Ay 122 - Fall 2006

General Considerations and Concepts

Historical evolution: Eye ! Photography ! Photoelectic
(single-channel) devices ! Plate scanners ! TV-type imagers ! Semiconductor-based devices (CCDs, IR arrays, APDs, bolometers, ) ! Energy-resolution arrays (STJ, ETS)

Detectors (UV/Opt/IR)
Some of the earliest astronomical CCD images, obtained in the early 1970s at P200 (and Mt. Lemon?), by Westphall, Gunn, et al.

Astronomical detectors today are applications of solid state physics Detector characteristics: Sensitivity as a f(!), size,
number of pixels, noise characteristics, stability, cost

Types of noise: Poissonian (quantum), thermal (dark

current, readout), sensitivity pattern

Uranus

A distant cluster; R lim ! 24.5 mag

Quantum efciency: QE = N(detected photons)/N(input photons) Detective Quantum Efciency: DQE = (S/N)out/(S/N)in

Classical Photomultiplier Tubes

Typical QE ~ 5-10% UV/B sensitive, poor in R/IR

Image Intensiers
Still used for some night vision applications

Semiconductor equivalent: Avalanche Photodiodes (APD)

Image Intensiers
An image intensifier amplifies light signals by:
converting photons to electrons via the photoelectric effect , accelerating the electrons them via electrostatic forces, focusing the electron beam, electrostatically or magnetically, having them impact on an output phosphor releasing a shower of photons, recording the output photons using a photographic emulsion or some more modern detector (or indeed the human eye).

Microchannel Plates:
Effectively arrays of PMTs Still used in UV (e.g., in GALEX) Also for some night vision applications

The gain = N(output photons) / N(input photons); multistage image intensifiers can reach total gains up to ~ 106 Image intensifiers are now used very little in the optical, where CCDs dominate, but are still used in the UV

Microchannel Plate Intensiers

A microchannel plate is a modern image intensifier:
A thin disk of Pb oxide glass with many microscopic channels/pores running parallel to each other from one face to the other Pores are either slanted or curved, to allow the electrons to hit the walls to provide the gain, and to absorb positive ions produced from residual gas before they generate a cascade A potential of a small number of kiloVolts is applied between one face and the other Each channel acts like a tiny image intensifier: electrons hitting the walls eject additional electrons resulting in a cascade of electrons It still needs a photocathode and an output phosphor

The Multi-Anode Microchannel Array (MAMA)

Developed for space apps (mainly UV) Uses a position sensitive anode instead of an output phosphor and light sensitive detector Anode has two perpendicular sets of coding electrodes

Advantages over conventional image intensifiers:

Channels confine the electron shower ! better resolution Voltages are lower (~2 kV instead of ~30 kV for gain of 106)

Classical (pre-CCD) TV-type Detectors

Photon Counting Detectors

Run an image intensifier at high gain (~106), and image the output phosphor onto a CCD or similar detector
For each photon incident at the photocathode there is a large splash of photons at the detector. Read this out and centroid, record {x,y,t}

Build up time-resolved image photon by photon

If more than one photon arrives in a particular location within the frame time of the detector then one or both will be lost "There is a limit to the count rate (per pixel and per frame) "You cannot remove saturation by taking short exposures "Useful in the UV/Xray, where photon rates are low

Photon counting detectors have no readout noise and thus a potential advantage for all ultra-low light level apps

Classical Photography
Typical QE ~ 2-3%, but large formats available; can be digitized

Plate Digitization: Still used for sky surveys (DPOSS, DSS, etc.)

A problem: non-linear response! (H-D curve) Also: non-uniform And messy

Problems and challenges: Scattered light, calibration Limited to a pixel size of a few microns, due to the grains

Basic Operation of a Solid-State Imaging Device

Light sensitive material is electrically partitioned into a 2-D array of pixels (each pixel is a 3-D volume)

Five Basic Steps of Optical/IR Photon Detection

1. Get light into the detector : need anti-reection coatings 2. Charge generation : popular materials include Si, HgCdTe, InSb 3. Charge collection : electrical elds within the material collect photoelectrons into pixels. 4. Charge transfer : in IR, no charge transfer required. For CCD, move photoelectrons to the edge where ampliers are located. 5. Charge amplication & digitization : This process is noisy. In general, CCDs have lowest noise, CMOS and IR detectors have higher noise.

y z x

Solid state electronics that amplify and read out the charge

Intensity image is generated by collecting photoelectrons generated in 3-D volume into 2-D array of pixels. Optical and IR focal plane arrays both collect charges via electric elds. In the z-direction, optical and IR use a p-n junction to sweep charge toward pixel collection nodes.

