PEARSONS

Calculus Review, Single Variable

Limits
LIMIT LAWS
If L, M, c, and k are real numbers and
x:c

Differentiation
DERIVATIVE
The derivative of the function f (x) with respect to the variable x is the function f whose value at x is

SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST FOR LOCAL EXTREMA USEFUL DERIVATIVES

d 1. (sin x) = cos x dx 3. 5. 7. 9. f (x0 + h) - f (x0) . h h:0 11. 13. 15. 17. 19. 21. 23. 25. 27. d (tan x) = sec2 x dx d (sec x) = sec x tan x dx d x (e ) = e x dx 1 d (ln x) = x dx d 1 (sin-1 x) = dx 11 - x 2 1 d (tan-1 x) = dx 1 + x2 1 d (sec-1 x) = dx x 1x 2 - 1 d (sinh x) = cosh x dx d (tanh x) = sech2 x dx d (sech x) = - sech x tanh x dx 1 d (sinh-1 x) = dx 11 + x 2 1 d (tanh - 1 x) = dx 1 - x2 -1 d (sech - 1 x) = dx x 11 - x 2 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14. 16. 18. 20. 22. 24. 26. 28. d (cos x) = - sin x dx d (cot x) = - csc2 x dx d (csc x) = - csc x cot x dx d x (a ) = (ln a)a x dx 1 d (loga x) = dx x ln a d -1 (cos-1 x) = dx 11 - x 2 -1 d (cot-1 x) = dx 1 + x2 d -1 (csc - 1 x) = dx x 1x 2 - 1 d (cosh x) = sinh x dx d (coth x) = - csch2 x dx d (csch x) = - csch x coth x dx 1 d (cosh-1 x) = dx 1x 2 - 1 1 d (coth - 1 x) = dx 1 - x2 -1 d (csch - 1 x) = dx x 11 + x 2 2. 3. 3. if f does not change sign at c (that is, f is positive on both sides of c or negative on both sides), then f has no local extremum at c. Suppose f is continuous on an open interval that contains x = c. 1. 2. 3. If f (c) = 0 and f (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at x = c. If f (c) = 0 and f (c) 7 0, then f has a local minimum at x = c. If f (c) = 0 and f (c) = 0, then the test fails. The function f may have a local maximum, a local minimum, or neither.

LHPITALS RULE
Suppose that f (a) = g(a) = 0, that f and g are differentiable on an open interval I containing a, and that g (x) Z 0 on I if x Z a. Then f (x) f (x) , = lim lim x : a g(x) x : a g (x) assuming that the limit on the right side exists.

The limit of a rational power of a function is that power of the limit of the function, provided the latter is a real number. lim g(x) = M, then 7. If P(x) = an x n + an - 1x n - 1 + % + a0 is a polynomial then lim P(x) = P(c) = ancn + an - 1cn - 1 + % + a0 .
x:c

f (x + h) - f (x) , f (x) = lim h h:0 provided the limit exists; equivalently f (x) = lim f (z) - f (x) z - x . z:x

lim f (x) = L and

x:c

1.

Sum Rule: lim ( f (x) + g(x)) = L + M

x:c

8.

The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits. 2. Difference Rule: lim ( f (x) - g(x)) = L - M
x:c

If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(c) Z 0, then the rational P(x) P(x) P(c) = function has lim . Q(x) Q(c) x : c Q(x)

FINDING THE TANGENT TO THE CURVE y = f (x) AT (x0, y0)

1. 2. Calculate f (x0) and f (x0 + h). Calculate the slope f (x0) = m = lim

Integration
THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS
x

11. 12.

csc u cot u du = - csc u + C

The limit of the difference of two functions is the difference of their limits. 3. Product Rule: lim ( f (x) g (x)) = L M
x:c

USEFUL LIMITS
1. 2.
x:c

If f is continuous on [a, b] then F(x) = [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) and (1) dF d f (t) dt = f (x), = dx dx L a
x

