Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

DIELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Dielectric Properties of Solids
Dielectrics are electrically non-conducting materials such as glass, porcelain etc, which
exhibit remarkable behaviour because of the ability of the electric field to polarize the material
creating electric dipoles.

Dielectric Constant
Faraday discovered that the capacitance of the condenser increases when the region
between the plates is filled with dielectric. If C0 is the capacitance of the capacitor without
dielectric and C is the capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric then the ratio C / C0 gives εr
called relative permittivity or Dielectric constant. Also for a given isotropic material the electric flux
density is related to the applied field strength by the equation D= ε E, Where ε is Absolute
permittivity. In SI system of units the relative permittivity is given by the ratio of absolute
permittivity to permittivity of free space.

ε = ε0 εr
ε0 is permittivity of free space.
εr is relative permittivity or dielectric constant.

For an isotropic material, under static field conditions, the relative permittivity is called
static dielectric constant. It depends on the structure of the atom of which the material is
composed.

Polarization of dielectrics:
dielectrics -
“The displacement of charged particles in atoms or molecules of dielectric material so
that net dipole moment is developed in the material along the applied field direction is called
polarization of dielectric.” Polarization is measured as dipole moment per unit volume and is a
vector quantity.

r r
P=N µ

r
Where µ is average dipole moment per molecule and N is number of molecules per unit volume.
r r
Also µ =α E where α is a constant of proportionality called polarizability.

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

In Polar dielectric materials, When the external electric field is applied all dipoles tend to
align in the field direction and hence net dipole moment develops cross dielectric material. This is
the polarization of polar dielectric materials.
materials

In non polar dielectric materials dipoles are induced due to the applied electric field which
results in the net dipole moment in the dielectric material in the direction of the applied field. This
is the polarization of non-
non-polar dielectric materials.
materials

As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising from the presence of the
material as compared to free space it has the same unit as D and is related to it as
D =ε 0 E + P
Since D = ε 0ε r E
ε 0ε r E = ε 0 E + P
∴P = ε 0 (ε r − 1) E
Also
p
= (ε r − 1) = χ
ε0 E
Where χ is Electric susceptibility

Electrical Polarization mechanisms

The electrical polarization takes place through four different mechanisms. They are
1. Electronic polarization.
2. Ionic polarization.
3. Orientation polarization.
4. Space charge polarization.

The net polarization of the material is due to the contribution of all four polarization
mechanisms.

P = Pe + Pi + Po + Ps

1) Electronic polarization:
polarization - This occurs through out the dielectric material and is due to the
separation of effective centers of positive charges from the effective center of negative charges in
atoms or molecules of dielectric material due to applied electric field. Hence dipoles are induced
within the material. This leads to the development of net dipole moment in the material and is the
vector sum of dipole moments of individual dipoles.

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

E<0 E>0

⇒ electronic dipole moment = µ e = 4πε 0 R 3 E

⇒ µe ∝ E ⇒ µe = α e E
where α e electronic polarizability.
Pe = N µ e = N α e E where is N number of atoms per m 3
ε 0 (ε r − 1)
The electronic polarizability is given by α e =
N

2) Ionic polarization:
polarization - This occurs in ionic solids such as sodium chloride etc. Ionic solids
possess net dipole moment even in the absence of external electric field. But when the external
electric field is applied the separation between the ions further increases. Hence the net dipole
moment of the material also increases.

+ - + + - +
- + - - + -

+ - + + - +

E = 0. E > 0.

It is found that the ionic dipole moment also proportional to the applied field strength.
hence µi = α i E
where α i is ionic polarisability.

Ionic Polarization is given by ionic dipole moment per unit volume.

hence pi = N µi
where N is no. of atoms per unit volume.

3) Orientation Polarization:
Polarization - This occurs in polar dielectric material, which possesses permanent
electric dipoles. In polar dielectrics the dipoles are randomly oriented due thermal agitation.

