12 three-phase systems 11-22, 11-23 defined E-1
IN-2
diagonal of E-1, E-2, E-6 O proper rational function 5-1
Hermitian E-9 properties of the Laplace transform 4-2
identity E-6 octave 8-4 pu (per unit system) G-1
inverse of E-21 ODE - see ordinary differential equation
left division in MATLAB E-25 one-dimensional wave equation H-3 Q
lower triangular E-6 one-port network 10-1
minor of E-12 one-sided Laplace transform 4-1 quality factor at parallel resonance 2-9
multiplication using MATLAB A-18 open circuit impedance quality factor at series resonance 2-4
non-singular E-21 parameters 10-17 quit in MATLAB A-2
singular E-21 open circuit input impedance 10-18
scalar E-6 open circuit output impedance 10-19 R
skew-Hermitian E-9 open circuit test 9-38, 9-39
skew-symmetric E-9 open circuit transfer radio frequency amplifier 2-18
square E-1 impedance 10-18, 10-19 radio receiver 2-18
symmetric E-8 open Delta configuration 11-29 ramp function 3-8
trace of E-2 order of differential equation H-3 rationalization of the quotient D-4
transpose E-7 ordinary differential equation H-3 real axis D-2
upper triangular E-5 orthogonal vectors 7-19 real inductor 2-16
zero E-2 orthonormal basis 7-19 real number D-2
matrix power series 7-9 oscillatory natural response 1-3 real(z) in MATLAB A-23
maximum power transfer 9-30 overdamped natural response 1-3 reciprocal two-port networks 10-31
Measurements library C-3 reciprocity theorem 10-15
mesh(x,y,z) in MATLAB A-17 P rectangular form D-5
meshgrid(x,y) in MATLAB A-17 rectangular pulse 3-3
method of clearing the fractions 5-14 parallel resonance 2-6 reflected impedance 9-25
method of undetermined coefficients parallel RLC circuit 1-15 relationship between state equations
in differential equations H-10 parallel RLC circuit with AC excitation 1-26 and laplace transform 7-29
method of variation of parameters parallel RLC circuit with DC excitation 1-17 repeated poles 5-8
in differential equations H-20 partial differential equation H-3 repeated roots of characteristic
m-file in MATLAB A-1, A-26 partial fraction expansion 5-2 equation H-9
MINVERSE in Excel E-27 PDE - see partial differential equation residue 5-2, 5-3
MMULT in Excel E-27 per unit system G-1 resistive network transformation 6-1
most general solution H-6 phase currents 11-5 resonant frequency 1-3, 2-1, 2-7
Multiple Feed Back (MFB) phase voltages 11-6 right-hand rule 9-2
low-pass filter 1-30 phase-sequence indicator 12-5 roots of polynomials A-3
multiple poles 5-8 Phasors method in SimPowerSystems C-2 roots(p) MATLAB function 5-6, A-3
multiplication of complex numbers D-3 pie network 10-31 round(n) in MATLAB A-24
mutual inductance 9-5, 9-6 plot in MATLAB A-10 row vector in MATLAB A-3
mutual voltages 9-7 plot3 in MATLAB A-15 running Simulink B-7
polar form D-6
N polar plot A-24 S
polar(theta,r) MATLAB function A-23
NaN in MATLAB A-26 polarity marking in transformersw 9-11 sampling property of the delta function 3-11
natural response H-7 poles 5-1, 5-2, 8-6 sawtooth waveform 4-31
critically damped 1-3 poly(r) in MATLAB A-4 scalar matrix E-7
overdamped 1-3 polyder(p) in MATLAB A-6 scaling property 4-4
underdamped 1-3 polynomial construction from known Scope block in Simulink B-12
negative feedback 8-4 roots using MATLAB A-4 script file A-26
negative phase sequence 12-10 polyval in MATLAB A-6 secondary winding 9-4
network port 10-1 secord-order circuit 1-1
bridged 10-31 positive feedback 8-4 secord-order circuit 7-1
pie 10-31 positive phase sequence 11-6, 12-10 selectivity 2-5
no-load test 9-38, 9-60 possible transformer connections 11-28 self-induced voltages 9-7
non-homogeneous ordinary power factor 11-20 self-inductance 9-1, 9-4, 9-5
differential equation H-6 powerlib in SimPowerSystems C-1 semicolons in MATLAB A-8
non-singular matrix E-21 practical transformer connections 12-8 semilog paper with Excel I-1
nth-order delta function 3-13 preselector 2-19 semilog paper with MATLAB I-4
nth-order differential equation 7-1 primary winding 9-4 semilogx in MATLAB A-12
IN-3
semilogy in MATLAB A-12 tf2ss MATLAB function 7-33 two wattmeter method of reading
series resonance 2-1 theorems of the Laplace transform 4-2 three-phase power 11-28
Series RLC Branch block C-3 Thevenin equivalent circuit 9-32 two-port network 10-11
series RLC circuit 1-15 three-phase systems 11-1 two-sided Laplace transform 4-1
series RLC circuit with AC excitation 1-11 balanced currents 11-2 types of differential equation H-3
series RLC circuit with DC excitation 1-2 computation by reduction
settling time 1-20 to single phase 11-19 U
short circuit input admittance 10-11 Delta to Y conversion 11-11
short circuit output admittance 10-12 four-wire system 11-2, 11-13 unbalanced three-phase
short circuit transfer admittance 10-12 equivalent Delta and power systems 12-1