Charge Generation via Photoelectric Effect

An incoming photon excites an electron from the conduction band to the valence band: h" > Eg , Eg = energy gap of material
Conduction Band eEg Valence Band

But Nowadays, Charge Coupled Devices (CCDs) Are The Detectors of Choice
(in visible, UV, and X-ray)
Nearly ideal detectors in many ways Counting photons in a pixel array
Image area Metal,ceramic or plastic package

Critical wavelength: !c (m) = 1.238 / Eg (eV)

Material Eg (eV) !c (m) Op. Temp. (K) 163 - 300 20 - 80 30 4 Si 1.12 1.1 HgCdTe 1.00 0.09 1.24 14 InSb 0.23 5.5 Si:As 0.05 25

(Must keep them cold, to avoid thermal electrons = dark current)

A whole bunch of CCDs on a wafer

Silicon chip

Serial register

On-chip amplifier

Structure of a CCD
The diagram shows a small section (a few pixels) of the image area of a CCD. This pattern is reapeated. Channel stops to define the columns of the image

Plan View
One pixel

Transparent horizontal electrodes to define the pixels vertically. Also used to transfer the charge during readout

CCD up close
(note scale: 100 m !

Cross section

Electrode Insulating oxide n-type silicon p-type silicon

Every third electrode is connected together. Bus wires running down the edge of the chip make the connection. The channel stops are formed from high concentrations of Boron in the silicon.

(This slide and many others from S. Tulloch)

Structure of a CCD
Below the image area (the area containing the horizontal electrodes) is the Serial register . This also consists of a group of small surface electrodes. There are three electrodes for every column of the image area

How Does A CCD Work?

Internal Photoelectric Effect in Doped Silicon
Incoming photons generate electron-hole pairs That charge is collected in potential wells applied on the surface
Increasing energy

Image Area
Serial Register On-chip amplifier at end of the serial register

Conduction Band

1.26eV
Valence Band Hole Electron

Cross section of serial register

Once again every third electrode is in the serial register connected together.

Thermally generated electrons are indistinguishable from photogenerated electrons ! Dark Current ! keep the CCD cold! Silicon is transparent to photons with E < 1.26eV (! ! 1.05 m) ! Red Cutoff! Need a different type of detector for IR

pho

ton

ton pho

Electric Field in a CCD

Electric potential

How Does A CCD Work?

A grid of electrodes establishes a pixel grid pattern of electric potential wells, where photoelectrons are collected in charge packets
Typical well (pixel) capacity: a few #105 e- . Beyond that, the charge bleeds along the electrodes.

Region of maximum potential, where the electron packet accumulates

pixel boundary

incoming photons

Cross section through the thickness of the CCD

Charge packet

n-type silicon p-type silicon

Electrode Structure SiO2 Insulating layer

Reading Out A CCD:

Charge packet from subsequent pixel enters from left as first pixel exits to the right.
1 2 3 2 1 3

Shift the electric potential pattern by clocking the voltages - pixel positions shift
+5V 0V -5V +5V 0V -5V +5V 0V -5V

Reading Out A CCD:

The Bucketson-a-Conveyor Metaphor

Pattern of collected electrons (= an image) moves with the voltage pattern, and is read out

pixel boundary

Potential along this line shown in graph above.

CCD Analogy
RAIN (PHOTONS) VERTICAL CONVEYOR BELTS (CCD COLUMNS) Exposure finished, buckets now contain samples of rain.

BUCKETS (PIXELS)

HORIZONTAL CONVEYOR BELT (SERIAL REGISTER)

MEASURING CYLINDER (OUTPUT AMPLIFIER)

Conveyor belt starts turning and transfers buckets. Rain collected on the vertical conveyor is tipped into buckets on the horizontal conveyor.

Vertical conveyor stops. Horizontal conveyor starts up and tips each bucket in turn into the measuring cylinder .

