Invensys APV Dairy Technology

Dairy Technology

Invensys APV
Pasteursvej
8600 Silkeborg
Copyright 2002 Invensys APV, Silkeborg, Denmark, Dairy Technology 08/02 UK/2002

Denmark
Tel. +45 70 278 333
Fax +45 70 278 330
apv.unitsystems@invensys.com
www.apv.invensys.com

Anhydro A/S
Østmarken 7
2860 Søborg
Denmark
Tel. +45 70 278 222
Fax +45 70 278 223
anhydro@invensys.com
www.anhydro.com
Table of contents

MILK
Composition of Danish Cow’s Milk 2002: . . . . . . . . 3
Density of Milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Yields from Whole milk etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Pasteurisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
UHT/ESL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
ESL - Extended shelf life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
UHT - Ultra High Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
High Heat Infusion Steriliser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Determination of Fat Content in Milk and Cream . . . 17
Determination of Protein Content in
Milk and Cream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Detection of Preservatives and Antibiotics in Milk . . 20
Acidity of Milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Phosphatase Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Standardisation of Whole Milk and Cream . . . . . . . . 23
Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Calculating the Extent of Random Sampling . . . . . . 27

BUTTER
Composition of Butter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Yields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Buttermaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Calculating Butter Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Churning Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Adjusting Moisture Content in Butter . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Determination of Salt Content in Butter . . . . . . . . . . 36
lodine Value and Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fluctuations in lodine Value and
Temperature Treatment of Cream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

CHEESE
Cheese Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Cheesemaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Standardisation of Cheesemilk and Calculation of
Cheese Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Utilisation Value of Skimmilk in Cheesemaking . . . . 44
Strength, Acidity and Temperature
of Brine for Salting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

MEMBRANE FILTRATION
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Membrane Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Membrane Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
CIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Milk and Whey Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

EVAPORATION AND DRYING

Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

CLEANING AND DISINFECTING

CIP Cleaning in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Cleaning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
CIP Cleaning Programs for Pipes and Tanks . . . . . . 70
CIP Cleaning Programs for Plate Pasteurisers . . . . 72
General Comments to Defects/Faults
in CIP Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Manual Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Check of the Cleaning Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Control of Cleaning Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Dairy Effluent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Stainless Steel Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Friction Loss Equivalent in m Straight
Stainless Steel Pipe for One Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Velocity in Stainless Steel Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Volume in Stainless Steel Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Friction Loss in m H2O per 100 m Straight
Pipe with Different Pipe Dimensions and Capacities
(Non-stainless steel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

UNITS OF MEASURE
The MKSA System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
The SI Unit System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Tables showing conversion Factors between
SI Units and other Common Unit Systems. . . . . . . . 92
Input and Output of Electric Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fuel Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Saturated Steam Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Atomic Weights, Melting and Boiling Points of the
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Prefixes with Symbols used in Forming
Decimal Multiples and Submultiples . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Thermometric Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Conversion Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

2
MILK
Composition of Danish Cow’s Milk 2002:

Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . approx. 4.3%

Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 3.4%
Lactose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 4.8%
Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 0.7%
Citric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 0.2%
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 86.6%

Density of Milk
The density of milk is equivalent to the weight in kilos of 1
litre of milk at a temperature of 15°C.
The easiest way to determine the density is to use a spe-
cial type of hydrometer called a lactometer. The upper part
of the lactometer is provided with a scale showing the lac-
tometer degree, which, when added as the second and
third decimal to 1.000 kg, indicates the density of milk, ie,
a lactometer degree of 30 corresponds to a density of
1.030 kg/litre.
The lactometer is lowered into the milk and when it has
come to rest, the lactometer degree can be read on the
scale at the surface level of the milk.
As milk contains fat and as the density depends on the
physical state of the fat, the milk should be healed to 40°C
and then cooled to 15°C before the density is determined.
If the, determination of the density is not carried out at ex-
actly 15°C, the reading must be converted by means of a
correction table.
The density of milk depends upon its composition, and
can be calculated as follows:

100
% fat + % protein + % lactose+acid + % ash + % water
0.93 1.45 1.53 2.80 1.0

Density:
1 litre whole milk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . approx. 1.032 kg
- skimmilk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1.035 kg
- buttermilk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 1.033 kg
- skimmed whey 6.5% TS . . . . . - 1.025 kg
- cream with 20% fat . . . . . . . . . - 1.013 kg
- cream with 30% fat . . . . . . . . . - 1.002 kg
- cream with 40% fat . . . . . . . . . - 0.993 kg

3
Yields from Whole milk etc.
100 kg standardised whole milk yields:
with 4.0 % fat approx. 4.75 kg butter
- 4.0 % - - 13.0 - whole milk powder
- 3.0 % - - 9.5 - 45% cheese *)
- 2.5 % - - 9.1 - 40% - *)
- 1.6 % - - 8.3 - 30% - *)
- 1.0 % - - 8.0 - 20% - *)
- 0.45% - - 7.4 - 10% - *)

100 kg skimmilk with 9.5% solids yields:

approx. 9.8 kg skimmilk powder
- 6.9 - skimmilk cheese *)
- 7.5 - raw casein
- 3.5 - dried casein

100 kg buttermilk with 9.0% solids yields:

approx. 9.3 kg buttermilk powder

100 kg unskimmed whey with approx. 7.0% solids yields:

approx. 0.4 kg whey butter
- 7.2 - whey cheese

100 kg skimmed whey with approx. 6.5% solids yields:

approx. 6.7 kg whey powder
- 3,5 - raw lactose
- 3.0 - refined lactose
- 8.0 - lactic acid
- 2.2 - WPC 35
- 1.2 - WPC 60
- 0.9 - WPC 80
*) ripened cheese

Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation is a heat treatment applied to milk in order
to avoid public health hazards arising from pathogenic mi-
croorganisms associated with milk. The process also in-
creases the sheIf life of the product.
Pasteurisation is intended to create only minimal chemi-
cal, physical and organoleptic changes in products to be
kept in cold storage.

Pasteurisation temperature and time

The temperature/time combinations stated below are
similar in effect and all have the minimum bactericidal ef-
fect required for pasteurisation.

4
Pasteurised milk and skimmilk 63°C/30 min.
72°C/15 sec.

Pasteurised cream (10% fat): 75°C/15 sec.

- - (35% fat): 80°C/15 sec.

Pasteurised, concentrated milk,

ice cream mix, sweetened products, etc. 80°C/25 sec.

In each case the product is subsequently cooled to 10°C

or less - preferably to 4°C.
In some countries, local legislation specifies minimum
temperature/time combinations.

In many countries, the phosphatase test is used to deter-

mine whether the pasteurisation process has been carried
out correctly. A negative phosphatase test is considered
to be equivalent to less than 2.2 microgrammes of phenol
liberated by 1 ml of sample or less than 10 microgrammes
para-nitrophenol liberated by 1 ml of sample.
In order to minimise the risk of failure in the pasteurisation
process, the system should have an automatic control
system for:
(1) Pasteurisation temperature. Temperature recorder and
flow diversion valve at the outlet of the temperature holder
for diverting the flow back to the balance tank in case of
pasteurisation temperatures below the legal requirement.
(2) Holding time at pasteurisation temperature. Capacity
control system which activates the flow diversion valve in
case the capacity exceeds the maximum for which the
holding tube is designed.
(3) Pressure differential control. The system will activate
the flow diversion valve if the pressure on the raw-milk
side of the regenerator exceeds a set minimum below the
pressure on the pasteurised side, thus preventing possi-
ble leakage of raw milk into the pasteurised milk.

Calculation of residence time in holding tube

The mean residence time (t) in the holding tube can be
calculated as follows:

length of tube x volume per metre

t=
capacity per second

Values for volume per metre can be found in the table Vol-
ume in Stainless Steel Pipes.

5
The individual particles spend different times in the hold-
ing tube and this results in residence time variations. To
avoid bacteriological problems, it is necessary to heat
even the fastest particles long enough.
The holding tube must have an efficiency of at least 0.8
(tmin/tmean) and this can best be achieved by avoiding a
laminar flow, ie, ensuring a turbulent flow at a Reynolds
Number >12,000 and choosing a ratio of length (m)/dia-
meter >200 for the holding tube.

UHT/ESL
Being the originator of the 4 main systems, Invensys APV
has the largest product range within UHT:

Indirect: Plate UHT Plant

Tubular UHT Plant (Figure 1)
Direct: Injection UHT Plant
Infusion UHT Plant

In addition to the 4 main systems, Invensys APV has de-

veloped the following variations:

ESL - Extended Shelf Life

Pure LacTM
Combi UHT (2-4 systems in one)
High Heat Infusion
Instant Infusion

3 3
PRODUCT FILLING
95ºC 140ºC
8

9 7

5ºC 2
1 1 4 5 6
25ºC
75ºC
COOLING
WATER
STEAM
10

1. Tubular regenerative 4. Tubular final heater 7. Sterile tank

preheaters 5. Tubular regenerative 8. CIP unit
2. Homogeniser cooler 9. Sterilising loop
3. Holding tubes 6. Final cooler 10. Water Heater

Fig. 1: Flow diagram for Tubular Steriliser

6
ESL - Extended shelf life
In many parts of the world the production of fresh milk
presents a problem in regard to keeping quality. This is due
to inadequate cold chains, poor raw material and/or insuffi-
cient process and filling technology. Until recently, the only
solution has been to produce UHT milk with a shelf life of 3
- 6 months at ambient temperature. In order to try to im-
prove the shelf life of ordinary pasteurised milk, various at-
tempts have been made to increase the pasteurisation tem-
perature and this led to the extended shelf life concept.

The term extended shelf life or ESL is being applied more

and more frequently. There is no single general definition
of ESL. Basically, what it means is the capability to extend
the shelf life of a product beyond its traditional well-known
and generally accepted shelf life without causing any sig-
nificant degradation in product quality. A typical tempera-
ture/time combination for high-temperature pasteurisa-
tion of ESL milk is 125 - 130°C for 2 - 4 seconds. This is
also known in the USA as ultrapasteurisation.

Invensys APV has during the last years developed a pa-

tented process where the temperature may be raised to as
high as 140°C, but only for fractions of a second. This is
the basis for the Pure-LacTM process.

The Invensys APV infusion ESL is based on the theory that

a high temperature/ultra short holding time will provide an
efficient kill rate as well as a very low chemical degradation.

75ºC
STEAM

FILLING
2 COOLING
9
WATER

PRODUCT COOLING
WATER
4 7

VACUUM
3 5

5ºC 143ºC 75ºC 25ºC <25ºC

STEAM

1 6 6

8 COOLING
WATER COOLING
WATER

1. Plate preheaters 4. Flash vessel 7. Aseptic tank

2. Steam infusion chamber 5. Aseptic homogeniser 8. Non aseptic cooler
3. Holding tube 6. Plate coolers 9. Condenser

Fig. 2: Flow Diagram for Steam Infusion Steriliser

7
This means that a very high temperature for a very short
time will result in a high-quality ESL product, with long
shelf life and a taste like low pasteurised milk.

Temperature
135ºC
Pure-LacTM
120ºC
High pasteurisation

72ºC
Low pasteurisation

Time

Fig. 3: Temperature profile for pasteurisation processes.

The Pure LacTM process

In co-operation with Elopak, Invensys APV has developed
the Pure LacTM concept which in a systematic way attacks
the challenge of improving milk quality for the consumer.

Based on investigations of consumer requirements and

the present market conditions in a larger number of coun-
tries, the objective of Pure LacTM was defined as follows:

• A sensory quality equal to or better than pasteurised

products
• A “real life” distribution temperature of neither 5°C, nor
7°C but 10°C
• A prolonged shelf life corresponding to 14 to 45 days at
10°C depending on filling methods and raw milk quality
• A method to accommodate changes in purchasing pat-
terns of the consumer
• An improved method for distribution of niche products
• To cover the complete milk product range, i.e. milk,
creams, desserts, ice cream mix, etc.
• To provide tailored packaging concepts designed to
give maximum protection using minimum but adequate
packaging solutions.

8
After reviewing the range of “cold technologies” available,
it became obvious that most of them were only suited for
white milk. Furthermore, the actual microbiological reduc-
tion rate for some of the processes was inadequate to pro-
vide sufficient safety for shelf life of more than 14 days at
10°C.

Process Technology/Shelf Life

Log. reduction Extended shelf Expected shelf
Process aerobic, psycro- life max. 4°C life max. 10°C
tropic spores storage storage

Pasteurisation 0 10 days 1 - 2 days

Centrifugation 1 14 days 4 - 5 days

Microfiltration 02-mar 30 days 6 - 7 days

TM
Pure Lac Up to 45 days
8 Over 45 days
ESL pasteurisation (**)

UHT process 8 (*) 180 days180 180 days at

High Heat Process 40 days 25°C

* Thermophilic spores
** Depending on filling solution

UHT - Ultra High Temperature

All UHT processes are designed to achieve commercial
sterility. This calls for application of heat to the product
and a chemical sterilant or other treatment that render the
equipment, final packaging containers and product free of
viable micro-organisms able to reproduce in food under
normal conditions of storage and distribution. In addition it
is necessary to inactivate toxins and enzymes present and
to limit chemical and physical changes in the product. In
very general terms it is useful to have in mind that an in-
crease in temperature of 10ºC increases the sterilising ef-
fect 10-fold whereas the chemical effect only increases
approximately 3-fold. In this section we will define some of
the more commonly used terms and how they can be
used for process evaluation.

9
 ºC
150 High Heat Infusion
Direct Infusion Indirect UHT

100

50

0 Time

Fig. 4: Temperature profiles for direct infusion, high heat

infusion and indirect UHT processes

The logarithmic reduction of spores and sterilising

efficiency
When micro-organisms and/or spores are exposed to
heat treatment not all of them are killed at once.
However, in a given period of time a certain number is killed
while the remainder survives. If the surviving micro-orga-
nisms are once more exposed to the temperature treatment
for the same period of time an equal proportion of them will
be killed. On this basis the lethal effect of sterilisation can
be expressed mathematically as a logarithmic function:

K · t = log N/Nt
where N = number of micro-organisms/spores originally
present
Nt = number of micro-organisms/spores present
after a given time of treatment (t)
K = constant
t = time of treatment

A logarithmic function can never reach zero, which means

that sterility defined as the absence of living bacterial
spores in an unlimited volume of product is impossible to
achieve. Therefore the more workable concept of “sterilis-
ing effect” or “sterilising efficiency” is commonly used.

The sterilising effect is expressed as the number of deci-

mal reductions achieved in a process. A sterilising effect

10
of 9 indicates that out of 109 bacterial spores fed into the
process only 1 (10°) will survive.

Spores of Bacillus subtilis or Bacillus stearothermophilus

are normally used as test organisms to determine the effi-
ciency of UHT systems because they form fairly heat re-
sistant spores.

Terms and expressions to characterise heat treatment

processes
Q10 value. The sterilising effect of heat sterilisation in-
creases rapidly with the increase in temperature as de-
scribed above. This also applies to chemical reactions
which take place as a consequence of an increase in tem-
perature. The Q10 value has been introduced as an ex-
pression of this increase in speed of reactions and speci-
fies how many times the speed of a reaction increases
when the temperature is raised by 10ºC. Q10 for flavour
changes is in the order of 2 to 3 which means that a tem-
perature increase of 10ºC doubles or triples the speed of
the chemical reactions.
A Q10value calculated for killing bacterial spores would
range from 8 to 30, depending on the sensitivity of a par-
ticular strain to the heat treatment.

D-Value. This is also called the decimal reduction time and

is defined as the time required to reduce the number of
micro-organisms to one-tenth of the original value, i.e.
corresponding to a reduction of 90%.

Z-Value. This is defined as the temperature change, which

gives a 10-fold change in the D-value.

F0 value. This is defined as the total integrated lethal effect

and is expressed in terms of minutes at a selected reference
temperature of 121.1ºC. F0 can be calculated as follows:

F0 = 10(T - 121.1) /z x t / 60, where

T = processing temperature (ºC)

z = Z-value (ºC)

t = processing time (seconds)

F0 = 1 after the product has been heated to 121.1 ºC for

11
 4000

3000

region of
sterilisation
2000

lo
ss
of
th
ia
m
in

HM
e
1000 =

F
80

10
900 %

0
µm
800

ol/
700

l
600

500
HM
F
10

400 th
re 60
µm

sh %
ol
ol/

d
l

300 ra
ng
e
of
lo di
ss sc
of ol
200 th ou 40
Heating time or equivalent heating time in seconds

ia ra
m %
HM

in tio
e n
F1

=
3%
µm

/C
ol/

*=
l

1
100
90
80
70
20
%
60
50

40

30
10
la

%
ct
ul
os
e

20
60
0
m
therm ophil
therm
lac

g/
l
tu

lo
ss
lo

al d ic spo
se

of
40

l
ys
eath
0

in
m

10
=
g/

valu s / B*=

1%
l

9
re
e=

8 UHT-
7
9

region
1

6
5

1
100 110 120 130 140 150 160ºC

2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3

1
·103 in K -1
T

Fig. 5: Bacteriological and chemical changes of heated

milk

one minute. To obtain commercially sterile milk from good

quality raw milk, for example, an F0 value of minimum 5 to
6 is required.

B* and C* Values. In the case of milk treatment, some

countries are using the following terms:

12
• Bacteriological effect:
B* (known as B star)

• Chemical effect
C* (known as C star)

B* is based on the assumption that commercial sterility is

achieved at 135ºC for 10.1 seconds with a corresponding
Z-value of 10.5ºC; this reference process is giving a B*
value of 1.0, representing a reduction of thermophilic
spore count of 109 per unit (log 9 reduction). The B* value
for a process is calculated similarly to the F0 value:

B* = 10 ( T - 135 ) / 10.5 x t / 10.1, where

T = processing temperature (ºC)

t = processing time (seconds)

The C* value is based on the conditions for a 3 percent

destruction of thiamine (vitamin B1); this is equivalent to
135ºC for 30.5 seconds with a Z-value of 31.4ºC. Conse-
quently the C* value can be calculated as follows:

C* = 10 ( T - 135 ) /31.4 x t / 30.5

Fig. 5 shows that a UHT process is deemed to be satisfac-

tory with regard to keeping quality and organoleptic qua-
lity of the product when B* is > 1 and C* is < 1.

The B* and C* calculations may be used for designing

UHT plants for milk and other heat sensitive products. The
B* and C* values also include the bacteriological and
chemical effects of the heating up and cooling down times
and are therefore important in designing a plant with mini-
mum chemical change and maximum sterilising effect.
The more severe the heat treatment is, the higher the C*
value will be. For different UHT plants the C* value corre-
sponding to a sterilising effect of B* = 1 will vary greatly. A
C* value of below 1 is generally accepted for an average
design UHT plant. Improved designs will have C* values
significantly lower than 1.

The Invensys APV Steam Infusion Steriliser has a C* value

of 0.15.

13
Residence time
Particular attention must be paid to the residence time in a
holding cell or tube and the actual dimensioning will depend
on several factors such as turbulent versus laminar flow,
foaming, air content and steam bubbles. Since there is a ten-
dency to ope-rate at reduced residence time in order to mini-
mise the chemical degradation (C* value < 1) it becomes in-
creasingly important to know the exact residence time.

In Invensys APV the infusion system has been designed

with a special pump mounted directly below the infusion
chamber which ensures a sufficient over-pressure in the
holding tube in order to have a single phase flow free from
air and steam bubbles. This principle enables Invensys
APV to define and monitor the holding time and tempera-
ture precisely and makes it the only direct steam heating
system, which allows true validation of flow and tempera-
ture at the point of heat transfer.