3. lim k = k, (k constant)

If the limit exists, the tangent line is y = y0 + m(x - x0).

a L

f (t) dt is continuous on

lim k = k,

tan u du = - ln cos u + C L = ln sec u + C L cot u du = ln sin u + C = - ln csc u + C

x: ; q

The limit of a product of two function is the product of their limits. 4. Constant Multiple Rule: lim (k f (x)) = k L
x:c

For an integer n > 0, lim xn = q , lim x =

n

DIFFERENTIATION RULES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Constant Rule: If f (x) = c (c constant), then f (x) = 0. Power Rule: If r is a real number, Constant Multiple Rule: Sum Rule: d r x = rx r - 1 dx

a x b. 13.

x: - q

q E - q(n(neven) odd) ,

x: q

x: ;q

lim

1 = 0 xn

If f is continuous at every point of [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b], then
b

The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the function. 5. Quotient Rule: lim f (x) L , M Z 0 = g(x) M

3.

For integers n, m > 0, lim an x n + an - 1x n - 1 + % + a0 an = lim x n - m bm x m + bm - 1x m - 1 + % + b0 bm x : ; q

d (c f (x)) = c f (x) dx

(2)

a L

f (x) dx = F(b) - F(a).

x: ; q

x:c

(provided an, bm Z 0) 4. 5.
x:c ;

d [ f (x) ; g(x)] = f (x) ; g (x) dx

INTEGRATION BY PARTS FORMULA

L u dv = uv v du L

eu du = eu + C L au 15. audu = + C, (a 7 0, a Z 1) ln a L 14. 16. 17. 18. 19. L sinh u du = cosh u + C

The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, provided the limit of the denominator is not zero. 6. Power Rule: If r and s are integers with no common factor r, s Z 0, then
x:c
r/s

lim

1 q (n even) = E+ ; q (n odd) (x - c)n sin x sin kx = k (k constant), x = 1, xlim x :0 cos x - 1 = 0 x

x:0

lim

lim ( f (x))

r/s

= L

r/s

7.

d [ f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g (x) + f (x)g(x) dx g(x) f (x) - f (x)g (x) d f (x) Quotient Rule: c d = dx g(x) [g(x)]2 dy du d Chain Rule: [ f (g(x))] = f (g(x)) g (x) = dx du dx Product Rule: if y = f (u) and u = g(x)

USEFUL INTEGRATION FORMULAS

1. L du = u + C

cosh u du = sinh u + C L u du = sin-1 Q a R + C L 1a2 - u2 1 u du = a tan - 1 Q a R + C 2 + u2 a L du 1 u = a sec-1 ` a ` + C 2 2 u 1 u a L u du = sinh-1 Q a R + C (a 7 0) 2 2 1 a + u L u du = cosh-1 Q a R + C (u 7 a 7 0) L 1u2 - a2 L sin2 x dx = x sin 2x + C 2 4

provided that L is a real number. (If s is even, we assume that L 7 0.)

x:0

lim

k du = ku + C (any number k) L (du + dv) = du + dv L L L

n

Applications of Derivatives Continuity

A function f (x) is continuous at x = c if and only if the following three conditions hold: 1. 2. 3. f (c) exists
x:c x:c

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST FOR MONOTONICITY

Suppose that f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). If f (x) > 0 at each x H (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b]. If f (x) < 0 at each x H (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].

(c lies in the domain of f ) ( f has a limit as x : c) (the limit equals the function value)
ISBN-13: 978-0-321-60810-9 ISBN-10: 0-321-60810-0

SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST FOR CONCAVITY

Let y = f (x) be twice-differentiable on an interval I.

un+1 u du = + C 4. n + 1 L du 5. u = ln u + C L 6. 7. 8. L

(n Z - 1)

lim f (x) exists

sin u du = - cos u + C

lim f (x) = f (c)

FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST FOR LOCAL EXTREMA

Suppose that c is a critical point ( f (c) = 0) of a continuous function f that is differentiable in some open interval containing c, except possibly at c itself. Moving across c from left to right, 1. 2.
9 780321 608109

1. 2.