After each bucket has been measured, the measuring cylinder is emptied , ready for the next bucket load.

Charge Transfer in a CCD 1.

In the following few slides, the implementation of the conveyor belts as actual electronic structures is explained. The charge is moved along these conveyor belts by modulating the voltages on the electrodes positioned on the surface of the CCD. In the following illustrations, electrodes colour coded red are held at a positive potential, those coloured black are held at a negative potential.

1 2 3

Charge Transfer in a CCD 2.

+5V

Charge Transfer in a CCD 3.

+5V

2 1 3 1 2 3

0V -5V +5V 0V -5V +5V 0V -5V

2 1 3 1 2 3

0V -5V +5V 0V -5V +5V 0V -5V

Time-slice shown in diagram

Charge Transfer in a CCD 4.

+5V

Charge Transfer in a CCD 5.

+5V

2 1 3 1 2 3

0V -5V +5V 0V -5V +5V 0V -5V

2 1 3 1 2 3

0V -5V +5V 0V -5V +5V 0V -5V

Charge Transfer in a CCD 6.

+5V

Charge Transfer in a CCD 7.

+5V

2 1 3 1 2 3

0V -5V +5V 0V -5V +5V 0V -5V

2
Charge packet from subsequent pixel enters from left as first pixel exits to the right.

0V -5V +5V

1 3

0V -5V +5V 0V -5V

1 2 3

Slow Scan CCDs 1.

The most basic geometry of a Slow-Scan CCD is shown below. Three clock lines control the three phases of electrodes in the image area, another three control those in the serial register. A single amplifier is located at the end of the serial register. The full image area is available for imaging. Because all the pixels are read through a single output, the readout speed is relatively low. The red line shows the flow of charge out of the CCD.

Slow Scan CCDs 2.

A slightly more complex design uses 2 serial registers and 4 output amplifiers. Extra clock lines are required to divide the image area into an upper and lower section. Further clock lines allow independent operation of each half of each serial register. It is thus possible to read out the image in four quadrants simultaneously, reducing the readout speed by a factor of four.
Serial clocks A Serial clocks B

Amplifier A Image Area Image area clocks Upper Image area clocks

Amplifier B

Lower Image area clocks Output Amplifier Amplifier C Amplifier D

Serial Register clocks

Serial Register

Serial clocks C

Serial clocks D

Video CCDs 1.
In the split frame CCD geometry, the charge in each half of the image area could be shifted independently. Now imagine that the lower image area is covered with an opaque mask. This mask could be a layer of aluminium deposited on the CCD surface or it could be an external mask. This geometry is the basis of the Frame transfer CCD that is used for high frame rate video applications. The area available for imaging is reduced by a half. The lower part of the image becomes the Store area.

Video CCDs 3.
Once the image is safely stored under the mask, it can then be read out at leisure. Since we can independently control the clock phases in the image and store areas, the next image can be integrated in the image area during the readout. The image area can be kept continuously integrating and the detector has only a tiny dead time during the image shift. No external shutter is required but the effective size of the CCD is cut by a half.

Image area Image area clocks

Store area clocks

Opaque mask Store area

Amplifier

Serial clocks

Thick Front-side Illuminated CCD

Incoming photons

Thinned Back-side Illuminated CCD

Incoming photons

Anti-reflective (AR) coating p-type silicon n-type silicon Silicon dioxide insulating layer Polysilicon electrodes

p-type silicon n-type silicon

625m

Silicon dioxide insulating layer Polysilicon electrodes

15m

These are cheap to produce using conventional wafer fabrication techniques. They are used in consumer imaging applications. Even though not all the photons are detected, these devices are still more sensitive than photographic film. They have a low Quantum Efficiency due to the reflection and absorption of light in the surface electrodes. Very poor blue response. The electrode structure prevents the use of an Anti-reflective coating that would otherwise boost performance. The amateur astronomer on a limited budget might consider using thick CCDs. For professional observatories, the economies of running a large facility demand that the detectors be as sensitive as possible; thick front-side illuminated chips are seldom if ever used.