Commercial sterility
The expression of commercial sterility has been men-
tioned previously and it has been pointed out that com-
plete sterility in its strictest sense is not possible. In wor-
king with UHT products commercial sterility is used as a
more practical term, and a commercially sterile product is
defined as one which is free from micro-organisms which
grow under the prevailing conditions.

Chemical and bacteriological changes at high

temperatures
The heating of milk and other food products to high tem-
peratures results in a range of complex chemical reactions
causing changes in colour (browning), development of off-
flavours and formation of sediments. These unwanted re-
actions are largely avoided through heat treatment at a
higher temperature for a very short time. It is important to
seek the optimum time/temperature combination, which
provides sufficient kill effect on spores but, at the same
time, limits the heat damage, in order to comply with mar-
ket requirements for the final product.

Raw material quality

It is important that all raw materials are of very high quality, as
the quality of the final product will be directly affected. Raw
materials must be free from dirt and have a very low bacteria
spore count, and any powders must be easy to dissolve.

14
All powder products must be dissolved prior to UHT treat-
ment because bacteria spores can survive in dry powder
particles even at UHT temperatures. Undissolved powder
particles will also damage homogenising valves causing
sterility problems.

Heat stability. The question of heat stability is an important

parameter in UHT processing.
Different products have different heat stability and although
the UHT plant will be chosen on this basis, it is desirable to
be able to measure the heat stability of the products to be
UHT treated. For most products this is possible by applying
the alcohol test. When samples of milk are mixed with equal
volumes of an ethyl alcohol solution, the proteins become
unstable and the milk flocculates. The higher the concen-
tration of ethyl alcohol is without flocculation, the better the
heat stability of the milk. Production and shelf life problems
are usually avoided provided the milk remains stable at an
alcohol concentration of 75%.
High heat stability is important because of the need to
produce stable homogeneous products, but also to pre-
vent operational problems as e.g. fouling in the UHT plant.
This will decrease running hours between CIP cleanings
and thereby increase product waste, water, chemical and
energy consumption. Generally it will also disrupt smooth
operation and increase the risk of insterility.

Shelf life. The shelf life of a product is generally defined as

the time for which the product can be stored without the
quality falling below a certain minimum acceptable level.
This is not a very sharp and exact definition and it de-
pends to a large extent on the perception of “minimum
acceptable quality”. Having defined this, it will be raw ma-
terial quality, processing and packaging conditions and
conditions during distribution and storage which will de-
termine the shelf life of the product.

Milk is a good example of how wide a span the concept of

shelf life covers:

Product Shelf life Storage

Pasteurised milk 5 - 10 days refrigerated
ESL/Pure-LacTM 20 - 45 days refrigerated
UHT milk 3 - 6 months ambient temperature

The usual organoleptic factors limiting shelf life are dete-

15
riorated taste, smell and colour, while the physical and
chemical limiting factors are incipient gelling, increase in
viscosity, sedimentation and cream lining.

High Heat Infusion Steriliser

The growing incidents of heat resistant spores (HRS) is
challenging traditional UHT technologies and setting new
targets. The HRS are extremely heat resistant and require
a minimum of 145 - 150ºC for 3 - 10 seconds to achieve
commercial sterility. If the temperature is increased to this
level in a traditional indirect UHT plant it would have an
adverse effect on the product quality and the overall run-
ning time of the plant. Furthermore, it would result in
higher product losses during start and stop and more fre-
quent CIP cycles would have to be applied. Using the tra-
ditional direct steam infusion system would result in higher
energy consumption and increased capital cost. On this
basis, Invensys APV developed the new High Heat Infu-
sion system.

The flow diagram in fig. 6 illustrates the principle design

including the most important processing parameters while
fig. 7 shows the temperature/time profile in comparison to
conventional infusion and indirect systems.
Note that the vacuum chamber has been installed prior to
the infusion chamber. This design facilitates improvement
in energy recovery and it is possible to achieve 75% re-
generation compared to 40% with conventional infusion
systems and 80 - 85% with indirect tubular systems. The
killing rate is F0 = 40.

VACUUM STEAM FILLING

PRODUCT
90ºC 125ºC

2 3 5 COOLING 9
WATER

5ºC 60ºC 150ºC 75ºC 25ºC

1 4 1 2 7 6 7

10 COOLING 8 8
WATER
STEAM STEAM

1. Tubular preheaters 4. Non aseptic flavour dosing (option) 7. Tubular coolers

2. Holding tube 5. Steam infusion chamber 8. Tubular Heaters
3. Flash vessel (non aseptic) 6. Homogeniser (aseptic) 9. Aseptic tank
10. Non aseptic cooler

Fig. 6: Flow diagram for High Heat Infusion Steriliser

16
UHT of products with HRS (comparative temperature profiles with Fo= 40)

ºC
150

100

50

0 Time
Direct UHT 150ºC
High Heat Infusion 150ºC
Indirect UHT 147ºC
Reference Indirect UHT 140ºC

Fig. 7: Time/temperature profiles illustrating High Heat In-

fusion processing parameters

Determination of Fat Content in Milk and Cream

Röse-Gottlieb (RG)
The fat globule membranes are destroyed by ammonia
and heat, and the phospholipids are dissolved with etha-
nol. After heat treatment, the fat is extracted with a mixture
of diethyl ether and light petroleum. Then the solvents are
removed by evaporation and the fat content is determined
by weighing the mass left after evaporation.

Schmid-Bondzynski-Ratzloff (SBR)
This method uses hydrochloric acid instead of ammonia
to destroy the fat globule membranes and is used for
cheese samples.
The principal difference between RG and SBR is that the
free fatty acids are not extracted by the RG method since
the analysis is made in alkaline media. The free fatty acids
are extracted by the SBR method since the analysis is
made in an acidic medium.

17
Gerber’s method
Whole milk is analysed as follows:
Measure into the butyrometer 10 ml sulphuric acid, 11 ml
milk (in some countries only 10.8 ml) and 1 ml amyl alco-
hol, in that order.
Before measuring out the milk, heat to 40°C and mix care-
fully. Insert the stopper and shake the mixture while hold-
ing the stopper upwards. Then turn the butyrometer up-
side down two or three times until the acid remaining in
the narrow end of the butyrometer is mixed completely
with the other constituents.
During the mixing process, the temperature rises to such a
degree that centrifugation can take place without further
heating. The butyrometer is centrifuged for 5 minutes at
1,200 rpm and the sample is placed in a water bath at 65-
70°C before reading. The reading is made at the lowest
point of the fat meniscus.

Skimmilk and buttermilk are analysed as follows:

The acid, milk and amyl alcohol are measured out as de-
scribed above. Immediately after shaking, the sample is
cooled to 10-20°C before the sulphuric acid remaining in
the narrow end of the butyrometer is mixed in by turning
the butyrometer up and down. Before centrifugation, the
sample is heated to 65-70°C. The butyrometer is centri-
fuged for 10-15 minutes at 1,200 rpm and the value read
at 65-70°C.
When skimmilk samples are read, the fat will be seen as
two small triangles. If these two triangles are just touching
each other, the milk contains approx. 0.05 % fat. For but-
termilk samples, the reading is taken at the lowest point of
the fat meniscus and the figure of 0.05 is then added to
give the fat content.

Cream is analysed as follows:

Measure into the butyrometer 10 ml sulphuric acid, 5 ml
cream, 5 ml water, and 1 ml alcohol. The water is used for
removing the remainder of the cream from the cream pi-
pette into the butyrometer and must have a temperature of
40°C. Insert the stopper and continue as described for
whole milk. Before a reading is taken, the bottom of the fat
column must be set at zero on the butyrometer by turning
the rubber stopper to move it up or down.

Milkoscan
The Danish company N. Foss Electric has developed an

18
instrument, the Milkoscan, for rapid and simultaneous,
determination of fat, protein, lactose and water.
In this instrument, the sample is diluted and homogenised.
Then the mixture passes through a flow cuvette where the
different components are measured by their infrared ab-
sorption.

Fat at 5.73 µm
Protein at 6.40 µm
Lactose at 9.55 µm

The value for water is calculated on the basis of the sum of

the values for fat, protein, and lactose plus a constant
value for mineral content.
The instrument requires exact calibration and must be
thermostatically controlled.

Determination of Protein Content in Milk and

Cream
Kjeldahl’s method
Kjeldahl’s method provides for accurate determination of
the milk protein content. This method involves the com-
bustion of the protein contained in a specific quantity of
milk in sulphuric acid with an admixture of potassium sul-
phate and copper sulphate. This converts nitrogen from
organic compounds into ammonium ions. The addition of
sodium hydroxide liberates ammonia, which distils over
into a boric acid solution. The amount of ammonia is de-
termined by hydrochloric acid titration. The protein con-
tent is found by multiplying the measured nitrogen quan-
tity by 6.38.

The amido black method (Pro-milk)

When milk is mixed with an amido black solution at pH
2.45, the positively charged protein molecules are linked
to the negatively-charged amido black molecules in a spe-
cific ratio, and the protein is precipitated. When the pre-
cipitate of coloured protein pigment has been removed,
the concentration of non-precipitated pigment, which is
measured by means of the photometer, is inversely pro-
portional to the milk protein content.
This method has been automated in an instrument, the
Pro- milk, from N. Foss Electric. The instrument filters out
the protein pigment by means of special synthetic filters
and a photometer displays the protein percentage directly.

19
Detection of Preservatives and Antibiotics in Milk
The growth of lactic acid bacteria may be inhibited by the
presence in the milk of ordinary antiseptics (such as boric
acid, borax, benzoic acid, salicylic acid, salicylates, for-
malin, hydrogen peroxide) or antibiotics (penicillin, aureo-
mycin, etc). In order to find out which of the above men-
tioned substances is present, it is necessary to test for
each of them - which is both costly and time-consuming.
However, tests for rapid determination ¯f antibiotics, espe-
cially penicillin, in milk have been developed. One of these
is the Dutch Delvotest P.
A special substrate containing Bacillus colidolactis, which is
highly sensitive to penicillin and to some extent also to
other antibiotics, is inoculated with the suspected milk. Af-
ter 2 1/2 hours, the quantity of acid produced will be suffi-
cient to change the colour in the dissolved pH indicator
from red to yellow. This method gives a definite determina-
tion of the penicillin concentration down to 0.06 I.U./ml.
Rapid detention of slow-ripening milk can be achieved by
a comparison of the acidification process in the suspected
sample with that in a sample of mixed milk.
Both samples are heat-treated at 90-95°C for approx. 15
minutes, cooled to approx. 25°C, and mixed with 2%
starter.
After 6-8 hours there will be a distinct difference in the ti-
tres (or pH) of the two samples if one of them contains
antibiotics or other growth-inhibiting substances.

Acidity of Milk
Normally, fresh milk has a slightly acid reaction. The acid-
ity is determined by measuring either the titrated acidity,
i.e., the total content of free and bound acids, or by meas-
uring the pH value, which indicates the true acidity (the hy-
drogen ion concentration).
The titrated acidity of fresh milk is 16-18, and pH is 6.6-6.8.

Titration
Normally, the titrated acidity of milk is indicated by the
number of ml of a 0.1 n sodium hydroxide solution re-
quired to neutralise 100 ml of milk, using phenolphthalein
as an indicator.
By means of a pipette, 25 ml of milk is measured into an
Erlenmeyer flask. To this 13 drops of a 5% alcoholic phe-
nolphthalein solution is added, and from a burette 0.1 n
sodium hydroxide solution is added, drop by drop, into the
flask until the colour of the liquid changes from white to a

20
uniform pale red. Since for practical reasons only 25 ml of
milk is used in the analysis, the figure obtained must be
multiplied by four.
Consequently, supposing that the quantity of sodium hy-
droxide solution used was 5 ml, the titratable acidity
would be:

5 × 4 = 20

The normal titratable acidity of fresh milk is 16-18. If the

titratable acidity increases to 30 or more, the casein con-
tent will be precipitated when the milk is heated.
When cultured milk or buttermilk is titrated, part of the milk
will stick to the inside of the pipette. This residue is
washed into the Erlenmeyer flask by milk taken from the
flask after neutralisation takes place and the red colour
starts to appear. Titration then proceeds as explained
above.
The acidity of cream is determined by the same proce-
dure.
When the final result is calculated, the fat content of the
cream must be taken into account. Supposing that the lat-
ter is 30% and that the quantity of sodium hydroxide solu-
tion used was 2.8 ml, the titratable acidity of the cream
would be:

2.8 × 4 × 100 = 16
100-30

The acidity of milk is expressed in various ways in various

countries.
Soxhlet Henkel degrees (S.H.) give the number of ml of a
0.25 n NaOH solution necessary to neutralise 100 ml of
milk, using phenolphthalein as an indicator.
Thörner degrees of acidity indicate the number of ml of a
0.1 n NAOH solution required to neutralise 100 ml of milk
to which two parts of water have been added. Phenol-
phthalein is used as an indicator.
Dornic degrees of acidity give the number of ml of a 119 n
NAOH solution necessary to neutralise 100 ml of milk, us-
ing phenolphthalein as an indicator Divided by 100, the
figure gives the percentage of lactic acid.
In the various methods of analysis, the milk is diluted to
different degrees, and it is therefore only possible to make
approximate comparisons of the various degrees of acid-
ity. However, working only from the amount of NaOH used

21
and the normal acidity figure, the various degrees of acid-
ity can be compared as shown below:

Degrees Soxhlet- Approx. %

Thömer Dornic
of acidity Henkel lactic acid
02.5 01 02.5 02.25 0.0225
05.0 02 05.0 04.50 0.0450
07.5 03 07.5 06.75 0.0675
10.0 04 10.0 09.00 0.0900
12.5 05 12.5 11.25 0.1125
15.0 06 15.0 13.50 0.1350
17.5 07 17.5 15.75 0.1575
20.0 08 20.0 18.00 0.1800
22.5 09 22.5 20.25 0.2025
25.0 10 25.0 22.50 0.2250
27.5 11 27.5 24.75 0.2475
30.0 12 30.0 27.00 0.2700

Measurement of pH
The true acidity of a liquid is determined by its content of
hydrogen ions.
Acidity is measured in pH value, pH being the symbol used to
express the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentra-
tion. For example, a solution with a hydrogen ion concentra-
tion of 1:1,000 or 10-3 has a pH of 3. The neutral point is pH
7.0. Values below 7.0 indicate acid reactions, and values
above 7.0 indicate alkaline reactions. A difference in pH value
of 1 represents a tenfold difference in acidity, ie, pH 5.5
shows a degree of acidity ten times higher than pH 6.5.
In milk, it is the pH value and not the titratable acidity that
controls the processes of coagulation, enzyme activity,
bacteria growth, reactions of colour indicators, taste, etc.
The pH value is measured by a pH-meter with a combined
glass electrode, and the system must always be cali-
brated properly before use.

The Phosphatase Test

The phosphatase test is used to control the effect of HTST
pasteurisation and batch pasteurisation of milk. Milk pas-
teurised by one of these methods must be healed in such a
way that, when the phosphatase test is applied, a maxi-
mum of 0.010 mg free phenol is liberated per ml milk.
However, the heat treatment must not be so effective that
the reaction of the milk to Storch’s test (peroxidase test) is
negative.

22
The phosphatase test is performed as follows:
Measure 1 ml milk into two test tubes, marked A and B.
Transfer test tube B to a 80"C water bath for 5 minutes
and then cool. To the milk in test tube A, add 5 ml distilled
water saturated with chloroform and 5 ml substrate solu-
tion (prepared by dissolving one small “Ewos” phos-
phatase tablet l in 25 ml of a solution consisting of 9.2 g
pure an- hydrous sodium carbonate and 13.6 g sodium bi-
carbonate in 1 litre distilled water saturated with chloro-
form).
To test tube B, add 5 ml diluted phenol solution (0.010 mg
phenol in 5 ml) and 5 ml substrate solution. Shake both
test tubes and leave them in a water bath at 38-40°C for
one hour. Then, to both tubes, add exactly six drops of
phenol reagent (three “Ewos” phosphatase tablets II in 10
ml 93% alcohol), and shake the tubes vigorously. Leave
the two test tubes at room temperature for 15 minutes and
compare them. Only if the contents of test tube A appear
paler in colour than the contents of test tube B can the
milk be considered sufficiently heated.
If the milk fails this test, a sample for control testing should
be sent to an authorised research institute, which will carry
out the phosphatase test in such a way that colour is ex-
tracted after incubation. The colour extinction is a meas-
ure of the content of phenol and can be measured in a
Pullfricphotometer.

Standardisation of Whole Milk and Cream

In many countries, milk and cream sold for consumption
must contain a legally fixed fat percentage, although slight
variations are usually allowed.
In Denmark, for example, the fat content of heat-treated
whole milk must be 3.5% and 1.5% in low-fat milk. The
various types of cream must have a fat content of 9, 13,
18, or 36%, respectively.
In order to comply with these regulations, it is necessary
to standardise the fat content. This can be done in various
ways depending on the stage at which standardisation is
carried out.
Standardisation before or during heat treatment is to be
preferred as the danger of subsequent contamination is
thereby reduced. Standardisation will normally take place
automatically during the separating and pasteurising
process. It may, however, be done manually as a batch
process, in which case the table below may be used.

23
Table for standardisation of Whole Milk
% fat in % fat in standardised milk
whole
milk 04.00 03.90 03.80 03.70 03.60 03.50 03.40 03.30 03.20 03.10 03.00
4.5 12.70 15.60 18.70 21.90 25.40 30.00 32.80 36.90 41.30 45.90 50.80
4.4 10.10 13.00 16.00 19.20 22.50 26.00 29.90 33.80 38.10 42.60 47.50
4.3 07.60 10.40 13.30 16.40 19.70 23.20 26.90 30.80 34.90 39.30 44.10
4.2 05.10 07.80 10.70 13.70 16.90 20.30 23.90 27.70 31.70 36.10 40.70
4.1 02.50 05.20 08.00 11.00 14.00 17.40 20.90 24.60 28.60 32.80 37.30
4.0 02.60 05.30 08.20 11.30 14.50 17.90 21.50 25.40 29.50 33.90
3.9 00.38 02.70 05.50 08.50 11.60 14.90 18.50 22.20 26.20 30.50
3.8 00.77 00.38 02.70 05.60 08.70 11.90 15.40 19.00 23.00 27.10
3.7 01.15 00.77 00.38 02.80 05.80 09.00 12.30 15.90 19.70 23.70
3.6 01.54 01.15 00.76 00.38 02.90 06.00 09.20 12.70 16.40 20.30
3.5 01.92 01.53 01.15 00.76 00.38 03.00 06.10 09.50 13.10 16.90
3.4 02.31 01.92 01.53 01.14 00.76 00.38 03.10 06.30 09.80 13.60
3.3 02.69 02.30 01.91 01.52 01.14 00.75 00.38 03.10 06.60 10.20
3.2 03.08 02.68 02.29 01.90 01.52 01.13 00.75 00.37 03.30 06.80
3.1 03.46 03.07 02.67 02.28 01.89 01.51 01.13 00.75 00.37 03.40
3.0 03.85 03.45 03.05 02.66 02.27 01.89 01.50 01.12 00.75 00.37

The figures above the shaded lines indicate the amount in

kg of skimmilk to be added per 100 kg whole milk when
the fat content is too high.
The figures below the shaded lines indicate the amount in
kg of cream with 30% fat to be added per 100 kg whole
milk when the fat content is too low.

Batch Standardisation
For batch standardisation the following equations may be
used.