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

Therefore net dipole moment of the material is zero. But when the external electric field is applied
all dipoles tend to align in the field direction. There fore dipole moment develops across the
material. This is referred to as orientation polarization (P
Po). Orientation polarization depends on
temperature. Higher the temperature more the randomness in dipole orientation smaller will be
the dipole moment.

E = 0. E > 0.

The orientation polarizability is given by

µ2
α0 = Where ‘k
k’ is Boltzman constant, T is absolute temperature and µ is permanent
3k T
dipole moment.

4) Space charge polarization:

polarization - This occurs in materials in which only a few charge carriers are
capable of moving through small distances. When the external electric field is applied these
charge carriers move. During their motion they get trapped or pile up against lattice defects.
These are called localized charges. These localized charges induce their image charge on the
surface of the dielectric material. This leads to the development of net dipole moment across the
material. Since this is very small it can be neglected. It is denoted by Ps.

Field When dielectric material is placed in the external electric field, it is

Internal Field or Local Field:-
polarized creating electric dipoles. Each dipole sets electric field in the vicinity. Hence the net
electric field at any point within the dielectric material is given by “The sum of external field and
the field due to all dipoles surrounding that point”.
point” This net field is called internal field or Local
field.
field

Expression for Internal field in case of Solids and Liquids (One dimensional ): Consider a dipole
with charges ‘+q ‘and ‘–q’ separated by a small distance ‘dx’ as shown in fig. The dipole moment
is given by µ = q dx. Consider a point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from the center of dipole.

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

E
Er
r
Eθ
P

θ
-q +q
dx
The electric field ‘E’ at ‘P’ can be resolved into two components.
1) The Radial Component along the line joining the dipole and the point. It is given by
r 2 µ Cosθ
Er =
4 π ε0 r 3
2) The Tangential component or Transverse component perpendicular to the Radial
r
component is given by E =
µ Sin θ
θ
4 π ε0 r 3
Where ‘θ’ is the angle between the dipole and the line joining the dipole with the point ’P’, ‘ε0’
is permitivity of free space and ‘r’ is the distance between the point and dipole.

Consider a dielectric material placed in external electric field of strength ‘E’. Consider an array
of equidistant dipoles within the dielectric material, which are aligned in the field direction as
shown in the figure.

E C A X B D F

a a a a a a
2a 2a

3a 3a

Let us find the local field at ‘X’ due all dipoles in the Array.
The field at ‘X’ due to dipole ‘A’ is given by EXA = Er + Eθ

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

Here r = a and θ = 0 o
2 µ Cos0 o
Hence Er = , E θ = 0.
4 π ε 0 a3
µ
⇒ EXA =
2 π ε 0 a3
The field at ‘X’ due to dipole ‘B’ is given by E = E + E
XB r θ
Here r = −a and θ = 180o
2 µ Cos180o
Hence Er = 3
, Eθ = 0.
4 π ε 0 (− a)
µ
⇒ EXB =
2 π ε 0 a3
Hence the Total field at ‘X’ due to equidistant dipoles ‘A’ and ‘B’ is given by
E1 = EXA + EXB
µ µ
E1 = 3
+
2 π ε0 a 2 π ε 0 a3
µ
⇒ E1 =
π ε 0 a3

Similarly, the total field at ‘X’ due to equidistant dipoles ‘C’ and ‘E’ is given by
E2 = E XC + E XD
µ µ
E2 = +
2 π ε 0 (2a)3 2 π ε 0 (2a)3
µ
⇒ E2 = (Q r = 2a)
π ε 0 (2a)3
Similarly, the total field at ‘X’ due to equidistant dipoles ‘D’ and ‘F’ is given by
E3 = EXE + EXF
µ µ
E3 = 3
+
2 π ε0 (3a) 2 π ε0 (3a)3
µ
⇒ E3 = (Q r = 3a)
π ε0 (3a)3

The net field at ‘X’ due to all dipoles in the array is given by
E| = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + L L L
µ µ µ
E| = 3
+ 3
+ + LLL
π ε0 a π ε 0 (2a) π ε 0 (3a)3
µ  1 1 
= 1 + 23 + 33 + L L L
π ε 0 a3
 
µ ∞
1
= ∑
π ε 0 a3 n =1 n3
∞
1
but ∑n
n=1
3
≅ 1.2

1 .2 µ
∴ E| =
π ε 0 a3

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

The Local Field at ' X' is given by

1.2 µ
E i = E + E| = E +
π ε 0 a3
Wkt µ = αE.
1.2 αE
∴ Ei = E +
π ε 0 a3

For Three-Dimension the above equation can be generalized by replacing 1/a3 by ‘N’ (where ‘N’ the
number of atoms per unit volume), and 1.2/π by γ called Internal Field Constant.