If f > 0 on I, the graph of f over I is concave up. If f < 0 on I, the graph of f over I is concave down.

cos u du = sin u + C L sec2 u du = tan u + C L L csc2 u du = - cot u + C

x sin 2x cos2 x dx = + + C 2 4 L sec u du = ln sec u + tan u + C L L csc u du = - ln csc u + cot u + C

9 0 0 0 0

if f changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c; if f changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c; 2

INFLECTION POINT
If f (c) = 0 and the graph of f (x) changes concavity across c then f has an inflection point at c.
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9. 10.

sec u tan u du = sec u + C L 3

1 1 sec3 x dx = sec x tan x + ln sec x + tan x + C 2 2 L

Calculus Review, Single Variable

Volume of Solid of Revolution
b

Infinite Sequences and Series

LENGTH OF y = f (x)
b

USEFUL SERIES COMPARISON TEST

Let g an be a series with no negative terms. (a) (b) g an converges if there is a convergent series g cn with an cn for all n 7 N, for some integer N. g an diverges if there is a divergent series of nonnegative terms g dn with an dn for all n 7 N, for some integer N. 2. 1. 1 = a x n, x 6 1 1 - x n=0 1 = a ( - 1)nx n, x 6 1 1 + x n=0 xn e x = a , all x n = 0 n!
q ( - 1) x sin x = a , all x n = 0 (2n + 1)! n 2n + 1 q q q

DISK V =

a L

p[ f (x)]2 dx
b

FACTORIAL NOTATION
0! = 1, 1! = 1, 2! = 1 2, 3! = 1 2 3, n! = 1 2 3 4 % n

SHELL V =

a L

2pxf (x) dx

L =

a L

21 + [ f (x)]2 dx

LENGTH OF PARAMETRIC CURVE

b

LENGTH OF x = g (y)
d

USEFUL CONVERGENT SEQUENCES

1. 2. 3.
n: q

3.

L =

a L

2 [ f (t)]2 + [ g (t)]2 dt

L =

c L

21 + [ g (y)]2 dy

lim

ln n n = 0
n

where x = f (t), y = g(t)

n: q

lim 1n = 1 lim x n = 1 (x 7 0)
1

LIMIT COMPARISON TEST

Suppose that an 7 0 and bn 7 0 for all n N (N an integer). 1. an If lim = c 7 0, then g an and g bn both converge or both n : q bn diverge. an If lim = 0 and g bn converges, then g an converges. n : q bn an If lim = q and g bn diverges, then g an diverges. n : q bn

4.

n: q

5.

cos x = a

( - 1) x , all x n = 0 (2n)! ( - 1) n n=1

q n-1 n

n 2n

Numerical Integration
TRAPEZOID RULE
x f (x) dx L (y + 2y1 + 2y2 + % + 2yn - 1 + yn) 2 0 a L where x = b - a n and yi = a + i x, y0 = a, yn = b
b

4. 5. 6.

n: q

lim xn = 0 ( x 6 1)
n

x lim a1 + n b = ex n: q lim xn = 0 n!

2. 3.

6.

ln(1 + x) = a
q

, -1 6 x 1

7.

tan - 1 x = a

n=0

( - 1)n x 2n + 1 ,x 1 2n + 1
q

n: q

THE RATIO TEST

an+1 an = r, then g an converges if r 6 1, diverges if r 7 1, and the test is inconclusive if r = 1. an 0, lim
n: q

8.

SEQUENCE OF PARTIAL SUMS

Let sn = a1 + a2 +
q

m (Binomial Series) (1 + x)m = 1 + a a b x k, x 6 1 k=1 k m(m - 1) m m , where a b = m, a b = 1 2 2 m(m - 1) % (m - k + 1) m a b = ,k 3 k k!