Fat content to be reduced:

To reduce the fat content in y kg whole milk, add x kg
skimmilk.

y (% fat in whole milk - % fat required)

x kg skimmilk =
% fat required - % fat in skimmilk

To obtain z kg standardised milk, mix y kg whole milk with

x kg skimmilk.

z (% fat required - % fat in skimmilk)

y kg whole milk =
% fat in whole milk - % fat in skimmilk

x kg skimmilk = z - y

Fat content to be increased:

To increase the fat content in y kg low-fat milk, add x kg
cream (or high-fat milk).

24
 y (% fat required - % fat in low-fat milk)
x kg cream =
% fat in cream - % fat required

To obtain z kg standardised milk, mix y kg low-fat milk with

x kg cream (or high-fat milk).

z (% fat in cream - % fat required

y kg low-fat milk =
% fat in cream - % fat in low-fat milk

x kg cream = z - y

ln-line Standardisation
For in-line standardisation the following equations may be
used.

Fat content to be reduced:

To obtain z kg standardised milk, use y kg whole milk. Sur-
plus cream x kg.
y kg
z (% fat in surplus cream - % fat required)
whole =
milk % fat in surplus cream - % fat in whole milk

x kg surplus cream = y - z

To obtain x kg surplus cream, use y kg whole milk. Stand-

ardised milk z kg.
y kg
z (% fat in cream - % fat in standardised milk)
whole =
milk % fat in whole milk - % fat in standardised milk

z kg standardised milk = y - x

y kg whole milk used will result in z kg standardised milk

and x kg surplus cream.
z kg
y (% fat in surplus cream - % fat in shole milk)
stand. =
milk % fat in surplus cream - % fat in stand. milk

x kg surplus cream = y - z

Fat content to be increased:

Standard in-line systems cannot be used for this purpose.
The fat content of skimmilk is normally estimated at
0.05%.

25
Standard Deviation
The accuracy of an automatic butter fat standardising unit
will commonly be expressed in the term Standard Devia-
tion (SD).

By stating a SD figure, it is guarantied that a certain per-

centage of the fat standardised milk will be kept within the
upper and lower limits, which are derived from the stand-
ard deviation figure (cf. the below table).

Guaranteed Percent within the Defects per Defects per

Sigma specification 1000 million
1
68%0000000000. 317.400 -
2
95%0000000000. 045.600 -
3
99.73%00000000 002.700 2,700.000000
4
99.99366%00000 000.063 ,0063.400000
5
99.9999426%000 - ,0000.574000
6
99.9999998026% - ,0000.001974

It is assumed that the data are distributed normally!

99 ,9 93 6 6%
99 ,7 3%
95 %
68 %

If for instance the SD figures for a fat value range from 1%

to 5% are:

SD of the automatic butter fat standardising unit: 0.015%

*) SD of the controlling lab instrument: 0.01%

Then the two SD figures shall be added as follows:

26
 (SD of the automatic standardising system)2 +
(SD on the measuring instrument)2

2 2
0.015 +0.01 = 0.018%

The summarised SD will thus be = 0.018%

Conferring the above table, the accuracy to be obtained

will be as follows:

1
level: 68% of the production time the fat value will lie
within ± 0.018%
2
level: 95% of the production time the fat value will lie
within ± 0.036%
3
level: 99.7% of the production time the fat value will lie
within ± 0.054%
4
level: 99.99366% of the production time the fat value
will lie within ± 0.072%

The above accuracy figures can now be used to calculate

the fat value set point of the automatic standardising unit.

If a dairy for instance must guarantee minimum 3.4% fat in

99.7% (3
) of the milk delivered, then the fat value set
point of the automatic standardising unit must be 3.4% +
0.054% = 3.454%

*) There is a degree of accuracy connected with the meas-

uring equipment. The supplier of the measuring instru-
ment expresses this by stating the standard deviation of
the measurements to be xxx%.

Calculating the Extent of Random Sampling

How many samples need to be taken in order to prove that
the standardising unit will comply with the granted guar-
antees?

Various methods are available for calculating the extent of

a random sampling – this is a simple method.
From the below chart the relation between the Number of
Degree of Freedom Required (the number of samples
taken) to estimate the standard deviation within P% of Its
True Value with Confidence Coefficient  can be read.

27
A Confidence Coefficient  = 95 would normally apply for
the dairy and food industry.

Example (above example continued):

Verification of the SD guarantee of 0.018%:
- Number of samples 30 and
- Confidence Coefficient ( = 95)

Referring to the below chart, 25% (P%) deviation from Its

True Value (0.0018%) must be allowed for.

Due to the analysis uncertainty, the calculated SD of the

30 random samples must thus be better than 0.018% +
25% = 0.023%.

Logically, if the number of samples is increased the devia-

tion (P%) from Its True Value to be allowed for will narrow
in. The magnitude hereof is illustrated in the below exam-
ples:

Number of Required SD
P%
samples in sample set
30 25% 0.023%
80 15% 0.021%
200 10% 0.020%
N (Total) 0% 0.018%

28
Chart T *): Number of Degrees of Freedom Required to
Estimate the Standard Deviation within P% of Its True
Value with Confidence Coefficient 
1,000
800

600
500

400

300

200

=.


9
Degrees of freedom 

9
=.


100
95
=.
90

80

60
50
40

30

20

10

6
5
5 6 8 10 20 30 40 50

P%

*) Adapted with permission from Greenwood, J. A. and

Sandomire, M. M. (1950). “Statistics Manual, Sample Size
Required for Estimating the Standard Deviation as a Per-
cent of Its True Value”. Journal of the American Statistical
Association, vol. 45, p. 258. The manner of graphing is
adapted with permission from Crow, E. L. Davis, F. A. and
Maxfield, M. W. (1955). NAVORD Report 3369. NOTS 948,
U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station, China Lake, CA. (Re-
printed by Dover Publications, New York, 1960).

29
BUTTER
Composition of Butter
Butter must comply with certain regulations:
Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Min. 80% (82%)
Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Max. 16%
Milk solids non-fat (MSNF) . . Max. 2%
Salt (NaCl):
Mildly salted . . . . . . . . . . . approx. 1%
Strongly salted . . . . . . . . . - 2%
Acidity:
Sweet cream butter . . . . . pH 6.7
Cultured butter . . . . . . . . pH 4.6
Mildly cultured butter . . . . pH 5.3

Buttermilk normally contains:

Sweet buttermilk . . . . . . . . . . 0.5-0.7% fat
....................... approx. 8.5% MSNF
Cultured buttermilk . . . . . . . . 0.4-0.6% fat
....................... approx. 8.3% MSNF

Yields
1 kg butter can be made from:
approx. 20 kg milk with 4.2% fat
- 2.2 kg cream with 38% fat
- 2.0 kg cream with 42% fat

Buttermaking
Buttermaking may be carried out either as a batch pro-
cess in a butter churn or as a continuous process in a con-
tinuous buttermaking machine.
In addition to cream treatment, buttermaking comprises
the following stages:

(1) churning of cream into butter grains and buttermilk;

(2) separation of butter grains and buttermilk;
(3) working of the butter grains into a cohesive mass;
(4) addition and distribution of salt;
(5) adjustment and distribution of moisture;
(6) final working, under vacuum, to minimise the air con-
tent.

A continuous buttermaking machine has existed for many

years. It was invented by a German professor, Dr. Fritz.
However, this machine was deficient in a number of re-
spects. It could be used only for the treatment of sweet

30
cream, and there were problems with the production of
salted butter.

Invensys APV manufactures continuous buttermaking ma-

chines with capacities ranging from 500 kg to 12,000 kg
butter/hour.
The Invensys APV continuous buttermaking machine can
produce all types of butter: cultured and sweet, salted and
unsalted. Furthermore, the machine can produce butter
according to the “NIZO” as well as to the “IBC” method.
Blended products (e.g. Bregott) in which some of the but-
ter fat has been replaced by vegetable fats can also be
produced.
The Invensys APV continuous buttermaking machine also
guarantees that products are of the highest possible qual-
ity, and that the operating economy is the best obtainable.
The Invensys APV continuous buttermaking machine is
designed according to the following principles:

(1) The churning section is, in principle, designed in accord-

ance with the system of Dr. Fritz. The section consists of a
horizontal cylinder and a rotating beater. The beater velocity
is infinitely variable between 0 and 1,400 rpm. Since the
churning process lasts only 1-2 seconds, it is important to
adjust the beater velocity to obtain optimum butter grain
size. The moisture content of the butter and the fat content
of the buttermilk also depend on the beater velocity.
(2) The separating section consists of a horizontal rotating
cylinder. The velocity is infinitely variable.
The first part of the cylinder is equipped with baffle plates
for further treatment of the mixture of butter grains and
buttermilk which is fed in from the churning section.
The second part of the cylinder is designed as a sieve for
buttermilk drainage. It is equipped with a very finely
meshed wire screen, which retains even small butter
grains. The buttermilk drainage from the butter grains is
very efficient and the rotation of the strainer drum prevents
butter clogging.
(3) The working section consists of two inclined sections (I
and II) with augers for transport of the butler, and working
elements in the form of perforated plates and mixing
vanes. The velocity of each of the two sections is infinitely
variable.
In the production of salted butter, a salt slurry (40-60%) is
pumped into working section I where it is worked into the
butter.

31
 Butter
1
Water
Buttermilk
2

4
3

(1) Churning section

(2) Separating section
(3) Working section
(4) Vacuum chamber
(5) Butter pump

The above is a diagram of Invensys APV’s continuous

buttermaking machine.

Any adjustment of the moisture content also takes place in

working section I. Water dosing is carried out automatically.
In order to reduce the air content in the butter from 5-6%
or more to below 0.5%, a vacuum chamber has been in-
serted between working sections I and II. When the butter
from working section l enters this chamber, it passes
through a double perforated plate from which it emerges
in very thin layers. This provides the best conditions for
escape of air. The butter leaves the machine through a
nozzle fitted at the end of working section II. Mounted on
the nozzle is a butter pump, which conveys the butter to
the butter silo.

Buttermaking according to the IBC method

(Indirect Biological Culturing)
This is a method for production of cultured butter from
sweet cream. After sweet cream churning and buttermilk
drainage, a so-called D starter, which has a high diacetyl
(aroma) content, is worked into the butter. Also, lactic acid
has been added to this starter, producing a pH reduction
in addition to the aroma, Furthermore, an ordinary B
starter is worked into the butter to obtain the correct mois-
ture content. When salted butter is produced, the salt is
mixed into the D starter.

32
A similar production method is the well known “NIZO”
method.
The above methods provide for more flexible cream treat-
ment since the incubation temperatures for the starters do
not have to be taken into account. Besides, the produc-
tion of cultured buttermilk is avoided (sweet buttermilk is
much more usable in other products than cultured butter-
milk). Finally, butter produced according to this method
has a longer shelf life.

Calculating Butter Yield

The yield of butter from whole milk can be calculated us-
ing the following equations. (Loss and overweight are not
considered.).

kg milk x (% fat in milk - % fat in skimmilk)

kg cream =
% fat in cream - % fat in skimmilk

kg cream x (% fat in cream - % fat in buttermilk)

kg butter =
% fat in butter - % fat in buttermilk

If the fat percentage in skimmilk, buttermilk and butter is

not known, the following estimated values rnay be used:

Skimmilk = 00.05% fat

Buttermilk = 00.4% fat
Butter = 82.5% fat

Churning Recovery
The churning recovery value (CRV) is equal to the amount
of fat remaining in the buttermilk expressed as a percent-
age of the total fat content of the cream before churning. It
can be worked out from the following equation:

(100-7/6 x % fat in cream) x % fat in buttermilk

CRV =
% fat in cream

In other words, the only data required are the cream and
buttermilk fat percentages.

33
Churning Recovery Table
% fat
% fat in buttermilk
in
cream 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90
30.5 0.21 0.42 0.63 0.85 1.06 1.27 1.48 1.69 1.90
31.0 0.21 0.41 0.62 0.82 1.03 1.24 1.44 1.65 1.85
31.5 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.21 1.41 1.61 1.81
32.0 0.20 0.39 0.59 0.78 0.98 1.18 1.37 1.57 1.76
32.5 0.19 0.38 0.57 0.76 0.96 1.15 1.34 1.53 1.72
33.3 0.19 0.37 0.56 0.75 0.93 1.12 1.31 1.49 1.68
33.5 0.18 0.36 0.55 0.73 0.91 1.09 1.27 1.46 1.64
34.0 0.18 0.35 0.53 0.71 0.89 1.07 1.24 1.42 1.60
34.5 0.17 0.35 0.52 0.69 0.87 1.04 1.21 1.39 1.56
35.0 0.17 0.34 0.51 0.68 0.85 1.01 1.18 1.35 1.52
35.5 0.16 0.33 0.50 0.66 0.83 0.99 1.16 1.32 1.49
36.0 0.16 0.32 0.48 0.64 0.81 0.97 1.13 1.29 1.45
36.5 0.16 0.31 0.47 0.63 0.79 0.94 1.10 1.26 1.42
37.0 0.15 0.31 0.46 0.61 0.77 0.92 1.08 1.23 1.38
37.5 0.15 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75 0.90 1.05 1.20 1.35
38.0 0.14 0.29 0.44 0.59 0.73 0.88 1.03 1.17 1.32
38.5 0.14 0.29 0.43 0.57 0.72 0.86 1.00 1.14 1.29
39.0 0.14 0.28 0.42 0.56 0.70 0.84 0.98 1.12 1.26
39.5 0.14 0.27 0.41 0.55 0.68 0.82 0.96 1.09 1.23
40.0 0.13 0.27 0.40 0.53 0.67 0.80 0.93 1.07 1.20
40.5 0.13 0.26 0.39 0.52 0.65 0.78 0.91 1.04 1.17
41.0 0.13 0.25 0.38 0.51 0.64 0.76 0.89 1.02 1.15
41.5 0.12 0.25 0.37 0.50 0.62 0.75 0.87 1.00 1.12
42.0 0.12 0.24 0.36 0.49 0.61 0.73 0.85 0.97 1.09
42.5 0.12 0.24 0.36 0.47 0.59 0.71 0.83 0.95 1.07
43.0 0.12 0.23 0.35 0.46 0.58 0.70 0.81 0.93 1.04
43.5 0.11 0.23 0.34 0.45 0.56 0.68 0.79 0.91 1.02
44.0 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.77 0.88 1.00
44.5 0.11 0.22 0.32 0.43 0.54 0.65 0.76 0.86 0.97
45.0 0.11 0.21 0.32 0.42 0.53 0.63 0.74 0.84 0.95
The result can also be taken from a table that has been
worked out on the basis of Report No. 38 from the Danish
Government Dairy Research Institute. See below.

34
Table for adjustment of Moisture Content in Butter
Addition of water in kg per 100 kg butter when the
% water
desired % moisture is as follows:
present
16.0 15.9 15.8 15.7 15.6 15.5
15.9 0.12
15.8 0.24 0.12
15.7 0.36 0.24 0.12
15.6 0.47 0.36 0.24 0.12
15.5 0.59 0.47 0.36 0.24 0.12
15.4 0.71 0.59 0.47 0.36 0.24 0.12
15.3 0.83 0.71 0.59 0.47 0.35 0.24
15.2 0.94 0.83 0.71 0.59 0.47 0.35
15.1 1.06 0.94 0.82 0.71 0.59 0.47
15.0 1.18 1.06 0.94 0.82 0.71 0.59
14.9 1.29 1.18 1.06 0.94 0.82 0.71
14.8 1.41 1.29 1.17 1.06 0.94 0.82
14.7 1.52 1.41 1.29 1.17 1.06 0.94
14.6 1.64 1.52 1.41 1.29 1.17 1.05
14.5 1.75 1.64 1.52 1.40 1.29 1.17
14.4 1.87 1.75 1.64 1.52 1.40 1.29
14.3 1.98 1.87 1.75 1.63 1.52 1.40
14.2 2.10 1.98 1.87 1.75 1.63 1.52
14.1 2.21 2.10 1.98 1.86 1.75 1.63
14.0 2.33 2.21 2.09 1.98 1.86 1.74
13.9 2.44 2.32 2.21 2.09 1.97 1.86
13.8 2.55 2.44 2.32 2.20 2.09 1.97
13.7 2.67 2.55 2.43 2.32 2.20 2.09
13.6 2.78 2.66 2.55 2.43 2.32 2.20
13.5 2.89 2.78 2.66 2.54 2.43 2.31
13.4 3.00 2.89 2.77 2.66 2.54 2.43
13.3 3.11 3.00 2.88 2.77 2.65 2.54
13.2 3.22 3.11 3.00 2.88 2.77 2.65
13.1 3.34 3.22 3.11 2.99 2.88 2.76
13.0 3.45 3.33 3.22 3.10 2.99 2.87
12.9 3.56 3.44 3.33 3.22 3.10 2.99
12.8 3.67 3.56 3.44 3.33 3.21 3.10
12.7 3.78 3.67 3.55 3.44 3.32 3.21
12.6 3.89 3.78 3.66 3.55 3.43 3.32
12.5 4.00 4.89 3.77 3.66 3.54 3.43
12.4 4.11 4.00 3.88 3.77 3.65 3.54
12.3 4.22 4.11 3.99 3.88 3.76 3.65
12.2 4.33 4.21 4.10 3.99 3.87 3.76
12.1 4.44 4.32 4.21 4.10 3.98 3.87
12.0 4.55 4.43 4.32 4.21 4.09 3.98

35
Adjusting Moisture Content in Butter
Conventional Churns
The churning of the cream should be carried out in such a
way that the moisture content of the butter is slightly be-
low the maximum permitted amount. A test of the mois-
ture content should be made as soon as the butter has
been worked sufficiently.
When the amount of butler is known, the table above can
be used.
If desired, the following equation may also be used:

kg butter x (% MD - % MP)
kg water to be added =
100 - % MP

where: MD = Moisture desired

MP = Moisture present

Continuous Buttermaking Machines

The churning of the cream should be carried out in such a
way that the moisture content of the butter - without any
addition of water - is below the maximum permitted
amount.
The moisture content of the butter and the regulation of
the water dosing pump will normally be automatically con-
trolled.
When salted butter is manufactured, a salt slurry is con-
tinuously dosed into the butter. This, however, will in-
crease the moisture content of the butter, reducing the
amount of water to be added.

Determination of Salt Content in Butter

There are several ways of determining the salt content of
butter. The analysis can most conveniently be carried out
with a 10-gramme sample that has already been used for
determination of the moisture content of the butter.
The butter is melted and poured into a 150 ml beaker. The
butter residue is washed into the beaker by means of 50-
100 ml of water at 70°C. After addition of 10 drops of satu-
rated potassium chromate solution, titration takes place
with the use of a 0.17 n silver nitrate solution (AgNO3),
added gradually until the colour changes from yellow to
brownish. The salt content is then determined in accord-
ance with the following equation:

ml of silver nitrate solution used x 0.1 = percentage of salt.

36
lodine Value and Refractive Index
The iodine value is defined as the number of grammes of
iodine that can be absorbed in 100 g butterfat. The refrac-
tive index stales the angle of refraction measured in a so-
called refractometer, when a ray of light passes from the air
through melted butterfat. Both the iodine value and the re-
fractive index are an indication of the content of unsatu-
rated fatty acids (the most important being oleic acid),
which have a lower melting point than saturated fatty acids.
The relation between the iodine value and the refractive
index is given in the table below.