γNαE
∴ Ei = E +
ε0
γ P
but polarization P = NαE ∴ Ei = E +
ε0

Since γ, Ρ and ε0 are positive quantities Ei > E. For a Cubic Lattice γ = 1/3 and the Local field is called
Lorentz field. It is given by
P
EL = E +
3ε 0

Clausius
Clausius-
usius-Mosot
Mosott
otti Relation:
Relation:
Consider an Elemental solid dielectric material. Since they don’t posses permanent,
dipoles, for such materials, the ionic and orientation polarizabilities are zero. Hence the
polarization P is given by
P = Nα e E L Where E L is Lorentz Field
 P 
= N α e  E + 
 3ε 0 
P
P = Nα e E + Nα e
3ε 0
 Nα e 
P 1 − = Nα e E
 3ε 0 
Nα e E
∴P = ...............eqn(1)
 Nα e 
1 −
 3ε 0 
Where ‘N’ is the no. of dipoles per unit volume, αe is electronic polarizability ε0 is permittivity of
free space, and E is the Electric field strength.

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

The polarization is related to the applied field strength as given below

D =ε0 E + P
Since D = ε 0ε r E
ε 0ε r E = ε 0 E + P
∴P = ε 0 (ε r − 1) E ................... eqn ( 2)
Where ‘D’ is Electric Flux Density and ε r is Dielectric Constant.
Equating equations (1) and (2)
Nα e E
∴P = = ε 0 (ε r − 1) E
 Nα e 
1 − 3ε 
 0 

Nα e E  Nα e 
= 1−
ε 0 (ε r − 1) E  3ε 0 
Nα e E Nα e
+ =1
ε 0 (ε r − 1) E 3ε 0
Nα e  3 
 + 1 = 1
3ε 0  (ε r − 1) 
Nα e  ε r − 1 
∴ =  
3ε 0 εr + 2

The above equation is called Clausius – Mosotti relation. Using the above relation if the value of
dielectric constant of the material is known then the electronic polarizability can be determined.

Ferro and Piezo – Electricity :

Ferroelectricity:
Ferroelectricity Some dielectric materials spontaneously acquire an electric dipole moment below
a certain temperature. This Is referred to as spontaneous polarization. Analogy with magnetic
material results in a type of dielectric materials called ferroelectric materials. Similar to
Ferromagnetic materials Ferroelectric materials also exhibit ferroelectric hysteresis. It is a plot of
polarization (P) versus Electric field strength (E). Ferroelectric hysteresis is the lagging of the
polarization with respect to applied electric field Strength during the positive polarization and
negative polarization of the specimen.
The static dielectric constant of a ferroelectric material changes
P
with temperature which is given by ε r = C Where C is a constant, T
T −θ
is the temperature and θ is a temperature very close to a temperature
E
called Curie temperature (Tc). Ferroelectric materials exhibit Piezo-
electricity and Pyro-electricity. Quartz, Lithium Niobate and Barium
Titanate are the few examples of ferroelectric materials. Ferroelectric
Ferroelectric Hysteresis
materials are used in pressure transducers, Ultrasonic transducers,
microphones, Infrared detectors and capacitors.