short-circuit test 9-39 Y-connected loads 11-10 underdamped (oscillatory)
sifting property of the delta function 3-12 instantaneous power 11-22, 11-23 natural response 1-3
signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio 2-18 line currents 11-5 unilateral Laplace transform 4-1
simout To Workspace block B-13 line-to-line voltages 11-6 unit eigenvectors 7-19
simple differential equations H-1 phase currents 11-5 unit impulse function 3-8
SimPowerSystems C-1 phase voltages 11-6 unit ramp function 3-8, 3-9
SimPowerSystems connection lines C-4 positive phase sequence 11-6, 12-10 unit step function 3-2
SimPowerSystems electrical ports C-4 power 11-20 upper triangular matrix E-6
Simulation drop menu in Simulink B-12 power factor 11-20 Using the Simulink Transfer Fcn Block 6-20
simulation start icon in Simulink B-12 three-wire Y-system 11-3
Simulink icon B-7 three-wire Delta system 11-4 V
Simulink Library Browser B-8 two wattmeter method of
single-phase systems 11-1 reading 3-phase power 11-28 variac 9-36
single-phase three-wire system 11-5 unbalanced 12-1 Voltage Measurement block
singular matrix E-21 three-phase transformer modeling in in SimPowerSystems C-3
Sinks library in Simulink B-18 SimPowerSystems 11-31 voltage regulation 9-46
size of a matrix E-7 three-wire three-phase Y-system 11-3
skew-Hermitian matrix E-9 Three-wire, three-phase W
skew-symmetric matrix E-9 Delta load system 11-4
solution of the homogeneous ode H-8 time periodicity property 4-8 wattmeter 11-25
solutions of ordinary differential time shifting property 4-3 weber 9-2
equations H-6 title(string) in MATLAB A-12 Wronskian determinant H-10
solve(equ) MATLAB function 8-23 trace of a matrix E-2
space equations 7-1 transfer admittance 10-4 X
square matrix E-1 transfer function 6-16, 8-4
ss2tf MATLAB function 7-32 transformer xlabel in MATLAB A-12
start simulation in Simulink B-12 coefficient of coupling 9-18
state equations 7-1 DC isolation 9-19 Y
state transition matrix 7-8 dot convention 9-8
state variables 7-1 equivalent circuit 9-31, 9-34 y parameters 10-4, 10-11
State-Space block in Simulink B-12 ideal 9-27 Y to Delta conversion 11-11
step-down transformer 9-14 linear 9-4, 9-19 ylabel in MATLAB A-12
step-up transformer 9-14 mutual inductance 9-5, 9-6
string in MATLAB A-16 mutual voltages 9-7 Z
subplot(m,n,p) in MATLAB A-18 polarity markings 9-11
sum of unit step functions 3-7 self-induced voltages 9-7 z parameters 10-17
summing point 8-4 self-inductance 9-1, 9-4, 9-5 zero matrix E-2
symmetric matrix E-8 step-down 9-14 zero phase sequence 12-10
symmetric network 10-16, 10-31 step-up 9-14 zeros 5-1, 5-2, 8-6
symmetric rectangular pulse 3-5 windings
symmetric triangular waveform 3-6 close-coupled 9-18
symmetrical components 12-10 loose-coupled 9-18
transpose of a matrix E-8
T tree pane in Simulink B-7
triplet function 3-13
tee network 10-31 turns ratio in transformer 27
text in MATLAB A-14 TV receiver 2-18
IN-4
Circuit Analysis II
with MATLAB Computing and
Simulink/SimPowerSystems Modeling
Students and working professionals will find Circuit
Analysis II with MATLAB Computing and
Simulink/SimPowerSystems Modeling to be a
concise and easy-to-learn text. It provides complete,
clear, and detailed explanations of the traditiomal
second semester circuit analysis, and these are illus-
trated with numerous practical examples.
This text includes the following chapters and appendices:
Second Order Circuits Resonance Elementary Signals The Laplace Transformation The
Inverse Laplace Transformation Circuit Analysis with Laplace Transforms State Variables and
State Equations Frequency Response and Bode Plots Self and Mutual Inductances - Transfor-
mers One- and Two-Port Networks Balanced Three-Phase Systems Unbalanced Three-
Phase Systems Introduction to MATLAB Introduction to Simulink Introduction to
SimPowerSystems Review of Complex Numbers Matrices and Determinants Scaling
Matrices and Determinants Per Unit System Review of Differential Equations
Each chapter and each appendix contains numerous practical applications supplemented with
detailed instructions for using MATLAB, Simulink, and SimPowerSystems to obtain quick and accu-
rate results.
Steven T. Karris is the founder and president of Orchard Publications, has undergraduate and
graduate degrees in electrical engineering, and is a registered professional engineer in California
and Florida. He has more than 35 years of professional engineering experience and more than 30
years of teaching experience as an adjunct professor, most recently at UC Berkeley, California. His
area of interest is in The MathWorks, Inc.

products and the publication of MATLAB and

Simulink based texts.
Orchard Publications
Visit us on the Internet
www.orchardpublications.com
or email us: info@orchardpublications.com
$70.00 U.S.A.
ISBN-13: 978-1-934404-20-1
ISBN-10: 1-934404-20-9