Iodine value Refractive Index

26 40.6
27 40.9
28 41.2
Hard fat 29 41.4
30 41.7
31 42.0
32 42.2
33 42.5
34 42.7
35 43.0
36 43.3
37 43.5
38 43.8
39 44.1
Soft fat
40 44.3
41 44.6
42 44.8

Fluctuations in lodine Value and Temperature

Treatment of Cream
Milk fat contains, on average, 35% oleic acid (iodine value
approx. 35), but this percentage is subject to large sea-
sonal fluctuations: the iodine value is high in the summer
and low in the winter.
The iodine value depends primarily on the fat content of
the feed and on the composition and melting point of this
fat. It is therefore possible to influence the iodine value
and thereby the firmness of the butter through feeding. It
is usually difficult to regulate the various ingredients that
make up coarse feed. Roots, for example, give hard and
brittle butter, while grass and hay give butter of a good
consistency. On the other hand, concentrated feed should

37
be chosen only after taking into account the fat content
and particularly the composition of the fat (iodine value).
For example, feeding with soya beans, linseed and rape
seed cakes, etc, gives butterfat with a high iodine value,
whereas the iodine value is lower when feeding with coco-
nut and palm cakes.
Other conditions being equal, Jersey cows yield butterfat
with a lower iodine value than, for example, Holsteins, but
this difference can be adjusted by choosing the right feed.
By means of temperature treatment of the cream, it is pos-
sible to change the structure of the butter in order to im-
prove its consistency. The temperatures used should be
determined partly on the basis of the iodine value of the
butterfat and partly on the basis of the temperature at
which the butter will be consumed. It is therefore neces-
sary for the creamery to know the iodine value of the but-
terfat used, and this value should be determined once a
month.
In periods with iodine values above 35, the 19-16-8
method or a modification, for example, 23-12-8, should be
used.
In periods with iodine values below 32, the 8-19-16
method or a modification, for example, 8-20-12, should be
used.
In transitional periods (iodine values between 32 and 35), a
12-19-12 treatment can be used in the autumn, whereas
in the spring, the normal high iodine treatment should be
started straightaway.

38
CHEESE
Cheese Varieties
It would be an almost impossible task to list all cheese
types. Below are possible classifications of cheese types:

Yellow cheese: Cheese produced from cow’s milk.

White cheese: Cheese produced from ewe’s and

goat’s milk, in which the fat does not
contain carotene.

Mould cheese: Blue veined cheese: Stilton, Roque-

fort, Danablu.
White surface ripened cheese:
Camembert, Brie.

Fresh cheese: Unripened cheese: Queso Fresco,

Quarg, Cottage Cheese etc.

Pasta Filata: Mozzarella, Pizza Cheese, Provolone,

Kashkaval, etc.

Hard cheese: Emmental, Parmesan, Cheddar, etc.

Semi-hard cheese: Gouda, Samsoe, Fontal, etc.

Semi-soft cheese: Tilsit, Danbo, Butterkäse, Limburger,

etc.

Soft cheese: Port Salut, Bel Paese, Feta, etc.

However, many cheeses are characterised solely by their

name. As an addition, the fat content of the cheese is of-
ten indicated, and very rarely the content of total solids
(TS) in the cheese is also stated.
The fat content of the cheese states the fat in the cheese
as a percentage of the TS content (50+, 45+, 30+, 20+).
Furthermore, the designations “Full-Fat”, “Reduced Fat”
and “Half Fat” are used, which means that the cheeses
contain 50-53% fat in TS, 36-39% fat in TS and 26-29%
fat in TS respectively.
The TS content of the cheese normally varies between
65% (Cheddar) and 40% (Feta), but it is constant for each
type of cheese.

39
Cheesemaking
The feature common to all cheesemaking is that rennet is
added to the milk, rennet being an enzyme that makes the
milk coagulate and the coagulum contract, which, in turn,
causes whey exudation, so-called syneresis.
Thus, the cheesemilk is separated into curd (cheese) and
whey.

CHEESE: 10-15% of the milk

Fat: 89-94% of the milk fat
Protein: 74-77% of the milk proteins
approx. 100% of the milk casein
WHEY: 85-90% of the milk
Fat: 6-11% of the milk fat
Protein: 23-26% of the milk proteins, incl. NPN*
MSNF**: 6.5% of whey is MSNF

* non-protein nitrogen
** milk solids non-fat

Standardisation of Cheesemilk and Calculation of

Cheese Yield
The standardisation of cheesemilk has two separate ob-
jectives:
(1) To obtain cheese with a composition that complies
with the agreed standards.
(2) To obtain the most economic use of milk components
consistent with consumer demands.

The two main elements in the standardisation of the fat

percentage of cheese milk are:
(1) The protein percentage of the cheesemilk. The higher
the protein percentage, the higher the fat percentage.
(2) The fat content required in the desired cheese type.

The table below can be used as a guideline for fat stand-

ardisation.

40
 Whole 45% fat 40% fat 30 % f a t 20% fat 10% fat
milk in TS in TS in TS in TS in TS

% whole milk

% whole milk

% whole milk

% whole milk

% whole milk
cheesemilk

cheesemilk

cheesemilk

cheesemilk

cheesemilk
% protein

% fat in

% fat in

% fat in

% fat in

% fat in
% fat

4.3 3.55 3.20 75 2.75 64 1.71 39 1.03 23 0.51 10.8

4.2 3.50 3.20 76 2.70 64 1.69 40 1.02 23 0.51 11.0
4.1 3.45 3.15 77 2.70 65 1.67 40 1.01 24 0.50 11.1
4.0 3.40 3.10 77 2.65 66 1.65 40 1.00 24 0.50 11.2
3.9 3.35 3.05 78 2.60 67 1.65 41 1.00 24 0.49 11.3
3.8 3.30 3.05 80 2.60 68 1.60 41 0.95 24 0.49 11.6
3.7 3.25 3.00 81 2.55 69 1.60 42 0.95 24 0.48 11.6
3.8 3.20 2.95 82 2.50 70 1.55 42 0.90 24 0.47 11.7
3.5 3.15 2.95 84 2.50 71 1.55 43 0.90 25 0.47 12.0

Example 1:
The cheesemilk contains: 3.3% protein
The cheese is to contain: 45% fat in TS
In the column “Whole milk” of the table, a value of 3.3%
protein is found. From the column “45% fat in TS” it ap-
pears that the milk must be standardised to a fat content
of 3.05%.

In case the protein content of the milk is not known, it is

possible to make an approximate calculation of the pro-
tein percentage of the milk by using the following equa-
tion:

0.5 x fat% + 1.4 = protein%

thus, for example,

0.5 x 3.8% + 1.4 = 1.9 + 1.4 = 3.3% protein.

The table is arranged in such a way that it can also be

used in case only the fat content of the non-standardised
milk is known.

Example 2:
The non-standardised milk contains: 04%fat
The cheese is to contain: 40% fat in TS

In the column “Whole milk” of the table, a value of 4.0% fat

is found. From the column “40% fat in TS” it appears that
the milk must be standardised to 2.65% fat. Furthermore,

41
it can be seen that this is obtained by mixing 66% non-
standardised milk with a fat content of 4.0% with 34%
skimmilk.

Cheese samples should be analysed regularly to make

sure that the cheesemilk has contained the correct per-
centage of fat, and this should be adjusted on the basis of
the chemical composition of the milk, which varies with
the seasons.
It is important that care is taken when stirring the cheese-
milk and when carrying out the fat analysis, as a reading
error of 0.1% means an error of 1.5% fat in TS in a 45%
cheese, and more in cheeses of the low-fat type.
If samples are taken for analysis of fresh, unsalted cheese,
it must be taken into account that the salt increases the TS
in the cheese by approximately 2%, reducing the fat in TS
by approximately 1.5%.
The final determination of fat in TS can only be carried out
after 4-6 weeks when the salt has spread throughout the
cheese, but even then, variations of more than 1% fat in
TS can be found in cheeses from the same vat. It is there-
fore advisable to operate with a safety margin of at least
1% for ripened cheese and consequently 1.5% more for
the fresh cheese.
Instead of using the table for adjusting the fat content in
the cheesemilk, the actual fat percentage can be calcu-
lated. Several equations can be used for this calculation,
but the one used in the following gives a very high degree
of accuracy.

(1) Cheese to be produced:

Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5%
Fat in TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.0%
Salt (NaCl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5%

(2) Raw milk:

Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.0%
Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4%

(3) Retention figures:

Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.0%
Protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76.5%
Protein in MSNF in cheese . . 87.6%

(4) Calculations:

42
(4.1) Cheese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0% = 1,000.0 g
Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5% = 415.0 g

TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.5% = 585.0 g
Fat in TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.0% = 298.4 g

Solids non-fat . . . . . . . . . . . . = 286.6 g

Salt (NaCl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5% = 15.0 g

MSNF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 271.6 g
Protein in MSNF . . . . . . . . . . 87.6% = 237.9 g

(4.2) Kg milk/kg cheese:

Fat Protein

1,000 g cheese: 298.4 g = 91% 237.9 g = 76.5%

Whey: 29.5 g = 9% 73.1 g = 23.5%

Cheesemilk: 327.9 g =100% 311.0 g = 100.0%

3.4 x 100
Protein in fat-free milk = = 3.54%
(100 - 4)

Per 1,000 g cheese:

Fat-free 311.0 x 100

= = 8,785.3 g
milk 3.54

Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 327.9 g
Cheesemilk . . . . . . = 9,113.2 g

= 9.1132 kg milk/kg cheese

(4.3) Fat percentage in cheesemilk:

327.9 x 100
= 3.60%
9.113

(4.4) Cheese yield:

100
= 10.97%
9.113

43
Equations often used for the calculation of cheese yields are:

(0.9 F + 0.78 P - 0.1) x 1.09

Cheddar Y=
1-M

(0.88 F + 0.78 P - 0.02) x 1.12

Mozzarella: Y =
1-M

(0.77 F + 0.78 P - 0.2) x 1.10

Cheddar Y=
1-M

where: Y = Yield in per cent

F = Fat percentage in milk
P = Protein percentage in milk
M = Moisture per kg cheese, 38% = 0.38 kg

Cheese yield is influenced by the loss of fat and curd fines

in the whey. However, with modem production equipment
and correct processing technology, it is possible to reduce
the fat loss to less than 7.0% and the loss of curd fines to
approx. 100 mg/kg whey.

Utilisation Value of Skimmilk in Cheesemaking

For this calculation, the figures from the cheese yield cal-
culation are used as an example:

kg cheesemilk per kg cheese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1132

kg fat in cheesemilk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3279

kg skimmilk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7853

kg fat in whey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0295

kg whey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1132 -1.000 = 8.1132

0.0295 x 100 = 0.36%

fat in whey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1132

The fat in whey may be reduced to 0.05% by means of

separation.

In the following example, the values used are:

Cheese = 22.75 krone/kg*
Whey = 00.05 krone/kg
Butter fat = 30.30 krone/kg

* 1 Danish krone = 100 øre

44
Income per kg cheese:
1 kg cheese . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,275.0 øre
8.11 kg whey at 5.0 øre/kg . 40.5 øre

fat from whey separation:

8.11 x (0.36 -0.05)
x 3.030 = 76.2 øre 2,391.7 øre
100

Costs per kg cheese:

butter value 0.3279 x 3,030 = 993.5 øre
operating costs . . . . . . . . . . 420.0 øre
whey separation 8.11 x 0.25 = 2.0 øre 1,415.5 øre

Value of skimmilk per kg cheese . . . . . . . . . 976.2 øre

976.2
Utilisation value of skimmilk . . . = 111.1 øre
8.7853

Strength, Acidity and Temperature of Brine for Salt-

ing
The saturated brine which is normally used for salting
cheese occasionally produces too hard a rind, but this can
be counteracted by using a weaker solution. The solution
should, however, contain at least 20% salt, corresponding
to 10°BÈ. The strength of the brine should be checked
every day: otherwise there is a risk that the solution may
become too weak. If this happens, the cheese protein ex-
uded through the whey will quickly decompose, and the
increase in the growth of bacteria will cause defects not
only in the rind but also in the interior of the cheese.

The strength of the brine should be measured with a hy-

drometer indicating degrees Baumè. When the brine has
been in use for a certain time, the hydrometer will show a
deviation of 1-2°BÈ because of the substances dissolved
in the brine. In practice, this means that, when measuring
the strength of a 2-3 months old brine solution, degrees
Baumè can be considered equal to the salt percentage.
The acidity of the brine should be about the same as that of
the cheese, i.e. approx. pH 5.2, but in a freshly made solu-
tion it will usually be somewhat higher depending upon the
acidity of the water supply. It will usually take a week for the
acidity to fail to the desired pH level, but to avoid any risk of
damaging the cheese rinds during this time, the pH value
should immediately be brought to the desired level by the
addition of hydrochloric acid to the solution. By means of a

45
simple analysis of the creamery’s water supply, any labora-
tory will be able to state the amount of hydrochloric acid
required.
The temperature of the brine, in particular, controls the
speed at which the salt is absorbed by the cheese, and
should be 10-12°C the whole year round. It is therefore
often necessary to cool the brine in the summer and heat it
in the winter.
Strictly speaking, brine can be used for an indefinite time
provided that the content of saltpetre (KNO3) or bacteria
and moulds does not become too high.
If the brine contains considerably more than 100,000 bac-
teria or moulds per ml, it should be sterilised by boiling or
by adding 1/2 litre sodium hypochlorite per 1,000 litres
brine. Sodium hypochlorite can also be added regularly
once a month, and this will ensure that the content of
harmful bacteria in the brine is kept low. When used for the
manufacture of rindless cheese, the brine should be steri-
lised regularly.

46
MEMBRANE FILTRATION
Definitions
Membrane filtration processes are pressure-driven mo-
lecular separation processes to obtain either concentra-
tion, fractionation, clarification and/or even a sterilisation
of a liquid. The separation is determined by the membrane
characteristics (molecular weight cut-off value – MWCO)
and the molecular size of the individual components
present in the liquid.

Membrane filtration changes the volume and/or the com-

position of a liquid, as the feed is divided into two new liq-
uids of altered chemical/microbiological composition:
1) the retentate (what is rejected and concentrated by the
membrane, e.g. proteins) and
2) the permeate (i.e. filtrate, what is passing through the
membrane, e.g. water and minerals).

The volume of permeate produced by a certain membrane

surface area per hour is called flux (measured in l/m2/h or
simply “lmh”). The volumetric concentration factor (VCF or
CF) is the ratio between the incoming feed volume and the
outcoming retentate volume.
Rejection is 100%, when the component is fully concen-
trated by the membrane (cannot pass the membrane), and
the rejection is 0%, when the component passes freely
through the membrane, giving an identical concentration
on both sides of the membrane.

The driving pressure is the transmembrane pressure

(TMP), which is the pressure difference between the mean
pressure on the retentate side (high) and the mean pres-
sure on the permeate side (low or zero).

All membrane filtration processes are cross-flow filtration

(feed flow parallel to the membrane surface, also called
tangential flow), since a high velocity and shear rate
across the membrane surface is essential to prevent
build-up of retained materials, which reduces run times
and flux and may alter the separation characteristics. High
cross-flow velocities are especially important in UF and
MF systems.

Membrane Processes
Concentration: In true concentration all total solids are re-

47
tained since only water can pass through the membrane
(as in evaporation and drying processes). Example: Re-
verse Osmosis (RO).

Fractionation: Changing the chemical composition by

concentrating some components, while others remain un-
changed. Example: Nanofiltration (NF), Ultrafiltration (UF),
Microfiltration fractionation (MFF).

Clarification: Changing a turbid liquid into a clear solution

by removing all suspended and turbid particles. Example:
Ultrafiltration (UF) and Microfiltration (MF)

Sterilisation: Removing all microorganisms from a liquid.

Example: Microfiltration (MF).

Reverse Osmosis
In reverse osmosis practically all total solids components
are rejected by the membrane allowing only water to pass
through the membrane. Since also practically all ions
(apart from H+ and OH-) are rejected by the membrane, the
osmotic pressure in the retentate will increase, why high-
pressure pumps are needed to overcome the osmotic
pressure. The amount of permeate produced is often re-
ferred to as “recovery”. 90% recovery means that 90% of
the feed is recovered as permeate (equal to 10x concen-
tration).

Low molecular components like organic acids and NPN-

components are not fully rejected by the membrane, es-
pecially when they appear uncharged (non-ionic), typically
in acidic environments. This is the reason why COD levels
in the permeate are higher processing acid products (e.g.
lactic acid whey) compared to sweet products (e.g. sweet
whey).

Max. achievable solids by RO are in the range of 17-23%

TS for whey and UF permeates.

48
 RO NF UF MFF MF

Pore size
0.1 - 1 0.5 - 2 5 - 100 50 - 200 800 - 1400
(nm)

MWCO < 100 100 - 500 5,000 - 20,000

Typical
pressure 30 - 40 20 - 30 3-8 0.1 - 0.8 0.1 - 0.8
(bar)

Typical temp.
10 - 30 10 - 30 10 or 50 50 50
(°C)

Protein Bacteria
Deminerali- Protein
fractionation removal
Applications Concentration sation/ concentration
Whey fat Cheese milk
concentration (WPC/MPC)
removal (WPI) ESL milk

Nanofiltration
Nanofiltration is very similar to the RO process, but the NF
membranes are slightly more open than in conventional
reverse osmosis. Nanofiltration allows passage of mono-
valent ions like Na+, K+ and Cl-, whereas divalent ions like
Mg++ and Ca++ are rejected by the membrane. In this way
the nanofiltration process demineralises the feed by typi-
cal 30-40%. The degree of demineralisation is the %re-
moval of minerals (or ash) from the feed to the permeate.
Since some of the monovalent ions are removed from the
retentate, the osmotic pressure will be lower than for con-
ventional RO. For this reason it is possible to obtain higher
%TS in the retentate compared to the RO process.

Max. achievable solids by NF are in the range of 21-25%

TS for whey and UF permeates.

Example of NF mass balance of UF permeate from chee-

se whey (indicative):
Nanofiltration UF permeate Retentate Permeate

True protein% 00,000.01 0,000.04 0,000.00

NPN% 00,000.20 0,000.40 0,000.10
Lactose% 00,004.60 0,016.00 0,000.20
Acids% 00,000.20 0,000.60 0,000.02
Total ash% 00,000.50 0,001.00 0,000.30
Total solids% 00,005.50 0,018.00 0,000.60
Capacity kg/h 10,000.00 2,820.00 7,180.00

49
Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration has many applications, but basically it is a
process for concentration of protein (and milk fat).

In the dairy ingredients industry UF is used for concentration

of whey proteins from whey into WPC products or for con-
centrating milk proteins from skim milk into MPC products.
The protein content may be concentrated up to 23-27% pro-
tein, and in many cases the retentate can be spray dried di-
rectly without an evaporation step. Diafiltration is necessary
for higher purity products like WPC 80 (80% protein in the
powder or in the solids). In diafiltration, water is added to the
retentate to increase “washing out” of dissolved substances
like lactose and minerals to the permeate.

UF of whey for the production of WPC retentates (a fat

removal step is essential for producing WPI):
Composition Whey WPC 35 WPC 55 WPC 70 WPC 80 WPI 90
Protein% 0.80 3.3 08.3 17.9 23.3 23.3
Lactose% 4.60 4.9 04.7 04.0 01.7 01.3
Ash% 0.50 0.5 00.7 01.0 00.9 00.5
Fat% 0.06 0.3 00.8 01.7 02.3 00.2
TS% 6.00 9.0 14.5 24.7 28.1 25.4

VCF ratio 1x 5x 13x 29x 38x 38x

Diafiltration - - - - + +

Ultrafiltration of cheese milk

Protein standardisation: The protein content in the cheese
milk is increased (e.g. from 3.2% up to 4.0-4.5%). When
this method is used, traditional cheesemaking equipment
may be used after UF and the cheesemaking technology
involved is largely the same as that used in the traditional
cheesemaking. The advantages of this method are sav-
ings in cheese rennet, and higher and more standardised
cheese yields (throughput capacity) in existing cheese
equipment.