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

Piezoelectric Materials:
Materials Certain dielectric materials are electrically polarized when their surfaces
are stressed. This phenomenon is called piezoelectric effect and the materials are called
piezoelectric materials. The charges produced on the surface due to stressing are proportional to
the applied force which is utilized in the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy.
When crystals like Tourmaline, Rochelle salt and Quartz are sliced in a particular fashion they
exhibit piezoelectric effect. In the crystal the distribution of the ionic charges about their lattice
sites is symmetrical. Thus the net internal field is zero. But when the crystal is stressed the
symmetry is altered due to the displacement of charges which results in non zero internal field.
Piezoelectric strains are very small. Hence the corresponding electric fields are very high. For
quartz for a strain of the order 10-7 the corresponding electric field is 1000v/cm. The inverse of
Piezoelectricity is called electrostriction. Electrostriction is a phenomenon of straining a crystal by
applying an electric field. Hence the piezoelectric materials are also called electro-strictive
materials. The piezoelectric crystals are used in electro-mechanical transducers, as Oscillators to
generate highly stable frequency and measurement of velocity of ultrasonics in solids and liquids.

Properties of Dielectrics under alternating field conditions( Frequency dependence of Dielectric

constant, Dielectric loss & complex dielectric constant):
constant):-
It is found under alternating field conditions of high frequency, the dielectric constant is a
complex quantity. When dielectric materials are placed in alternating field the polarization tend to
reverse as the polarity changes. If the frequency of the field is low (less than 1M Hz), then the
polarization can follow the alternations of the field and hence the dielectric constant remains
static.

Space Charge
Polarization

Orientation

Ionic

Electronic

Frequency

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

Under alternating field conditions of high frequency (Greater than 1MHz) the oscillations of
dipoles lag behind those of field. If the frequency is increased further they are completely unable
to follow the alternations in the field and hence the molecular process Orientation polarization
ceases due to dielectric relaxation. This occurs in the frequency range 106 Hz to 1011Hz.As the
frequency is increased further other polarizing mechanisms start to cease one after another. The
ionic polarization ceases in the frequency range 1011 Hz to 1014Hz. Finally only electronic
polarization remains. Hence as the frequency of the field increases the polarization decreases
and hence the dielectric constant decreases. This is known as Anomalous Dielectric Dispersion.
Dispersion

Dielectric Loss:
Loss - In the alternating field conditions during the rotation of dipoles they have to
overcome some sort of internal friction, which is dissipated as heat by the material. This is called
as dielectric loss.

Complex Dielectric Constant:

Constant - The complex dielectric constant is given by εr* =εr’ - εr’’. Where εr’’
determines Dielectric Loss. εr’ determines the component of current out of phase by 90° with the
field.

Important applications of Dielectric Materials: Dielectric materials find a wide range of applications
as insulating materials.
1) Plastic and Rubber dielectric are used for the insulations of electrical conductors
2) Ceramic beads are used for the prevention of electric short circuiting and also for the
purpose of insulation.
3) Mica and Asbestos insulation is provided in electric Iron in order to prevent the flow of
electric current to outer body.
4) Varnished cotton is used insulators in transformers.
5) Dielectric materials are used in the energy storage capacitors.
6) Piezoelectric crystals are used in oscillators and vibrators.

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

Magnetic Properties of Solids

Classification of magnetic materials: materials can be classified in to five types on the basis of
magnetic dipoles.
1) Diamagnetic materials
2) Paramagnetic materials
3) Ferromagnetic materials
4) Antiferromagnetic materials
5) Ferrimagnetic materials

Diamagnetic Materials:
Materials Diamagnetic materials are the substances which become weakly
magnetized in the direction opposite to that of the applied field. They do not posse’s permanent
magnetic dipoles. The magnetic dipole moment of the atoms of the material is zero. Bismuth,
Gold, Water are the few examples for diamagnetic materials. When diamagnetic materials are
placed in the magnetic field they expel the flux lines. A perfect diamagnet expels all the flux lines
from the interior of the material.