SIMPSONS RULE
b a L

+ an.

f (x) dx L

x (y + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + % + 2yn - 2 + 4yn - 1 + yn) 3 0 b - a n , n is even and yi = a + i x, y0 = a, yn = b

(a) (b)

n=1 q n=1

sn exists. a an converges if nlim :q sn does not exist. a an diverges if nlim :q

THE ROOT TEST

an 0, lim 1an = r, then g an converges if r 6 1, diverges if
n

where x =

n: q

GEOMETRIC SERIES
q

r 7 1, and the test is inconclusive if r = 1.

FOURIER SERIES
1 1 f (x) dx, ak = p The Fourier Series for f (x) is a0 + a (ak cos kx + bk sin kx) where a0 = 2p L 0 0 k=1 L 1 bk = p
2p 0 L q 2p 2p

Polar Coordinates
EQUATIONS RELATING POLAR AND CARTESIAN COORDINATES
x = r cos u y = r sin u, x2 + y2 = r2, y u = tan - 1 a x b

n=1

n-1 = a ar

a , r 6 1, and diverges if r 1. 1 - r

ALTERNATING SERIES TEST

an 0, g ( - 1)n + 1an converges if an is monotone decreasing and lim an = 0.
n: q

f (x) cos k x dx,

LENGTH OF POLAR CURVE

b

THE n th-TERM TEST FOR DIVERGENCE

q n=1

f (x) sin k x dx, k = 1, 2, 3,

L =

a B L

r2 + a

dr 2 b du du

an fails to exist or is different from zero. a an diverges if nlim :q

ABSOLUTE CONVERGENCE TEST

If g an converges, then g an converges.

TESTS FOR CONVERGENCE OF INFINITE SERIES

1. 2. 3. 4. The nth-Term Test: Unless an : 0, the series diverges. Geometric series: g ar n converges if r 6 1; otherwise it diverges. p-series: g 1n p converges if p 7 1; otherwise it diverges. Series with nonnegative terms: Try the Integral Test, Ratio Test, or Root Test. Try comparing to a known series with the Comparison Test or the Limit Comparison Test. Series with some negative terms: Does g an converge? If yes, so does g an since absolute convergence implies convergence. Alternating series: g an converges if the series satisfies the conditions of the Alternating Series Test.

SLOPE OF THE CURVE r f (u)

f (u) sin u + f (u) cos u dy ` = dx (r, u) f (u) cos u - f (u) sin u provided dx/du Z 0 at (r, u).

AREA OF REGION BETWEEN ORIGIN AND POLAR CURVE r = f(u)

A = 1 2 1 r du = [ f (u)]2du a 2 a 2 L L
b b

THE INTEGRAL TEST

Let {an} be a sequence of positive terms. Suppose that an = f (n), where f is a continuous, positive decreasing function for all x N q (N a positive integer). Then the series g n = N an and the improper q integral 1N f (x) dx both converge or both diverge.

TAYLOR SERIES
Let f be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some interval containing a as an interior point. Then the Taylor Series generated by f at x = a is
q k=0

CONCAVITY OF THE CURVE r f(u)

d y dx2 =
2

AREA OF A SURFACE OF REVOLUTION OF A POLAR CURVE (ABOUT x-AXIS)

b

p-SERIES
n=1

d dy b a ` du dx (r, u) f (u) cos u - f (u) sin u dx Z 0 at (r, u). du

S =

a L

2pr sin u r 2 + a

dr 2 b du du

1 a n p converges if p 7 1, diverges if p 1.

f (k)(a) (x - a)k = f (a) + f (a)(x - a) + k!

5. 6.

f (a) f (n)(a) (x - a)n + % . (x - a)2 + % + 2! n! If a = 0, we have a Maclaurin Series for f (x).

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