Total concentration: Total concentration is a process in

which the TS content in the retentate and in the fresh
cheese is the same, i.e. a cheese process without whey
drainage. This method is used for fresh cheeses like
Quarg, Cream Cheese, Queso Fresco and Cast Feta.
Ymer, Yoghurt and Pate Fraiche may also be produced by
total UF concentration.

50
Microfiltration
Basically, there are two microfiltration processes: Bacteria
removal/”cold sterilisation” (MF) and fractionation (also
called microfiltration fractionation – MFF). In microfiltration
applications it is important to operate with low TMP (< 1
bar).

Bacteria removal (MF)

In “Cold sterilisation” using ceramic membranes with 1.4
micron pore size, it is possible to achieve a 3.0-4.0 log re-
duction of total plate counts. Feed liquids which can be
processed are skim milk, whey and WPC. Whole milk can-
not be microfiltered due to the presence of milk fat glob-
ules, which may block the MF pores. Since only bacteria
are removed, this means theoretically no fractionation
takes place. However, aggregated protein particles/mi-
celles and large fat globules may be partially rejected by
the membrane.

With MF it is possible to produce ESL milk with shelf life up

to 28 days at 5°C, or to combine MF with HHT/UHT proc-
esses, where the UHT thermal load can be reduced (since
MF remove HRS spores) to make new types of market
milk products. For cheese milk, MF is used to remove
Clostridia spores so nitrate addition to the cheese milk
can be avoided. For raw milk cheese (of non-pasteurised
milk), MF operating at <40°C removes critical patogenic
bacteria like Listeria and Salmonella by app. 3-3.5 log re-
duction.

Cheese brine can also be clarified and sanitised, but for

this application SW/organic membranes are often used
instead of ceramics. Cheese brines may often contain a
large number of yeast and mould, but by means of MF the
content can be reduced to < 10/ml without changing the
chemical composition of the brine (which happens during
pasteurisation).

Fractionation (MFF)
In the protein fractionation processes using ceramic mem-
branes with 0.1 micron pore size, large proteins (casein mi-
celles) are separated from the small soluble proteins (whey
proteins). In this way it is possible to concentrate the mi-
celles, which may have applications in production of cheese,
fermented products and modified MPC powder. It may be
possible to produce caseinate only using membranes.

51
In the whey-defatting process a similar membrane is used to
remove all fat and aggregated whey proteins from whey or
WPC products so as to produce WPI products with less than
1% fat in the powder. Since the pore size is very small for
fractionation processes, the permeate is theoretically sterile.
During the defatting process, a protein loss to the
retentate should be expected. The protein recovery may
be in the range of 70-85%. Invensys APV holds a patent to
increase the recovery (> 85%).

Invensys APV presently holds four patents in MF applica-

tions:
1) special handling of retentate to avoid heat treating
2) special MF module (UTP design) made solely of stain-
less steel
3) double microfiltration to increase food safety
4) whey defatting with high protein recovery

Pre-treatments
Membranes (especially SW elements) are sensitive to sus-
pended particles, and cleaning of the membranes may be
difficult if these particles are not removed before the mem-
brane filtration plant. Therefore a clarification step for whey
is necessary to remove cheese fines, and a separator is
necessary to remove whey fat. It is also recommended to
pasteurise the feed to prevent high bacteria counts in the
retentate. A bag filter or metal strainer may also be installed
to protect membranes from large particles in the feed.

Calcium phosphate precipitation may occur when con-

centrating dairy liquids. This phenomenon can be pre-
vented by lowering the pH (pH adjustment to 5.9-6.0), re-
ducing temperature and avoiding high VCF.

Capacity, Run Time and Fouling

A membrane is always exposed to fouling, which will
lower the permeate flux and thus the plant capacity. In
RO/NF processes this fouling may be compensated by
gradually increasing the pressure (TMP) to ensure con-
stant plant capacity. This is more difficult for UF mem-
branes, since raising the feed pressure will increase the
flux for a short period only, after which it drops back again
to the level obtained before the feed pressure was raised.
A UF plant may start up at 20-50% higher capacity than
the designed, average capacity. Usually after 3-4 hours
the average capacity is reached and in the remaining pro-

52
duction time, the flux decrease will be less significant. To
obtain constant capacity, overflowing of initial surplus per-
meate into the feed tank or putting some loops on hold are
ways of compensating for the fouling and the reduced
plant capacity. Microfiltration plants are usually operated
at a constant capacity, since the TMP is minimised to
avoid fouling.

Run times are usually 8-10 hours for warm processes

(50°C) and 16-20 hours for cold processes (10°C). Fouling,
bacteria concentrations (or even growth) or/and
compaction of boundary layer (e.g. protein gel layer or fat,
which may alter separation characteristics) are limiting to
run times.

Membrane Elements
Membranes are either made of polymers (organic) or ce-
ramics (inorganic). The organic membranes are typically
made as a spiral-wound element, and ceramic mem-
branes are typically made as tubular elements.

Organic Membranes
Spiral-wound elements (SW) are most often used, since
they are cheapest per square metre, compact, easy to re-
place and follow standardised dimensions. However, they
are not suitable for liquids containing large number of sus-
pended particles, which may be trapped inside the ele-
ment construction (spacer net), or very viscous products.
The elements are 3.8" (4"), 6.3" (6") or 8.0" (8") in diameter
and the length is 38" or 40". An element designated with
the term “3840” means 3.8" diameter and 40" long. The
elements can also be divided according to the height of
the spacer net, which is designated in “mil” (1/1000 of an
inch). If the viscosity of the liquid increases, which is hap-
pening during protein concentration, the spacer height
must be selected accordingly.

53
The following table summarises modules and their ap-
proximate membrane area:
Element type 4" (3840) 6" (6338) 8" (8040)
Membrane type RO/NF/UF/MF UF/MF RO/NF
032 mil (0.8 mm) 7.4 m2 20 m2 32 m2
048 mil (1.2 mm) 5.6 m2 16 m2 25 m2
064 mil (1.6 mm) 4.6 m2 13 m2 20 m2
2 2
080 mil (2.0 mm) 3.5 m 10 m 16 m2
2
100 mil (2.5 mm) - 08 m -

SW loop configurations
SW elements are operated with a pressure drop of 0.8-1.2
bar per element (for 8" elements max. 0.6 bar). To avoid tel-
escoping of the spiral, an ATD must be placed at the end and
between the elements. SW elements can be mounted in se-
ries inside a housing (also called pressure vessel or module).
Spacer height, flux curves, pump performances and pres-
sure drops determine the configuration of a SW plant.

Plate & frame (P&F), module 37 (M37) is the only P&F mod-
ule still in use and only for high viscosity products like
cream cheese (Philadelphia type). This module can go
high in protein% (more than 29%), when operated with a
positive pump up to 12 bar. The crossflow rate should be
25 l/plate/min.
When assembling new membranes, the module should be
compressed applying 240kN (or 24 tons) of pressure (or
until the module stops leaking!). The M37 module is in-
creasingly challenged by newer module types, like specially
designed SW elements and tubular ceramic membranes.

Inorganic Membranes (Ceramics)

Unlike the polymeric membranes (especially RO/NF), the
ceramic material is very resistant to heat and chemicals,
and ceramic membranes will last for typically 5-10 years
or more. However, they are much more expensive, and
generally require more pumping energy. Due to the ce-
ramic nature, they are sensitive to mechanical vibrations
(should always be installed vertically) and thermal shock.

Tubular membranes
Invensys APV’s experience is largely based on the French
“Exekia” membrane (formerly SCT). The membranes are
tubular, with the feed circulating inside tubular channels.

54
The diameter of these channels is 3, 4 and 6 mm, which is
selected according to the viscosity of the product. The main
application for ceramics is MF, since the ceramic element
can be operated with permeate back-pressure, so as to
achieve a low TMP, which is crucial for successful results.
Two products are available: The standard element, where
UTP operation is required (permeate recirculation to create
permeate back-pressure) and the newer GP element,
where the permeate back pressure/resistance is integrated
inside the membrane structure (GP = Gradient Pressure).

Available MF pore sizes are: 0.1 – 0.2 – 0.5 – 0.8 – 1.4 – 2 –

3 – 5 microns, which are alumina membranes on alumina
structure. UF pore sizes available are: 20 – 50 – 100 nm,
which are zirconia material on alumina structure. For UF
processes it is not necessary to control a low TMP.

Exekia Membralox membranes and their membrane areas:

3 mm 4 mm 6 mm
Channel size Ø
(P37-30 GL) (P19-40 GL) (P19-60 GL)
1P housing (m2) 0.35 0.24 0.36
3P housing (m2) 1.05 0.72 1.08
7P housing (m2) 2.45 1.68 Not available
12P housing (m2) Not available Not available 4.32
19P housing (m2) 6.65 4.56 7.92 (22P)

CIP
Cleaning of membranes is nothing like cleaning of stand-
ard dairy equipment made of stainless steel. Membrane
elements are often organic polymeric membranes made of
materials, which only tolerate certain cleaning limits in
terms of pH and temperature (and desinfectants/
oxidisers). Therefore it is almost always necessary to use
formulated cleaning products including enzymatic prod-
ucts from approved suppliers like Henkel, Ecolab,
DiverseyLever, Novadan and others. In the table below
some limits are listed for different membrane materials.

55
 Polyamide Polysulphone Polysulphone Ceramic
Membrane material
(RO/NF) (UF) (UF pHt) (MF/UF)
Support/backing Polyester Polyester Polypropylene Alumina
Max temp (°C) 50 50 70 85 (not critical)
Cooling rate Not critical Not critical Not critical Max 10°/min
PH range 1.5-11.5 1.5-11.5 1-13 1-14
Free chlorine No Max 200 ppm Max 200 ppm Not critical
Phosphoric acid Yes Yes Yes No
Surfactants Only anionic Only anionic Only anionic Not critical
Sanitation 0.2% bisulfite 0.2% bisulfite 0.2% bisulfite 0.5% nitric acid

Water flux: After installation and cleaning of new mem-

branes, the water flux should be registered to be used for
future reference. Organic membranes always stabilise
within the first few weeks. Cleaning of membranes should
always be followed by a water flux reading, which must be
recorded at the same pressure, temperature, time and
cleaning step, so the cleaning efficiency can be monitored.

CIP Water Quality Guidelines

For optimal cleaning and flushing of membranes, the wa-
ter used should be within the following specifications

RO/NF UF/MF UF/MF

Parameter Units organic organic ceramic
membrane membrane membrane
Iron (Fe) mg/l <0.05 <0.05 <0.1
Manganese (Mn) mg/l <0.02 <0.02 <0.05
Aluminium (Al) mg/l <0.05 <0.1 <0.1
Silica (SiO2) mg/l <15 <15 <15
Chlorine (Cl2/HOCl) mg/l <0.1 <5* <5*
German Hardness ˚ dH <15 <15 <15
Fouling Index SDI <3 <3 <3
Turbidity NTU <1 <1 <1
Total plate count 22˚ C per ml <1000 <1000 <1000
Total plate count 37˚ C per ml <10 <10 <10
Coliforms per 100 ml <1 <1 <1

*) The chlorine content should be max 5 mg/l in order to avoid

development of chlorous gas when cleaning with acid.

The above-listed requirements are based upon the various

requirements stated by our membrane manufacturers.
If the silica content is less than 5 mg/l, higher levels of iron
(max. 0.2 mg/l) and manganese (max. 0.05 mg/l) may be
accepted in some cases.
If water hardness is higher than 15°dH, it may still be ac-

56
cepted, but the CIP procedure will have to be modified
accordingly (higher dosage concentrations, extra addition
of EDTA/NTA, etc.)

Water source
Water classified as “Drinking Water” (potable) is generally
acceptable, on the condition that the above-listed specifi-
cations are fulfilled. Softened water is also acceptable, but
the conductivity should be min. 5 µS/cm, in order not to
prolong flushing time resulting in unacceptably high water
consumption.
RO permeate and evaporator condensate may contain
some organic acids (COD > 20 mg/l). It should be stored at
cold temperature and for as short time as possible before
use. For intermediate flushing this water is fine. For final
flushing there will be a risk of bacteria growth, when the
plant is left closed down. This risk is reduced if the last
cleaning step involves chlorine.
Some customers are adding antifoaming agents to their
evaporator condensate. Antifoaming agents may block
the membranes irreversibly and cannot be accepted in the
water.

Notes on parameters
mg/l: In practice equal to ppm (parts per million)
Silica: Total = colloidal + soluble silica. Silica is practically
insoluble in water at any temperature and is very hard to
remove from the membrane, especially once precipitated.
Colloidal silica should be absent, or as low as possible.
Chlorine: Must be analysed on site as the chlorine quickly
disappears from the sample
Hardness: Is determined from the content of calcium and
magnesium (see formula for German hardness °dH).

ppmCa2+ ppmMg2+
˚dH = 5.61 x ( + )
40.1 24.3

Total hardness = temporary + permanent hardness

Soft water < 8°dH medium water < 16°dH hard water.

1°dH equals 10 ppm CaO

or 07.14 ppm MgO
or 17.9 ppm CaCO3
or 24.3 ppm CaSO4
or 15.0 ppm MgCO3

57
Equivalent units are listed below:
German Danish English American French
Unit
°dH °dH °H °H °THF
1°dH German 1.00 1.00 1.25 17.85 1.79
1°dH Danish 1.00 1.00 1.25 17.85 1.79
1°H English 0.80 1.00 1.00 14.30 1.43
1°H American 0.056 0.056 0.07 1.00 0.10
1°THF French 0.56 0.56 0.70 10.00 1.00

Conductivity: If water is demineralised one should expect

less than 30 µS/cm. In comparison, drinking water is in the
range of 300-800 µS/cm.
Turbidity: Method: Particles scatter light (expressed in
NTU, equal to JTU or FTU). Turbidity may also be ex-
pressed in SiO2 (mg/l), where 10 mg/l equals 4 JTU.
Silt Density: Equal to Fouling Index, Colloid Index or
Colmatation Index. This index is related to “Suspended
Solids” and replaces this analysis.
Method: Pass the water through a 0.45 micron CA filter Ø
47 mm (ref. Milli-pore HAW PO 47000) at a constant pres-
sure of 2.1 bar (30 psi). The time to pass 500 ml water is
measured at test start (t0) and 15 minutes (t15). SDI 0-3:
Non-fouling, SDI 3-6: Some fouling, SDI 6-20: High fouling

1-(t0/t15)
SDI = 100 x( )
15

CIP and hardness

The hardness of the water is an important factor, as it gov-
erns the dosage concentration of the cleaning chemicals
and the flushing time. Soft water is the most gentle for the
membranes, with a low risk of mineral precipitation on the
membrane surface. However, soft water has a much re-
duced buffering effect when dosing cleaning chemicals,
which means that pH limits are reached at lower concen-
trations. As a rule of thumb, if 2% may be tolerated in
20°dH before the pH limit is reached, only 1% may be tol-
erated in 10°dH (when applying Divos 124). However,
these figures are not true for all caustic products, but the
principle is the same. Lower concentrations reduce the
cleaning efficiency even at the same pH, as there are less
cleaning agents (surfactants, carriers, complexing agents)
to bind or “carry” the soil and to keep it in solution until
flushing. Severe foaming may also be a result of using soft

58
water. The flushing time is prolonged with higher water
consumption as a result (ever washed hands using soft
water?). Some enzymatic products need certain minerals
(e.g. calcium) in order to work. When using soft water,
these minerals will have to be added. When using hard
water extra complexing agents such as EDTA or NTA must
be added in order to prevent mineral precipitation. The
solubility of calcium salts is much reduced at higher tem-
peratures resulting in heavy fouling of the membrane.

Pre-treatment methods
If some of the parameters do not meet the requirements,
the following pre-treatments may be applied:

Cartridge filter: Reduces SDI and remove particles by

raw water filtration (5-10 micron pore size)
Sand filter: Removes Fe and Mn.
Sand filter: Special filling material removes fouling parti-
cles (SDI/turbidity).
Active carbon: Removes organic matter and neutralises
chlorine.
Bisulfite: Neutralises chlorine.
Ion exchange: Removes SiO2, Al, Fe, Mn, softens hard
water
Chlorination: Kills bacteria (e.g. from surface water). One
hour chlorination followed by dechlorination is recom-
mended.

59
Milk and Whey Composition

Raw milk quality (Denmark, 2001):

Extra 1st class 2nd class 3rd class

Total counts/ml 0<30.000 030.000-100.000 100.000-300.000 >300.000

Somatic cells/ml <300.000 300.000-400.000 400.000-650.000 >650.000
Anaerobic spores/l <400 <400 400-1100 >1100
Freezing point °C -0.543 to -0.516
Antibiotics Negative

Composition of milk in Northern Europe (average values):

Raw milk Skim milk
(DK/NL 1999) (Germany 2002)
FAT 4.3% 0.06%
TOP (Total protein) 3.4% 3.63%
NPN (NPNx6.38) 0.19% 0.19%
TRP (True protein) 3.21% 3.44%
TWP (True whey proteins) 0.55% 0.60%
CAS (Casein) 2.66% 2.84%
ACD (citric acid) 0.18% 0.20%
LAC (lactose) 4.65% 4.84%
TOA (total ash) 0.73% 0.77%
TS (total solids) 13.3% 9.50%

CAS/TRP ratio 83-84% 82.6%

CAS/TOP ratio 77-79% 78.2%
TWP/TOP ratio 16.5-15.5
NPN/TOP ratio 5.0-6.5% 5.2%

60
Components in milk and whey and their approximate size:
Diameter size in
Large particles
micron (my)
Somatic cells (leukocytes) 10-20
Yeast cells 5-30
Bacteria cells 0.5-5
Bacteria spores (Bacillus/Clostridium) 0.8x1.5
Fat globules in raw milk 0.1-10 (2-6)
Fat globules in skim milk/homogenised milk <1

Diameter size in
Protein particles (colloidal)
nanometer (nm)
Lipoprotein particles
10
(protein + P-lipids)
Casein micelle (app. 500 subunits)
10-300
(casein micelle = 70% water + 30% casein)
Subunit of casein micelle
10-12
(10 casein molecules)

Molecular Weight
Individual proteins
(MW = Daltons)
Casein molecule 20-25.000
Para casein 12.200

Whey proteins (= serum proteins) 3-6 nm

Immunoglobulins (IgG) 150.000
Immunoglobulins (IgM) 900.000 (= 30 nm)
ß-lactoglobulin (ß-LG) 2 x 18.000
Alpha-lactalbumin 14.000
Bovin Serum Albumin (BSA) 66.000
Lactoferrin/Transferrin (LF) 77.000
Caseinomacropeptide (CMP/GMP) 6.800

Enzymes
Lactoperoxidase (LP) 77.500
Cheese rennet (chymosin/rennin) 31.000
Xanthin Oxidase (XO) (in fat globules) 283.000
Milk Lipase (mLPL) (in casein micelle) 50.000
Phosphatase (in fat globule membrane) 2 x 85.000
Milk Plasmin (in casein micelles) 89.000

61
Components in milk and whey and their approximate size
(continued):
Molecular Weight
Non-Protein Nitrogen (NPN)
(MW = daltons)
Cholin (vitamin) 121
Amino acids 75-200
Peptides 200-1500
Urea-N 60
Creatin/creatinin 131

Carbohydrates/Acids
Lactose 342
Glucose 180
Galactose 180
Lactulose 342
Lactic acid 90
Citric acid 192
Acetic acid 60

Minerals – positively charged

Sodium (Na+) 23
Magnesium (Mg++) 24
Potassium (K+) 39
Calcium (Ca++) soluble 40

Minerals – negatively charged

Chloride (Cl-) 35
Phosphate (PO4—) soluble 95
Sulphate (SO4—) 96
Carbonate (HCO3-) 61

62
EVAPORATION AND DRYING
Evaporation
Evaporators are used for concentration of milk or milk
based products before drying or transportation. If milk
products are transported over longer distances the prod-
ucts are normally pre-concentrated to 30 – 38% total sol-
ids in order to reduce the transportation cost. For manu-
facturing of powder the milk is concentrated to 48 – 50%
total solids before spray drying. The milk is often heat
treated up to 130°C for classification of the powder in
Low, Medium and High heat powder. Other milk based
products such as whey and whey permeate are concen-
trated to 60 – 70% total solids before crystallisation and
drying.