Langevin’
Langevin’s theory of Diamagnetic Materials:
Materials Langevin, in 1905, explained diamagnetism from the
electron theory of matter. The atoms in diamagnetic materials contain even number of electrons.
The electrons in such atoms are paired. The electrons in each pair have orbital motion as well as
spin motions in opposite sense. The resultant magnetic moment of the atom is thus zero.
When diamagnetic materials are placed in the magnetic field, does not tend to align the
atoms (dipoles) of the substance. But the field is able to modify the motions of the electrons in
orbits which are equivalent to tiny current loops. The Lenz’s law acts in the atomic scale. The
electron moving in a direction so as to produce a magnetic field in the same direction as the
external field is slowed down, while the other accelerated. Hence atom acquires an effective
magnetic moment which is opposite to the applied magnetic field. It is not affected by thermal
agitations and hence independent of temperature. Diamagnetism is present in all magnetic
materials and is outweighed in case of the Diamagnetic materials. Hence it is universal property
of matter.

Langevin was able to derive an expression for the diamagnetic susceptibility and is given by
− µo n e2 ∑r
i
i
2

χ=
6m
Here χ is diamagnetic Susceptibility µo is permeability of free space, e is electronic charge, m is
the mass of the electron and ri is the radius of the ith orbit.

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

Paramagnetic Materials:
Materials Paramagnetic materials posse’s permanent magnetic dipoles. When
such materials are placed in the magnetic field they get weakly magnetized in the direction of the
applied magnetic field. Platinum, Aluminium, Manganese are the few examples of paramagnetic
materials. In paramagnetic materials the interaction between the neighboring dipoles is extremely
week.

Langevin’s theory
theory of Paramagnetism:
Paramagnetism Langevin explained paramagnetism on the basis of, atoms
or molecules of a paramagnetic material have a net intrinsic paramagnet magnetic moment due
to the spin and orbital motions of electrons in it. In the absence of the external magnetic field all
dipoles tend to orient in random directions due to thermal agitation and hence the net magnetic
moment of the material is zero.

When paramagnetic materials are placed in the magnetic field, the dipoles experience
torque and they tend to align in the applied field direction. Due to thermal agitation of the
molecules the average alignment produced give rise to the net magnetic moment of the material
in the direction of the applied field.

The paramagnetism is a function of temperature. Higher the temperatures more will the
randomness in the orientations of the dipoles due to thermal agitations. Hence the net dipole
moment decreases with temperature. The expression for paramagnetic susceptibility as derived
by Langevin is
µ0 n pm2
χm =
3k T

χm is the paramagnetic susceptibility, µo is the permeability of free space, pm is magnetic moment,

k is Boltzmann constant, T is absolute temperature.

Ferromagnetic Materials: Ferromagnetic materials can be strongly magnetized by relatively

weaker magnetic fields. Materials composed of elements Iron, Nickel and Cobalt exhibit
ferromagnetism. In ferromagnetic materials the interaction between the neighboring dipoles is
very strong. This interaction is called spin exchange interaction.

Weiss molecular
molecular field theory of Ferromagnetism:
Ferromagnetism In the year 1907 Weiss proposed a theory for
susceptibility of ferromagnetic materials. The Weiss theory is based on the following
assumptions.
1) The neighboring dipoles in ferromagnetic materials interact and they group together to
form ferromagnetic domains. Each domain is magnetized to saturation. In the absence of

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

external magnetic field, since the direction of magnetization of different domains is

different, the average resultant magnetization of ferromagnetic material is zero.
2) The cause of spontaneous magnetization within each domain is the existence of the
molecular field which tries to produce a parallel alignment of the dipoles.

Based on the above assumptions Weiss was able to derive an expression for ferromagnetic
susceptibility as a function of excess of temperature which is given by
Nµ 2 C
χ= =
3k (T − θ ) T − θ
Here χ is Ferromagnetic Susceptibility, C is Curie constant, T is the temperature above
ferromagnetic curie temperature (Tc), θ is a temperature very close to Tc.

For temperatures less than ferromagnetic Curie temperature the dipole-dipole

interactions are very strong which overcome the thermal agitations. Hence the susceptibility is
very high. But for temperature higher than ferromagnetic Curie temperature the violent thermal
agitations overcome dipole interactions and the susceptibility varies inversely as excess of
temperature and the material is transformed into paramagnetic phase.