Evaporation is one of the most energy intensive processes

in the dairy industry and it is essential that the evaporation
process is approached with view on low energy consump-
tion and process effectiveness. In the dairy industry both
MVR (mechanical vapour re-compression) and TVR (ther-
mal vapour re-compression) evaporators are used for
concentration. Either MVR or TVR alone or as a combina-
tion with MVR evaporators concentrating up to 40% sol-
ids followed by a TVR evaporator for further concentration
up to the required solids for drying or further process.

MVR evaporators are single effect evaporators divided

into several stages, 5 - 8, using a high-pressure fan for re-
compression of the vapour. TVR evaporators are multi ef-
fect evaporators with 2 - 7 effects, using a steam jet com-
pressor for re-compression of the vapour over 1 - 3
effects. Below table shows specific energy consumption
and cost for different types of evaporators as well as an
index for energy efficiency.

63
64
Specific Energy Energy
Price per Total energy
Plant type energy consumption consumption Index

ticles.
energy unit cost per year

Drying
consumption per hour per year
kg steam/kg
kg steam kg steam EUR EUR
water evap.
3 effect TVR 0.24 4,800 24,000,000 0.017 408,000 100
4 effect TVR 0.18 3,600 18,000,000 0.017 306,000 75
5 effect TVR 0.14 2,800 14,000,000 0.017 238,000 58
6 effect TVR 0.12 2,400 12,000,000 0.017 204,000 50
7 effect TVR 0.10 2,000 10,000,000 0.017 170,000 42
kW/kg kW kWh EUR EUR
water evap.
MVR (fan) 0.012 240 1,200,000 0.075 90.000 22

Water evaporation kg/h 20,000

Steam price EUR / kg 0.017
Electric power EUR / kWh 0.075
Production hours per day 20
Production days per year 250

hot drying air stream. The rate of evaporation is rapid until

Spray drying is the transformation of a product from the
liquid state into a dried form by spraying the product into a

heat or longer time to remove the moisture within the par-

a dry particle surface is obtained. It takes relatively more
When heat sensitive milk products are dried, gentle ther-
mal treatment is very important in spray drying. This is en-
sured by rapid evaporation which means that the solids in
the product will not reach the temperature of the drying air.
After the particles have been formed the most gentle heat
treatment is achieved by fluid bed drying. Fluid bed drying
takes place at low temperatures so that a long residence
time will not harm the product.

This has led to the development of the three-stage drying

system in which spray and fluid bed drying are combined.
The first drying stage is the spray dryer, the second stage
is a fluid bed dryer built into the bottom of the spray drying
chamber, and the third stage is an external fluid bed for fi-
nal drying and/or cooling.

The powder resulting from spray drying consists of single

particles or agglomerates. Apart from the physical and
chemical properties of the raw material the design and
operation of the drying equipment are important param-
eters influencing the final powder structure. Two- and
three-stage dryers are designed to produce agglomerated
powder, and the operation can be adjusted to suit any
product requirements.

Agglomerated powder is non-dusty and easy to handle. It

dissolves quickly and easily and is used for re-constitution
of milk and for many industrial purposes.

Energy Consumption:
Type of Energy per kg evaporated water
dryer kcal kJ
1 1,200 5,000
2 1,980 4,100
3 1,900 3,750

Drying air temperature:

Inlet max. 250oC
Outlet max. 100oC
Fluid bed max. 120oC

65
CLEANING AND DISINFECTING
The design of modern dairy equipment allows cleaning
and disinfecting to take place without the equipment hav-
ing to be taken apart, i.e, cleaning-in-place (CIP). This
means that the processing equipment must be made of
materials (eg, stainless steel) that are resistant to the cor-
roding effects of the cleaning agents. The processing
equipment must also be designed in such way that all sur-
faces in contact with the product can be cleaned.

CIP Cleaning in General

Milk components are excellent substrates for microorgan-
isms and a careful cleaning is thus very important. This
does not alone apply to the parts in contact with the prod-
uct, but also to the external parts and rooms etc.

The effectiveness of the cleaning is determined by the fol-

lowing four factors:

1. A chemical factor

2. A mechanical factor

3. A thermal factor

4. A time factor

1. The chemical factor is determined by the cleaning

agent and the concentration in which it is used.

The cleaning agent is chosen according to the type of

pollution to be removed, in this way:

Pollution Basic Acid

Fat + -
Protein + +
Ash (milk residues) - +
Water residues - +

In the central CIP plant the majority of the cleaning so-

lutions is led back to the CIP tanks and reused. There-
fore, the concentration may be fixed at a suitable high
level without too much waste.

66
 The functions of the cleaning agents are:

- To loosen the pollution

- To keep the impurities dissolved in the cleaning solu-

tions to prevent them from precipitation on the
cleaned surfaces

- To prevent sedimentation of lactic salts.

Guiding concentrations: Acid (HNO3) 0.8-1.2%, and

lye (NaOH) 0.8-1.5%.

2. The mechanical factor is determined by the speed of the

liquid over the surfaces. The faster the liquid moves, the
more efficient the cleaning will be. It is important that the
movement of the liquid is turbulent, i.e. that the liquid
parts continuously change place mutually.

Consequently, the pump speeds are considerably

higher during CIP than during production.

The cleaning turbines in the tanks make up an effective

mechanical factory, but partial blockings of the tur-
bines may appear. In consequence, the turbines
should be inspected regularly.

3. The thermal factor (the temperature) is very important.

Within chemistry it is said that the reaction speed is
doubled if the temperature is increased by 10oC. How-
ever, a too high temperature also presents disadvan-
tages, as residues of proteins and lactic salts are pre-
cipitated at too high temperatures, and the solubility of
the salts in the water is reduced.

Guiding temperatures: Lye solution 70 - 75oC and acid

solution 60 - 65oC.

4. The time factor is important to the softening and solu-

tion part of the pollution.

In the program survey, approximate periods for the single

steps in the programs are indicated. The indicated periods
should only be regarded as a broad guidance, as there may
be considerable differences between the single routes, both
as regards equipment to be cleaned and the fouling degree.

67
Disinfection
The purpose of a disinfection is to kill the largest possible
number of bacteria to avoid an infection of the products.
Heat in the form of steam or especially hot water is the
most used form of disinfection. The central CIP plant in-
cludes programs for sterilisation with hot water, and the
return temperature is set to 85 - 90oC.

Cleaning of dairy equipment is carried out as follows:

A. Pre-rinse
The processing equipment is rinsed with cold or warm
water. The object is to remove any possible product resi-
due before cleaning. The rinsing water containing the
product residue should be led to suitable reception facili-
ties in order to minimise pollution.

B. Cleaning with sodium hydroxide

The process equipment is cleaned by means of circulation
of a hot sodium hydroxide cleaning solution. Today, spe-
cial cleaning agents are commonly used instead of so-
dium hydroxide.
After cleaning, the cleaning solution is collected and re-
used. Re-use should not take place before the concentra-
tion of the returning solution (%) has been checked and
adjusted accordingly.

C. Intermediate rinse
Any remaining cleaning solution is flushed out with either
collected rinse water or fresh water.

D. Cleaning with nitric acid

The process equipment is cleaned by means of circulation
of a hot nitric acid cleaning solution. Today, special clean-
ing agents are commonly used instead of nitric acid.
After cleaning, the cleaning solution is collected and re-
used. Re-use should not take place before the concentra-
tion of the returning solution (%) has been checked and
adjusted accordingly.

E. Final rinse
Any remaining cleaning solution is flushed out with either
cold or hot water. Chemical free water is collected and
used for pre-rinse.

68
F. Disinfection
This is carried out immediately before the product plant is
put into operation. Disinfection can be carried out ther-
mally or chemically. The CIP plant is normally designed to
allow for disinfection by circulation of either hot water at
90-95°C or a solution of e.g. hydrogen peroxide. Today
special agents for disinfection is widely used in place of
hydrogen peroxide.
Disinfection must always be followed by a rinse with clean
and drinkable water.

Cleaning Methods
Cleaning agents:
The following cleaning agents can be used for CIP-cleaning.

Lye, NaOH, Sodium hydroxide:

- 30% concentrated solution.

Acid, HNO3,Nitric acid:

- 30% concentrated solution.
- 62% concentrated solution.

Hydrochloric acid, (HCl), and/or chlorine-containing clea-

ning agents, (Cl ), must never be used.

Normally used cleaning solutions:

Lye: NaOH - Solution for cleaning of

tanks and pipes 0.8-1.2%
Above corresponds to a titter of 20.0-30.0

Lye: NaOH - Solution for cleaning of

pasteuriser 1.2-1.5%
Above corresponds to a titter of 30.0-37.5

Acid: HNO3 - Solution for cleaning of

tanks and pipes. 0.8-1.0%
Above corresponds to a titter of 12.7-15.9

Acid: HNO3 - Solution for cleaning of

pasteuriser 0.8-1.2%
Above corresponds to a titter of 12.7-19.0

Note: Titter corresponds to ml 0.1 N (NaOH or HCL),

per 10 ml against phenolphthalein (8.4).

69
Reagents: 0.1 N Sodium hydroxide, (NaOH), solution.
0.1 N Hydrochloric acid, (HCl), solution.
5% Alcoholic phenolphthalein solution.

General maintenance of CIP plant:

Daily check: Control of lye and acid cleaning concen-
trations.

Weekly check: Control of stone deposits in lye tank/

tanks and water tank/tanks.
Drawing off of bottom sludge from lye
and acid tanks.

Monthly check: Control of various gaskets and replace-

ment of these, if necessary.

Quarterly check: Change of cleaning solution in the lye

and acid tanks.

CIP Cleaning Programs for Pipes and Tanks

Pipes Cleaning Time

Picking up of residual products * minutes

Pre-rinse, cold water/recyclable water 1-3 minutes

Lye cleaning 1% solution at 70°C 6-10 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn concentration and return tempera-
ture are identical with the above)

Intermediate rinse, cold water/recyclable

water - Special software solution 1-3 minutes

Acid cleaning 0.8% solution at 60°C 4-6 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn concentration and return tempera-
ture are identical with the above)

Final rinse, cold water 1-3 minutes

(The time stated is only started when return
concentration indicates clean water)

Total cleaning time ** minutes

70
Hot water sterilisation at 85°C 3-5 minutes
(The time stated is only started when re-
turn temperature is identical with the
above)

Cold water disinfection with hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, so-

lution 200 ppm.

*)
Time is dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various pipes/pipelines to be cleaned.

**)
Time is dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various pipes/pipelines to be cleaned as well as
the software to control cleaning of pipes/pipelines.

Above times are stated as efficient cleaning times and

should be seen as recommendable values. These values
may change dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various pipes/pipelines as well as the complexity
of various products with regard to the physical/chemical
conditions, as well as the complexity of various physical/
chemical as well as microbiological deposits.

Tanks Cleaning Time

Picking up of residual products * minutes

Pre-rinse, cold water/recyclable water 1-3 minutes

Lye cleaning 1% solution at 70°C 10-15 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn concentration and return tempera-
ture are identical with the above)

Intermediate rinse, cold water/recyclable

water - special software solution 1-3 minutes

Acid cleaning 0.8% solution at 50-60°C 4-6 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn concentration and return tempera-
ture are identical with the above)

71
Final rinse, cold water 0.5-1 minute
(The time stated is only started when re-
turn concentration indicates clean water)

Total cleaning time ** minutes

Hot water sterilisation at 85°C 3-5 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn temperature is identical with the
above)

Cold water disinfection with hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, so-

lution 200 ppm

*)
Time is dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various tanks to be cleaned (tank dimension).

**)
Time is dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various tanks to be cleaned (tank dimension), as
well as the software to control cleaning of tank/tanks.

Above times are stated as efficient cleaning times and

should be seen as recommendable values. These values
may change dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various tanks (tank dimensions) as well as the
complexity of various products with regard to the physi-
cal/chemical conditions, as well as the complexity of vari-
ous physical/chemical as well as microbiological depos-
its.

CIP Cleaning Programs for Plate Pasteurisers

Pasteurisers Cleaning Time

Picking up of residual products * minutes

Pre-rinse, cold water/recyclable water 5-10 minutes

Lye cleaning 1.5% solution at 70°C 45-60 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn concentration and return tempera-
ture are identical with the above)

72
Intermediate rinse, cold water/recyclable
water - special software solution 5-10 minutes

Acid cleaning 0.8% solution at 50-60°C 20-30 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn concentration and return tempera-
ture are identical with the above)

Final rinse, cold water 2-5 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn concentration indicates clean water)

Total cleaning time ** minutes

Hot water sterilisation at 85°C 15-20 minutes

(The time stated is only started when re-
turn temperature is identical with the
above)

Cold water disinfection with hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, so-

lution 200 ppm.

*)
Time is dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various pasteuriser/pasteuriser plants to be
cleaned.

**)
Time is dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various pasteuriser/pasteuriser plants to be
cleaned as well as the software to control cleaning of
pasteuriser/pasteuriser plants.

Above times are stated as efficient cleaning times and

should be seen as recommendable values. These values
may change dependent on the physical conditions in and
around various pasteuriser/pasteuriser plants as well as
the complexity of various products with regard to the
physical/chemical conditions, as well as the complexity of
various physical/chemical as well as microbiological de-
posits.

Pasteurisers CIP*

Continuous buttermaking machines CIP** special

73
Ultrafiltration plants (UF) CIP*** special

Evaporators CIP

*) As a consequence of both a higher detergent concen-

tration and a longer cleaning period compared with
the cleaning of pipes and tanks, it may be appropriate
to clean the pasteurisation plant independently of the
CIP plant for pipes and milk tanks.
At the end of the production run, the pasteurisers, in-
cluding pumps, valves and pipes, are flushed out with
cold water until the water is clear and free of milk at
the outlet.
A closed circulating flow is then established by lead-
ing the water from the outlet back to the balance tank
and slowly adding approx. 3.5-4.0 l 30% sodium hy-
droxide (NaOH) per 100 kg water in the system. If the
sodium hydroxide is in dry form, it should be dissolved
in approx. 10 l cold water per kg NaOH before it is
added to the balance tank.
Warning: NaOH should always be mixed slowly into
cold water - never water into NaOH as it will boil up
with explosive force. Always use facial protection
when working with concentrated detergents. If the
volume of the plant is unknown, the concentration
must be checked as described below.
If the water is very hard, 300-500 g trisodium phos-
phate should also be added.
The temperature is raised to 70-75°C and circulation
is continued for at least 45-60 minutes.
The NaOH solution is flushed out with water and the
circulating flow is re-established. Then, approx. 2.5 l
nitric acid (30%) is added slowly and circulated for 20-
30 minutes at 60-65°C after which the acid is flushed
out with water.
Before start-up of the next production run, the pas-
teurisation system is disinfected by circulation of hot
water at 90°C for 15-20 minutes. Cooling and pasteur-
ising temperatures are adjusted to normal production
before the water is forced out with milk.
**) CIP of buttermaking machines is always carried out
without the use of the ordinary CIP plant, because
relatively large amounts of fat residue must be re-
moved by the detergent and because the cleaning of
buttermaking equipment must give the machine sur-
faces a protective coating, which serves to prevent

74
 the butter from adhering to the surfaces. For cleaning,
an internal circulating flow is established.
***) CIP of a UF plant is always carried out by means of an
internal circulating flow as special detergents are used
in order to prevent any damage to the membranes,
which would reduce the permeate flow.

General Comments to Defects/Faults in CIP

Cleaning
In case of unsatisfactory cleaning, the following defects/
faults may be the cause:

1. CIP flow speed too low

2. Cleaning time too short
3. Cleaning concentration (lye or/and acid) too low
4. Cleaning temperature too high/low
5. Time of production without cleaning too long
6. Etc.

Manual Cleaning
CIP is automatic cleaning, but firstly the external surfaces
are not cleaned by CIP, secondly there will always be a few
machine parts that have to be cleaned every day.
Futhermore, requirements for disassembling of large ma-
chine parts, a.o. plate heat exchangers and pipe connec-
tions, will arise at intervals.

Dirty surfaces, e.g. due to leakage, must be cleaned every

day with hot soapy water and rinsed with clean water.

Cleaning also includes the rooms, and plans for regular

manual cleaning of both rooms and equipment should be
worked out.

A visual control of the effectiveness of the cleaning may be

difficult. Although a surface seems clean, there may be a
large number of bacteria per cm2.

Check of the Cleaning Effect

Hygienic control
Apart from the daily visual control with the hygienic condi-
tion of the production equipment and the production
rooms, microbiological examinations should be made for
determination of the state of cleaning effect, for instance
by means of the swabbing method.

75
Equipment:
1. Swabs made of cotton wool coiled around the end of a
small stick.

2. Test tubes with 10 ml Ringer’s liquid.

3. Ordinary equipment for bacteriological examinations.

Procedure:
1. The swab is sterilised in the test tube with Ringer’s li-
quid.

2. Approx. 100 cm2 (10 x 10 cm) of the surface to be exa-

mined are rubbed with the swab.

3. The swab is transferred to the test tube (1) again, and

the upper part of the stick, which has been touched, is
broken off.

4. Dependent on the degree of pollution, 1 ml or 0.1 ml,

maybe 0.01 ml is transferred to a sterile Petri dish, and
substrate is poured on according to the type of bacte-
ria to be examined.

After incubation, the state of the cleaning effect is judged

after the following scale:
Number of total bacteria
State of cleaning effect
per 100 cm2 surface
0-10 Very good
10-100 Good
over 100 Bad

Control of the cleaning liquids and temperature

Naturally, it is important to keep the right strength in the
cleaning agents and the right temperature.

The mentioned guiding figures may be summarised here:

Concentration Temperature
Hot water 85 - 90oC
Concentrated acid 30 or 60 - 62% Room temperature
Concentrated lye 30-33% Room temperature
Acid cleaning solution 0.8 - 1.2% 60 – 65oC
Lye cleaning solution 0.8 - 1.5% 70 – 75oC

76
Control of the strength of the cleaning agents should be
made twice a day.

Emptying of the tanks will be necessary at intervals de-

pending on fouling and may take place by opening the
bottom valves manually.

Control of Cleaning Solutions

Determination of the strength of lye by titration
In order to obtain a satisfactory cleaning effect it is impor-
tant that during the whole course of cleaning the lye solu-
tion keeps the right strength according to the directions
for use.

Equipment:
1. Titration burette (25 ml)

2. 10 ml pipette or measuring glass

3. Drop bottle

4. Phenolphthalein solution (2%)

5. Titration flask 100 ml

6. 0.1 N hydrochloric acid.

Method:
1. Hot cleaning solution is removed from the lye tank with
a ladle, and the solution is cooled to approximately
20oC.

2. 10 ml lye solution is measured with a measuring glass

or a pipette, and this solution is transferred to a flask.

3. Five drops of phenolphtalein solution are added, by

which the lye solution is coloured red.

4. Under careful shaking this is titrated with 0.1 ml normal

hydrochloric acid until the colour changes. The colour
changes from red to colourless.

5. Number of ml consumed of 0.1 normal acid is read on

the burette and corresponds to the titer of the lye solu-
tion.

77
The titer of the lye solution corresponds to the concentra-
tion of the cleaning solution.

The concentration in the cleaning solution can be calcu-

lated as follows:

axbxc
Concentration in %: = xx.x %
100

Where:
a = ml titration fluid until colour change/10 ml solution

b = normality of titration fluid (0.1)

c = molecular weight (NaOH = 40.0)

Example:
25.0 x 0.1 x 40.0
Concentration in % = 1.00 %
100

Determination of the strength of the acid by titration

Acid cleaning solutions containing nitric acid (technically
clean, approximately 62%) are used at the dairies with
mechanical cleaning of pipes and tanks of completely
stainless material. Acid solutions dissolve calcium oxide
coatings, and lye solutions dissolve protein coatings. This
is why combined cleaning is used, e.g. lye solution at first,
then acid solution, or in reverse order, depending on which
cleaning technique gives the best result on the spot.

Equipment:
1. Titration equipment (see under lye solution).

2. 0.1 N sodium hydroxide.

Method:
1. The acid solution is removed from the acid container,
and this solution is cooled to approximately 20oC.

2. 10 ml acid solution is measured with a measuring glass

or a pipette, and this solution is transferred to a titration
flask.

3. Five drops of phenolphtalein solution are added.

78
4. Under careful shaking this is titrated with 0.1 normal
sodium hydroxide until the colour changes. The colour
changes from colourless to red.

5. Number of ml consumed of 0.1 normal lye is read on

the burette and corresponds to the titer of the acid so-
lution.

The titer of the acid solution corresponds to the concen-

tration of the cleaning solution.

The concentration in the cleaning solution can be calcu-

lated as follows:

axbxc
Concentration in %: = xx.x %
100

Where:
a = ml titration fluid until colour change/10 ml solution

b = normality of titration fluid (0.1)

c = molecular weight (HNO3 = 63.02)

Example:
15.9 x 0.1 x 63.02
Concentration in % = 1.00 %
100

In order to make the calculation easier it is possible to

work out tables for the lye or acid strength and titer, e.g.
from 0.1%-2% so that it is possible to read the lye or acid
strength directly.
(see Table: Concentration of Cleaning Solution)

To compare the strength of the cleaning solution and the

conductivity measured in milli-siemens mS please look in
the manual of Henkel P3-LMIT 08.

79
Concentration of Cleaning Solution
Lye Acid
Concen-
NaOH HNO3
tration
Sodium Hydroxide Nitric acid
Titration Titration
0.1 n 30% 30% 62% 0.1
%
HCL NaOH HNO3 HNO3 nNaOH
ml/10 ml l/100 l l/100 l l/100 l ml/10 ml
02.5 0.25 0.1 0.30 0.10 01.60
05.0 0.50 0.2 0.55 0.25 03.20
07.5 0.75 0.3 0.85 0.35 04.80
10.0 1.00 0.4 1.15 0.45 06.30
12.5 1.25 0.5 1.40 0.60 07.90
15.0 1.50 0.6 1.70 0.70 09.50
17.5 1.75 0.7 2.00 0.80 11.10
20.0 2.00 0.8 2.25 0.95 12.70
22.5 2.25 0.9 2.55 1.05 14.30
25.0 2.50 1.0 2.80 1.15 15.90
27.5 2.75 1.1 3.10 1.30 17.50
30.0 3.00 1.2 3.40 1.40 19.00
32.5 3.25 1.3 3.65 1.50 20.60
35.0 3.50 1.4 3.95 1.65 22.20
37.5 3.75 1.5 4.25 1.75 23.80
40.0 4.00 1.6 4.50 1.85 25.40
42.5 4.25 1.7 4.80 2.00 27.00
45.0 4.50 1.8 5.10 2.10 28.60
47.5 4.75 1.9 5.35 2.20 30.10
50.0 5.00 2.0 5.65 2.35 31.70

Dairy Effluent
Increasing discharge costs make it important to have
knowledge of both the quantity of effluent and the content
of pollutants. The pollutants in dairy effluent are primarily
the organic substances fat, protein, and lactose, but ni-
trate and phosphate are also important substances.
Two methods are used to determine the content of organic
material in effluent: BOD and COD. The result is expressed
in mg oxygen per litre.
BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) is determined by the de-
mand of dissolved oxygen for oxydising the organic mate-
rial in an aqueous sample of the effluent in 5 days at 20°C.
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) is determined by treat-
ing a sample with a potassium dichromate solution and
neutralising excess dichromate by titration with ferrous
ammonium sulphate.

80
It is not possible to convert BOD directly to COD as the
values for the two methods are dependent on the varying
composition of the organic matter. For dairy effluent the
following conversion can be used as a guideline:
1 mg BOD = 1.3-1.5 mg COD
1 mg COD = 0.75-0.67 mg BOD

The table below lists COD values and thus the “pollution
degree” of whole milk, skimmilk, and whey:
Whole milk Skimmilk Whey
Sub-
stance Content mg Content mg Content mg
mg/l COD/kg mg/l COD/kg mg/l COD/kg
Fat 40,000 120,000 00,400 01,200 00,400 01,200
Protein 34,000 046,000 34,000 46,240 10,000 13,600
Lactose 46,000 052,000 47,000 53,110 47,000 53,110
Total,
220,000 100,000 70,000
approx.

A term often used to describe the “pollution degree” is

“person equivalent” (p.e.). One p.e. corresponds to 250 l
of water polluted to a COD value of 600. In other words, 1
p.e. corresponds to 250 x 600 = 150,000 mg COD.

Example:
A dairy receives a daily quantity of 300,000 litres of milk.
The loss is estimated to be 1%, ie, 3,000 l/day.

3,000 x 218
COD: = 4,360 p.e.
150,000

Or, in other words, effluent pollution equal to the pollution

from 4,360 people.

81
NOTES

82
TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Stainless Steel Pipes
Capacity, friction loss and velocity of flow

1" 1¼" 1½" 2" 2½" 3" 4" 5"

O.D. Tube size 6"
5 6 7 8
100 4
3.5
3
2.5

2
Velocity
m/sec.
Friction loss. Metres H20 per 100 metres pipe

1.5

10
1

0.5

1.0

0.1
1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Capacity l/h

83
Example:
10,000 l/h in a 2" stainless steel pipe.
Velocity: 1.5 m/sec.
Friction loss: 5.5 m H2O per 100 m pipe.

When pipe dimensions are determined, the water velocity

must not exceed 3 m/sec in small pipeline dimensions up
to about 3". However, in bigger pipeline dimensions. a ve-
locity of up to 3.5 m/sec. might be accepted.

In milk lines, especially for unpasteurised milk, with pipe

dimensions below 3", the velocity should not exceed 1.5
m/sec. in the suction line and 2 m/sec. in the pressure
lines. As concerns pipe dimensions of 3" and 4", a velocity
of up to 2 and 2.5 m/sec. is acceptable, and for pipe di-
mensions 5" and 6" or bigger even higher velocities can
be accepted

In pipelines for cream (40% fat) and other viscous dairy

products, the velocity should be kept at a lower level. For
special products like fermented milk products, the velocity
should be kept at only 25-40% of the levels for milk.

Friction Loss Equivalent in m Straight Stainless

Steel Pipe for One Fitting
Nominal
diam. 25 38 51 63.5 76 101.6
mm mm mm mm mm mm
Fitting
Valve (two-way) 6 8 8 9 10 10
Valve (three-way) 7 9 9 10 12 12
Elbow 0.8 1 1 1 1.5 1.5
Tee 2 3 3 4 5 5
The figures for pressure loss taken from the diagram are
fairly good approximations for liquids having viscosities
below 5 cPs, such as water, whole milk and skimmilk.

Velocity in Stainless Steel Pipes

The velocity in stainless steel pipes should not exceed
the values (in m/sec.) stated below:
Suction lines Pressure lines
Product
25 mm ø 101.6 mm ø 25 mm ø 101.6 mm ø
Milk 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.5
Cream 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
Water 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5

84
For CIP cleaning, the velocity should not be less than 1.5
m/sec.

Volume in Stainless Steel Pipes

Outside diameter Inside diameter Litre/metre
025.0 mm 022.6 mm 00.4011
038.0 mm 035.6 mm 00.9954
051.0 mm 048.6 mm 01.8551
063.5 mm 060.3 mm 02.8558
076.0 mm 072.9 mm 04.1739
101.6 mm 097.6 mm 07.4815
129.0 mm 125.0 mm 12.2718
154.0 mm 150.0 mm 17.6715

85
86
Quantity of water Nominal diameter in inches and inside diameter in mm
½” ¾” 1" 1¼” 1½” 2" 2½” 3" 3½” 4" 5" 6"
m³/h l/min. l/sec. 15.75 21.25 27.0 35.75 41.25 52.50 68.00 80.25 92.50 105.0 130.0 155.5
0.855 0.470 0.292
0.6 10 0.16 9.910 2.407 0.784

Friction loss:
0.9 15 0.25 12.02.8121 04..780652 01..453780 00..421469
1.2 20 0.33 313.7.5130 08..904305 20..558884 00..637371 00..324469
1.5 25 0.42 24.91.3983 11.11.7941 30..873340 01..401054 00..531102
1.8 30 0.50 26.95.6354 116.4.5009 05..827767 01..439789 00..730407 00..222331
(Non-stainless steel)

2.1 35 0.58 29.19.9534 211.6.7454 61..904292 01..588111 00..493164 00..226991

100
metres of straight pipe.

1.879 1.168 0.664 0.449 0.308

2.4 40 0.67 27.66 8.820 2.290 1.160 0.368
2.349 1.460 0.830 0.623 0.385 0.229
3.0 50 0.83 41.40 13.14 3.403 1.719 0.544 0.159
2.819 1.751 0.996 0.748 0.462 0.275
3.6 60 1.00 57.74 18.28 4.718 2.375 0.751 0.218
pipe length in metres

3.288 2.043 1.162 0.873 0.539 0.321 0.231

4.2 70 1.12
x

76.49 24.18 6.231 3.132 0.988 0.287 0.131

2.335 1.328 0.997 0.616 0.367 0.263
4.8 80 1.33 30.87 7.940 3.988 1.254 0.363 0.164
2.627 1.494 1.122 0.693 0.413 0.296
5.4 90 1.50 38.30 9.828 4.927 1.551 0.449 0.203
Small figures: Velocity in metres per second.

2.919 1.660 1.247 0.770 0.459 0.329 0.248

6.0 100 1.67 46.49 11.90 5.972 1.875 0.542 0.244 0.124
3.649 2.075 1.558 0.962 0.574 0.412 0.310 0.241
7.5 125 2.08 70.41 17.93 8.967 2.802 0.809 0.365 0.185 0.101
2.490 1.870 1.154 0.688 0.494 0.372 0.289
9.0 150 2.50
(metre head)

25.11 12.53 3.903 1.124 0.506 0.256 0.140

with Different Pipe Dimensions and Capacities
Friction Loss in m H2O per 100 m Straight Pipe

Large figures: Loss of head in m H2O per 100 m pipe.

2.904 2.182 1.347 0.803 0.576 0.434 0.337

10.5 175 2.92 33.32 16.66 5.179 1.488 0.670 0.338 0.184
tres of straight pipe. (For foot, valves, multiply by 2).

3.319 2.493 1.539 0.918 0.659 0.496 0.385 0.251

figures from table
B: Friction loss in Tee or non-return valve indicated in me-
A: Friction loss in 90°C elbow or sluice valve indicated in

12 200 3.33 42.75 21.36 6.624 1.901 0.855 0.431 0.234 0.084
 4.149 3.117 1.924 1.147 0.823 0.620 0.481 0.314
15 250 4.17 64.86 32.32 10.03 2.860 1.282 0.646 0.350 0.126
3.740 2.309 1.377 0.968 0.744 0.577 0.377 0.263
18 300 5.00 45.52 14.04 4.009 1.792 0.903 0.488 0.175 0.074
4.987 3.078 1.836 1.317 0.992 0.770 0.502 0.351
24 400 6.67 78.17 24.04 6.828 3.053 1.530 0.829 0.294 0.124
3.848 2.295 1.647 1.240 0.962 0.628 0.439
30 500 8.83 36.71 10.40 4.622 2.315 1.254 0.445 0.187
4.618 2.753 1.976 1.488 1.155 0.753 0.526
36 600 10.0 51.84 14.62 6.505 3.261 1.757 0.623 0.260
3.212 2.306 1.736 1.347 0.879 0.614
42 700 11.7 19.52 8.693 4.356 2.345 0.831 0.347
3.671 2.635 1.984 1.540 1.005 0.702
48 800 13.3 25.20 11.18 5.582 3.009 1.066 0.445
4.130 2.965 2.232 1.732 1.130 0.790
54 900 15.0 31.51 13.97 6.983 3.762 1.328 0.555
4.589 3.294 2.480 1.925 1.256 0.877
60 1000 16.7 38.43 17.06 8.521 4.595 1.616 0.674
4.117 3.100 2.406 1.570 1.097
75 1250 20.8 26.10 13.00 7.010 2.458 1.027
4.941 3.720 2.887 1.883 1.316
90 1500 25.0 36.97 18.42 9.892 3.468 1.444
4.340 3.368 2.197 1.535
105 1750 29.2 24.76 13.30 4.665 1.934
4.960 3.850 2.511 1.754
120 2000 33.3 31.94 17.16 6.995 2.496
4.812 3.139 2.193
150 2500 41.7 26.26 9.216 3.807
3.767 2.632
180 3000 50.0 13.05 5.417
5.023 3.509
240 4000 66.7 22.72 8.926
4.386
300 5000 83.3 14.42

A 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.5
B 4.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0

87
UNITS OF MEASURE
The MKSA System
The unit of weight is one kilogramme (kg).

The unit of force is one kilogramme-force (kgf).

In certain countries the designation kilopond (kp) is used.
1 kp = 1 kgf.
The unit of length is one metre (m).

The unit of time is one second (s).

The unit of temperature is one degree Celsius (IC).

The terminal unit is one kilocalorie (kcal).

One kilocalorie (kcal) is equal to the amount of heat re-
quired to heat or cool 1 kg water one degree Celsius.

The specific gravity (density) is equal to the weight in

grammes (g) of one cubic centimetre (cm3) of a substance.

The unit of work, one kilogramme-force metre (kgfm) is

equal to the energy required to raise one kilogramme to a
height of one metre.

The unit of effect, one horse power (hp), is equal to a work

performance of 75 kilogramme-force metres per second
(kgfm/s).

One horse power hour (hph) is equal to the work that can
be carried out by one horse power (hp) in one hour.

Specific heat is equal to the number of kilocalories re-

quired to heat 1 kg of a substance 1°C.

Example: water 1
iron 0.114
copper 0.09
air 0.24

The latent heat of fusion is equal to the number of kilocalo-

ries required to change I kg of solid substance to liquid
when it has previously been heated to melting point.

Example: ice 80

88
The thermal conductivity coefficient is equal to the
number of kilocalories that are transmitted in one hour
through a 1 m² cross section of a 1 m thick plate when the
temperature difference is 1°C.

The latent heat of evaporation is equal to the number of

kilocalories necessary to change 1 kg of liquid to vapour
of the same temperature.

Example: water at 100°C: 607

water at 100°C: 536

The degree of humidity, relative humidity, is equal to the

relation between the actual water vapour content of the
air, and the amount of water vapour the air can hold at the
temperature in question.

The absolute humidity is equal to the weight in grammes

of the water vapour contained in 1 cubic metre of air.

The dew point is equal to the temperature reached when

air is cooled to saturation point.

A technical atmosphere, 1 at, is equal to a pressure of:

(1) 1 kgf per cm²
(2) a 10 m column of water (H2O) at 0°C, or
(3) 73.6 em mercury (Hg).
1 ata is absolute pressure,
1 ato is the pressure above atmospheric pressure (i.e. 1
ato = 2 bar).

A normal atmosphere, 1 atm, is equal to a pressure of:

(1) 1.033 kgf/cm²
(2) 1013 millibars of 76.0 cm mercury (Hg).

The unit current intensity, one ampere (A), is equal to a

current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate
of silver, is capable of depositing silver at the rate of 1.118
milligrammes per second.

The unit of resistance, one ohm (Ω), is equal to the resist-

ance in a column of mercury, 106.3 cm long and with a
cross section of 1 mm², at a temperature of 0°C.

The unit of potential, one volt (V), is equal to the difference

in electrical potential between two separate points on a

89
conductor with a resistance of 1 ohm, and where the elec-
tric current is one ampere.

The unit of power, one watt (W), is equal to the energy pro-
duced when the strength of the electric current is I ampere
and the potential difference 1 volt.

The unit of electric energy, one kilowatt hour (kWh) is equal

to the energy that is (produced or used) by 1 kilowatt (kW)
working for 1 hour (h).

Conversion Table
Power, heat flow rate
hp kgfm/s IW kcal/h
hp*) 1 75 736 632
kgfm/s 1.33x10-2 1 9.81 8.43
W 1.36x10-3 0.102 1 0.860
kcal/h 1.58x10-3 0.119 1.16 1

Energy, work, quantity of heat

hph kgfm kWh kcal
hph 1 2.70x10-5 0.736 632
kgfm 3.75x10-6 1 2.75x10-6 2.34x10-3
kWh 1.36 0.367x10-6 1 860
kcal 1.58x10-3 427 1.16x10-3 1
* metric

The SI Unit System

SI (Système International d’Unités) is a metric system of
international units which lends itself to simplification and
systemisation. The SI system is gaining popularity
throughout the world and forms the basis of the first truly
international system of measurement. Such units as me-
tre, kilogramme, litre, etc, will eventually be used world-
wide. There is a definite advantage in applying the same
units for all sizes, irrespective of the area measured. For
example, the unit of power (Watt) can be used for electric
motors and combustion engines. Horsepower will gradu-
ally disappear from the language. Thanks to uniformity
and systemisation, no conversion factors will be required
under the SI unit system.
SI includes a range of basic units, derivatives, multiples
and sub-multiples. There are also supplementary units,
primarily associated with subdivision of the 24-hour day.

90
Basic SI units:
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (m) metre
Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (k) kilogram
Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (s) second
Electric current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (A) ampere
Thermodynamic temperature . . . . . . . . . (K) kelvin
Luminous intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (cd) candela
Amount of substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (mol) mole
Supplementary units:
Plane angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (rad) radian
Solid angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (sr) steradian

The table below can be used to convert MKSA units used

in this booklet and other common units to SI units.