During the magnetization of the ferromagnetic specimen by applying external magnetic

field the magnetization of the specimen takes place either due to domain wall movement under
weak fields or to the rotation of domain’s magnetic moments under applied strong magnetic
fields.

Ferromagnetic Hysteresis (B-

(B-H Curve):
Curve)
During the magnetization and demagnetization of the specimen the induction flux density
(B) lags behind the applied magnetic field strength (H) and is called ferromagnetic hysteresis.
B-H curve is a plot of the induction flux density versus the applied field strength during
magnetization and demagnetization of a ferromagnetic specimen.
B
Bs a
b

o f H

d
S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith
Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

The origin O represents the initially unmagnetised specimen and zero magnetic intensity.
As H is increased B also increases and saturation (Bs) is reached (curve oa). At saturation all
domains are oriented in the same direction as the applied field. If H is reduced the domains tend
to reorient to their original direction and B decreases. But when H reduces to a value zero, B
does not reduce to Zero and curve ab is traced. The flux density corresponding to H=0 is called
remnant induction or remnant flux density (Br=ob). When the magnetizing force is removed the
magnetic flux retained by the specimen is measured as retentivity.
retentivity Now H is reversed in direction
and increased. For an applied reversed field of magnitude Hc (oc) the material is completely
demagnetized and B=0(Curve bc). The corresponding field Hc is called Coercive field. The
measure of magnetic intensity required to completely demagnetize the material is called
Coercivity
Coercivity.
ivity If further H is increased the curve cd is traced and the reverse saturation is achieved.
When H is varied from its negative maximum value, through zero, to its original positive
maximum value then a similar curve defa is traced. Further the complete variation of H from +H
to –H and back from –H to +H will trace a closed hysteresis curve abcdef. The area enclosed by
the curve abcdef gives the energy loss per cycle per unit volume of the material. This is called as
Hysteresis Loss.

Classification of magnetic materials into Hard and soft:

soft
Magnetic material are further classified into two types
1. Metallic magnetic materials:
materials - Which are made of metals
2. Ceramic magnetic materials (ferrites): - Which are the compounds of metals and non-
metals.
Based on their properties each type is classified into Hard and Soft magnetic materials. A
magnet material that retains magnetic field is called magnet.

Metallic Magnetic Materials:

Materials: They are classified into two types..
1) Soft metallic magnetic materials: -They is also called “permeable
permeable magnetic materials”
materials since
they allow the flux lines to pass through very easily. They can be easily magnetized and
demagnetized. The magnet, which is made of soft magnetic material, is called soft magnet.
E.g. Soft iron, steel.

Properties:
Properties -
1. They posses high permeability H
2. They posses high susceptibility
3. They posses low coercivity

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof
Dielectric and Magnetic Properties of Solids 1

4. They posses low retentivity

5. They posses high saturation magnetization
6. Since the area under the Hysteresis curve is very small, the energy loss per cycle is
small.

Applications:
Applications -
1. They are used in electromagnets
2. They are used in A C current machinery
3. They are used in Communication equipments
4. They are used in audio and video transformers

2) Hard magnetic materials:

materials: - They are also called as “permanent
permanent magnetic materials”
materials because of
their ability to retain magnetic field even after the magnetizing force is withdrawn. They are called
“hard
hard magnetic materials”
materials because they cannot be magnetized and demagnetized very easily.
When a Hard magnetic material is magnetized it is called Hard magnet.

E.g. Alnico, Nickel steel.

Properties:
Properties - (compared to soft magnetic materials)
1. They posses low permeability
2. They posses low susceptibility
3. They posses high coercivity
4. They posses high retentivity
5. Since the area enclosed by the Hysteresis curve is large, the energy loss per cycle is
also high.
6. High magnetization force is needed for saturation.
B
Applications:
Applications -
1. They are used in digital computers
H
2. They are used for making permanent magnets
3. They are used in transducers
4. They are used in magnetic tapes.

S B M Jain College of Engineering K.S. Mahesh Lohith

Centre for Emerging Technologies Asst. Prof