Force newton N kg x m/s²

Work
Energy joule J kg x m²/s²= N x m = W x s
Quantity of heat

Power watt W kg x m²/s³ = J/s

Pressure pascal Pa N/m²

bar bar 105 Pa

91
92
Length
Other units
SI unit
m in ft yd
mile
(inch) (foot) (yard)
1 39.4 3.28 1.09 0.621 x 10-3
-2 -2 -2
2.54 x 10 1 8.33 x 10 2.77 x 10 15.8 x 10-6
0.305 12 1 0.333 0.189 x 10-3
0.914 36 3 1 0.568 x 10-3
6.9 x 10-2 x 1450 ~ 100 bar

1.161 x 103 63.4 x 103 5.28 x 103 1.76 x 103 1

1450 p.s.i. converted to bar?
Find factor for bar, line p.s.i. = 1

Area
Other units
SI unit
m2 in2 ft2 yd2
(square inch) (square foot) (square yard)
Units and other Common Unit Systems.
Example showing use of pressure/stress table:

1 1.55 x 103 10.8 1.20

-3
0.645 x 10 1 6.94 x 10-3 0.772 x 10-3
Tables showing conversion Factors between SI

9.29 x 10-2 144 1 0.111

0.836 1.30 x 103 9 1
 Volume
Other units
SI unit
m3 in3 ft3 yd3 gallon gallon
(cubic inch) (cubic foot) (cubic yard) (UK) (US)
1 61.0 x 103 35.3 1.31 220 264
-6
16.4 x 10 1 0.579 x 10-3 0.214 x 10-6 3.60 x 10-3 4.33 x 10-3
2.83 x 10-2 1.73 x 103 1 3.70 x 10-2 6.23 7.48
0.765 46.7 x 103 27 1 168 202
4.55 x 10-3 277 0.161 5.95 x 10-3 1 1.20
3.79 x 10-3 231 0.134 4.95 x 10-3 0.833 1

Velocity
SI unit Other units
m/s km/h ft/s mile/h
1 3.6 3.28 2.24
0.278 1 0.911 0.621
0.305 1.10 1 0.682
0.447 1.61 1.47 1

93
 Density (mass/volume) Mass

94
Other units Other units
SI unit
kg/m3 g/cm3, 3 3 SI unit metric
lb/in lb/ft lb
g/ml kg tech.
(pound)
1 10-3 36.1 x 10-6 6.24 x 10-2 unit of mass

103 1 3.61 x 10-2 62.4 1 0.102 2.21

27.7 x 103 27.7 1 1.73 x 103 9.81 1 21.7
16.0 1.60 x 10-2 5.79 x 10-3 1 0.454 4.63 x 10-2 1

Force, weight Moment of force

Other units Other units
SI unit SI unit
N lbf Nm
kp kpm lbf x ft
(pound force)
1 0.102 0.225 1 0.102 0.738
9.81 1 2.21 9.81 1 7.23
4.45 0.454 1 1.36 0.138 1
 Energy, work, quantity of heat
Other units
SI unit
J, Nm, Ws Btu f t x lb f
kWh kpm kcal
(Brit. thermal unit) (foot pound-force)
-6 -3 -3
1 0.278 x 10 0.102 0.239 x 10 0.948 x 10 0.738
3.6 x 106 1 0.367 x 106 860 3.41 x 103 2.66 x 106
9.81 2.72 x 10-6 1 2.34 x 10-3 929 x 10-3 7.23
4.19 x 103 1.16 x 10-3 427 1 3.97 3.09 x 103
1.06 x 103 0.293 x 10-3 108 0.252 1 779
1.36 0.377 x 10-6 0.138 0.324 x 10-3 1.29 x 10-3 1

95
96
Power, heat flow rate
Other units
SI unit
W, Nm/s, J/s hp hK
kpm/s kcal/h Btu/h
(Brit. horsepower) (metr. horsepower)
1 0.102 0.860 3.41 1.34 x 10-3 1.36 x 10-3
-2
9.81 1 8.43 33.5 1.32 x 10 1.33 x 10-2
-3
1.16 0.119 1 3.97 1.56 x 10 1.58 x 10-3
-2 -3
0.293 2.99 x 10 0.252 1 0.393 x 10 0.399 x 10-3
746 76.0 641 2.55 x 103 1 1.01
7.36 75 632 2.51 x 103 0.986 1
Input and Output of Electric Motors
Alternating current
1 phase 3 phases

U x I x cos 3 x U x I x cos
Current input (kW) =
1000 1000

U x I x cos 3 x U x I x cos
Mechanical output (hp)
736 736

U = Voltage; for thre-phase networks,

U represents tension between two phases
I = Amperage
cos ϕ: See table below
n: See table below
3 =1.73

kW, hp and Full-load Current for 3x380 Volt, 50 Cycle

Electric Motors, and Approximate Values of cos j and n
(at 1500 rpm)
Full-load
kW hp current cos ϕ n
amp.
0.37 0.5 1.0 0.73 70.5
0.55 0.75 1.45 0.75 71.0
0.75 1.0 1.85 0.78 72.0
1.1 1.5 2.6 0.82 77.0
1.5 2.0 3.4 0.83 78.0
2.2 3.0 4.9 0.83 78.0
3.0 4.0 6.3 0.84 79.0
3.7 5.0 7.8 0.84 80.0
4.0 5.5 9.0 0.84 82.0
5.5 7.5 11.5 0.84 84.0
7.5 10.0 15.0 0.85 86.0
11.0 15.0 22.0 0.86 87.0
15.0 20.0 29.0 0.86 88.0
18.5 25.0 36.0 0.87 89.0
22.0 30.0 42.0 0.88 90.0
30.0 40.0 56.0 0.90 91.0
37.0 50.0 69.0 0.86 92.0
45.0 60.0 83.0 0.87 92.0
55.0 75.0 104.0 0.87 92.0
75.0 100.0 136.0 0.87 92.0

97
Fuel Table

Price per 1000 effective

Price per kg steam Øre

kg steam per kg fuel
Thermal efficiency
Calorific value

Effective kcal.
Fuel

Price per ton

(7 atm. abs.)
in boiler %

kcal. Øre
kcal. kg

Light fuel oil 9850 DKK

3380 75 7390 14.89 11.20 9.82
Heavy fuel oil
9775 2635 72 7040 9.59 10.66 6.33
(1500 sec.)*

Heavy fuel oil

9750 2513 70 6825 9.52 10.34 6.29
(3500 sec.)
Steam coal 7000 1675 62 4340 12.10 6.25 7.99
Singles, Stoker 6800 1475 69 4690 10.34 7.11 6.82
Screened coal 6500 1140 55 3575 10.77 5.42 7.10

*) The viscosity measured in Redwood seconds at 100°F.

1 kg steam at a pressure of 7 atm. abs. = 659.4 ~ 660 kcal.

In the part of the table dealing with oil-firing, the expenses

of atomising the oil have not been considered.

98
Saturated Steam Table
(according to Mollier)
Absolute Tempe- Enthal- Absolute Tempe- Enthal-
pressure rature py pressure rature py
Atmos. °C kg° Atmos. °C kg°
0.1 045.45 617.0 02.5 126.79 648.3
0.2 059.67 623.1 03.0 132.88 650.3
0.3 068.68 626.8 03.5 138.19 651.9
0.4 075.42 629.5 04.0 142.92 653.4
0.5 080.86 631.6 04.5 147.20 654.7
0.6 085.45 633.4 05.0 151.11 655.8
0.7 089.45 634.9 05.5 154.72 656.5
0.8 092.99 636.2 06.0 158.08 657.8
0.9 096.18 637.4 06.5 161.21 658.7
1.0 099.09 638.5 07.0 164.17 659.4
1.1 101.76 639.4 07.5 166.97 660.1
1.2 104.25 640.3 08.0 169.61 660.8
1.3 106.56 641.2 08.5 172.13 661.4
1.4 108.74 642.0 09.0 174.53 662.0
1.5 110.79 642.8 09.5 176.83 662.5
1.6 112.73 643.5 10.0 179.04 663.0
1.7 114.57 644.1 12.5 188.92 665.1
1.8 116.33 644.7 15.0 197.36 666.6
1.9 118.01 645.3 17.5 204.76 667.7
2.0 119.62 645.8 20.0 211.38 668.5

99
Atomic Weights, Melting and Boling Points of the Elements
Sym- Atomic Atomic Foot- Melting point Boiling point
Name
bol number weight notes (°C) (°C)
Actinium Ac 89 227.028 L 1050 3200±300
Aluminium Al 13 26.9815 660.37 2467
Americium Am 95 (243) 994±4 2607
Antimony (Stibium) Sb 51 121.75 630.74 1750
Argon Ar 18 39.948 g, r - 189.2 - 185.7
Arsenic As 33 74.9216 817 (28 alm) 613 (sub)
Astatine At 85 (210) 302 337
Barium Ba 56 137.33 g 725 1640
Berkelium Bk 97 (247)
Beryllium Be 4 9.01218 1278±5 2970 (5 mm)
Bismuth Bi 83 208.980 271.3 1560±5
Boron B 5 10.81 m, r 2079 2550 (sub)
Bromine Br 35 79.904 - 7.2 58.78
Cadmium Cd 48 112.41 g 320.9 765
Caesium (Cesium) Cs 55 132.905 2840±0.01 669.3
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 g 839±2 1484
Califomium Cf 98 (251)
Carbon C 6 12.011 r, t 3652 (sub) 1
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 g 798 3443
Cesium (Caesium) Cs 55 132.9054 2840±0.01 669.3
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 - 100.98 - 34.6
Chromium Cr 24 51.996 1857±20 2572
Cobalt Co 27 58.9332 1495 2870
Copper (Cuprum) Cu 29 63.546 r 1083.4±0.2 2567
Curium Cm 96 (247) 1340±40
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.50 1412 2567
Einstenium Es 99 (252)
Erbium Er 68 167.26 1529 2868
Europium Eu 63 151.96 g 822 1527
Fermium Fm 100 (257)
Fluorine F 9 18.9984 - 219.62 - 188.14
Francium Fr 87 (223) (27) (677)
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 g 1313 3273
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 29.78 2403
Germanium Ge 32 72.59 937.4 2830
Gold (Aurum) Au 79 196.967 1064.434 2808±2
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 2227±20 4602
Helium He 2 4.00260 g - 272.226 atm - 268.934
Holmium Ho 67 164.930 1474 2700
Hydrogen H 1 1.00794 g, m, r - 259.34 - 252.87
Indium In 49 114.82 g 156.61 2080
Iodine I 53 126.905 113.5 184.35
Iridium Ir 77 192.22 2410 4130
Iron (Ferrum) Fe 26 55.847 1535 2750
Krypton Kr 36 8380 g, m - 156.6 - 152.30±0.10
Lanthanum La 57 136.906 g 918 3464
Lawrencium Lr 103 (260)
Lead (Plumbum) Pb 82 207.2 g, r 327.502 1740
Lithium Li 3 6.941 g, m, r 180.54 1342
Lutetium Lu 71 174.967 1663 3402
Magnesium Mg 12 24.305 g 648.8±0.5 1090
Manganese Mn 25 54.9380 1244±3 1962
Mendelevium Md 101 (258)
Mercury (Hydrargyrum) Hg 80 200.59 - 38.87 356.58
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.54 g 2617 4612
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 g 1021 3074
Neon Ne 10 20.1179 g, m - 248.67 - 246.048
Neptunium Np 93 237.048 L 640±1 3902
Nickel Ni 28 58.69 1453 2732
Niobium (Columbium) Nb 41 92.9064 2468±10 4742
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 - 209.86 - 195.8
Nobelium No 102 (259)
Osmium Os 76 190.2 g 3045±30 5027±100

100
Atomic Weights, Melting and Boling Points of the Elements
(continued)
Sym- Atomic Atomic Foot- Melting point Boiling point
Name
bol number weight notes (°C) (°C)
Oxygen O 8 15..9994 g, r - 218.4 - 182.962
Palladium Pd 46 106.42 g 1554 3140
Phosphorus P 15 30.9738 44.1 (white) 280 (white)
Platinum Pt 78 195.08 1772 3827±100
Plutonium Pu 94 (244) 641 3232
Polonium Po 84 (209) 254 962
Potassium (Kalium) K 19 39.0983 63.25 759.9
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.908 931 3520
Promethium Pm 61 (145) 1042 3000 (est.)
Protoactinium Pa 91 231.0359 L 1600
Radium Ra 88 226.025 g, L 700 1140
Radon Rn 86 (222) - 71 - 61.8
Rhenium Re 75 186.207 3180 5627 (est.)
Rhodium Rh 45 102.906 1965±3 3727±100
Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678 g 38.89 686
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 g 2310 3900
Samarium Sm 62 150.36 g 1074 1794
Scandium Sc 21 44.9559 1541 2836
Selenium Se 34 78.96 217 684.9±1.0
Silicon Si 14 28.0855 1410 2355
Silver (Argentum) Ag 47 107.868 g 961.93 2212
Sodium (Natrium) Na 11 22.9898 97.81±0.03 882.9
Strontium Sr 38 87.62 g 769 1384
Sulfur S 16 32.06 r 112.8 444.674
Tantalum Ta 73 180.9479 2996 5425±100
Technetium Tc 43 (98) 2172 4877
Tellurium Te 52 127.60 g 449.5 ± 0.3 989.8±3.8
Terbium Tb 65 158.925 1356 3230
Thallium Tl 81 204.383 303.5 1457±10
Thorium Th 90 232.038 g, L 1750 3800 (approx.)
Thulium Tm 69 168.934 1545 1950
Tin (Stannum) Sn 50 118.71 231.9681 2270
Titanium Ti 22 47.88 1660 ± 10 3287
Tungsten (Wolfram) W 74 183.85 3410 ± 20 5660
Unnihexium (Unh) 106 (263)
Unnilpentium (Unp) 105 (262)
Unnilquadium (Unq) 104 (261)
Unnilseptium (Uns) 107 (262)
Uranium U 92 238.029 g, m 1132 ± 0.8 3818
Vanadium V 23 50.9415 1890 ± 10 3380
Wolfram (see Tungsten)
Xenon Xe 54 131.29 g, m - 111.9 - 107.1 ± 3
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04 819 1196
Yttrium Y 39 88,9059 1552 5338
Zinc Za 30 65.39 419.58 907
Zirconium Zr 40 91.224 g 1852 ± 2 4377

g geological exceptional specimens are known in which the element has an isotopic com-
position outside the limits for normal material. The difference between the atomic weight
of the element in such specimens and that given in the Table may exceed the implied un-
certainty considerably.

m modified isotopic compositions may be found in commercially available material because

if has been subjected to an undisclosed or inadvertent isotopic separation. Substantial
deviations in atomic weight of the element from that given in the Table may occur.

r range in isotopic composition of normal terrestrial material prevents a more precise

atomic weight being given; the tabulated Ar (E) value should be applicable to any normal
material.

t triple point; (graphite-liquid-gas), 3627 ± 50°C at a pressure of 10.1 Mpa and (graphite-
diamond-liquid), 3830 to 3930°C at a pressure of 12 to 13 Gpa.

L Longest half-life isotop mass is chosen for the tabulated Ar (E) value.

The atomic weights presented in the above Table are the 1981 atomic weights as presented
in Pure and Applied Chemistry, Vol. 55, No. 7, pp. 1101-1136, 1983.

101
Prefixes with Symbols used in Forming Decimal
Multiples and Submultiples
Factor by which the
Name Symbol
unit is multiplied
exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deca da 10
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15
atto a 10-18

The symbol representing the prefix is fixed to the unit sym-

bol and raises the latter to the stated power:

Example: 12000 N = 12 x 103 N = 12 kN

0.00394 m = 3.94 x 10-3 m = 3.94 mm
140000 N/m2 = 140 x 103 N/m2 = 140 kN/m2
or 1.4 x 105 N/m2 = 1.4 bar
0.0003 s = 0.3 x 10-3 s = 0.3 ms

102
Thermometric Scales
Celsius and Fahrenheit Degrees *)
°C = 5/9 (°F - 32°) °F = (°C x 9/5 + 32°
°C °F °C °F °C °F °C °F
- 17.8 00.0 35 095.0 074 165.2 113 235.4
- 15.0 05.0 36 096.9 075 167.0 114 237.2
- 10.0 14.0 37 098.6 076 168.8 115 239.0
0- 5.0 23.0 38 100.4 077 170.6 116 240.8
- 10.0 32.0 39 102.2 078 172.4 117 242.6
- 11.0 33.8 40 104.0 079 174.2 118 244.4
- 12.0 35.6 41 105.8 080 176.0 119 246.2
- 13.0 37.4 42 107.6 081 177.8 120 248.0
- 14.0 39.2 43 109.4 082 179.6 121 249.8
- 15.0 41.0 44 111.2 083 181.4 122 251.6
- 16.0 42.8 45 113.0 084 183.2 123 253.4
- 17.0 44.6 46 114.8 085 185.0 124 255.2
- 18.0 46.4 47 116.6 086 186.8 125 257.0
- 19.0 48.2 48 118.4 087 188.6 126 258.8
- 10.0 50.0 49 120.2 088 190.4 127 260.6
- 11.0 51.8 50 122.0 089 192.2 128 262.4
- 12.0 53.6 51 123.8 090 194.0 129 264.2
- 13.0 55.4 52 125.6 091 195.8 130 266.0
- 14.0 57.2 53 127.4 092 197.6 131 267.8
- 15.0 59.0 54 129.2 093 199.4 132 269.6
- 16.0 60.8 55 131.0 094 201.2 133 271.4
- 17.0 62.6 56 132.8 095 203.0 134 273.2
- 18.0 64.4 57 134.6 096 204.8 135 275.0
- 19.0 66.2 58 136.4 097 206.6 136 276.8
- 20.0 68.0 59 138.2 098 208.4 137 278.6
- 21.0 69.8 60 140.0 099 210.2 138 280.4
- 22.0 71.6 61 141.8 100 212.0 139 282.2
- 23.0 73.4 62 143.6 101 213.8 140 284.0
- 24.0 75.2 63 145.4 102 215.6 141 285.8
- 25.0 77.0 64 147.2 103 217.4 142 287.6
- 26.0 78.8 65 149.0 104 219.2 143 289.4
- 27.0 80.6 66 150.8 105 221.0 144 291.2
- 28.0 82.4 67 152.6 106 222.8 145 293.0
- 29.0 84.2 68 154.4 107 224.6 146 294.8
- 30.0 86.0 69 156.2 108 226.4 147 296.6
- 31.0 87.8 70 158.0 109 228.2 148 298.4
- 32.0 89.6 71 159.8 110 230.0 149 300.2
- 33.0 91.4 72 161.6 111 231.8 150 302.0
- 34.0 93.2 73 163.4 112 233.6
*) All temperatures in this booklet are in °C

103
Conversion Table
1 inch x 0002.5400 = cm
1 foot x 0000.3048 =m
1 yard x 0000.9144 =m
1 mile x 1609.0000 =m
1 square inch x 0006.4520 = cm2
1 square foot x 0000.0929 = cm2
1 square yard x 0000.8360 = cm2
1 acre x 4086.8000 = cm2
1 cubic inch x 0016.3900 = cm2
1 cubic foot x 0028.3200 = litre
1 pint (liquid UK) x 0000.5680 = litre
1 pint (liquid US) x 0000.4730 = litre
1 UK quart x 0001.1360 = litre
1 US quart x 0000.9460 = litre
1 US gallon x 0003.7850 = litre
1 UK gallon x 0004.5500 = litre
1 ounce x 0028.3500 =g
1 lb x 0000.4540 = kg
1 short ton x 0907.1800 = kg
1 long ton x 1016.0600 = kg
1 pound per sq. inch x 0000.0700 = kg/cm2

1 cm x 0000.3940 = inch
1m x 0003.2810 = foot
1m x 0001.0936 = yard
1 km x 0000.6213 = mile
1 cm2 x 0000.1550 = square inch
1 m2 x 0010.7640 = square foot
1 m2 x 0001.1970 = square yard
1 hectare x 0002.4711 = acre
1 cm3 x 0000.0610 = cubic inch
1 m3 x 0035.3200 = cubic foot
1 litre x 0001.7600 = pint (liquid UK)
1 litre x 0002.1100 = pint (liquid US)
1 litre x 0000.2640 = US gallon
1 litre x 0000.2200 = UK gallon
1g x 0015.4320 = grains
1 kg x 0002.2046 = lb
1 tonne x 0001.1023 = short ton
1 tonne x 0000.9842 = long ton
1 kg/cm2 x 0014.2200 = pound per sq. inch
°C = 5/9 (°F - 32°) °F = 9/5 (°C + 32°)

104
NOTES

105
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108