The silicon is chemically etched and polished down to a thickness of about 15microns. Light enters from the rear and so the electrodes do not obstruct the photons. The QE can approach 100% . These are very expensive to produce since the thinning is a non-standard process that reduces the chip yield. These thinned CCDs become transparent to near infra-red light and the red response is poor. Response can be boosted by the application of an anti-reflective coating on the thinned rear-side. These coatings do not work so well for thick CCDs due to the surface bumps created by the surface electrodes. Almost all Astronomical CCDs are Thinned and Backside Illuminated.

Blooming in a CCD 1.
The charge capacity of a CCD pixel is limited, when a pixel is full the charge starts to leak into adjacent pixels. This process is known as Blooming.

CCDs: The Quantum Efciency

Nearly a unity through most of the visible
Usually lower in the blue/UV, due to the absorption of photons before they reach the p.e. layer - cured by doping, phosphor dyes, etc.

Spillage

Spillage

pixel boundary

Photons

Overflowing charge packet

Photons

pixel boundary

CCDs Are Not Perfect

Bright Column (charge traps) Hot Spots (high dark current, but sometimes LEDs!) Cosmic rays Dark Columns (charge traps)

Noise Sources in a CCD Image

Readout Noise: Caused by electronic in the CCD output transistor and in the external circuitry; typically # RON ~ 2-3 eDark Current: Caused by thermally generated electrons in the CCD. Eliminated by cooling the CCD. Photon Noise: Also called Shot Noise. Photons arrive in an unpredictable fashion described by Poissonian statistics. Pixel Response Nonuniformity: Also called Pattern Noise. QE variations due to defects in the silicon and manufacturing. Removed by Flatfielding

QE variations

Reducing A CCD Image

Raw data
Science Frame Flat = image of a uniformly illuminated surface (a dome, sky, etc.) Bias = a zero integration image
Dark or Bias Sci. -Dark Sci-Dk Flt-Bias

The Palomar-QUEST 112-CCD Camera

Output Image

Calibration exposures

Flat Field Bias Image

Flat -Bias

which you measure, analyse, and ux-calibrate with images of standard stars

~ 162 million pixels! And even bigger mosaics are in the works (e.g., Pan-STARRs, LSST)

CFHT MegaCam

CMOS Imagers
CMOS = Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor; its a process, not a particular device Each pixel has its own readout transistor. Could build special electronics on the same chip. Can be read out in a random access fashion. Noisier, less sensitive, and with a lower dynamical range than CCDs, but much cheaper; and have some other advantages Not yet widely used in astronomy, but might be (LSST?)

Solid-State Detector Technologies

Photovoltaic IR Detectors
Single pixel infra-red detectors have long used the photovoltaic effect Diode is formed at the junction between a p- and ndoped semiconductor This pn junction generates an internal electric eld to separate the photon generated electron-hole pairs Migration of holes and electrons changes the electric eld, hence there is a voltage change across the junction which can be measured

2-D focal plane arrays : Optical silicon-based (CCD, CMOS) Infrared IR material + silicon CMOS multiplexer

IR (Hybrid) Arrays

Not like CCDs! Each pixel is read out through its own transistor.

IR Hybrid Arrays
Modern IR arrays are hybrid arrays, formed of a sandwich of three layers: Top layer (assuming radiation is coming down) is a Indium Antimonide or Mercury Cadmiun Telluride, doped to act as a photovoltaic detector Bottom layer is a silicon multiplexer, which can be a CCD but if more often an array of tiny MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field effect Transistor) ampliers In between are Indium bump bonds providing an electrical connection between locations on the IR detector and the elements of the silicon multiplexer

Typical materials: HgCdTe, InSb, PtSi, InGaAs

Popular IR Detector Materials

IR Arrays

State-of-the-art: 2k square arrays (Rockwell)

The Future: Energy-Resolving Arrays

Superconducting Tunnel Junctions (STJ), And Transition-Edge Sensors (TES)

Siperconducting Detectors: TES

(From J. Zmuidzinas)

TES Array

Superconducting Tunnel Junctions

Cryogenic detectors operating in a way similar to the semiconductor detectors we discussed earlier Consist of two superconducting electrodes separated by a thin insulator There is a small energy gap between the superconducting electronic ground state (which consists of Cooper pairs), and excited single particle states (quasiparticle states) Photons break Cooper pairs and excite quasiparticles Since the band gap is ~ 1 meV, there are ~1000 times more carriers generated than in Si detectors where the band gap is ~ 1 eV Carriers tunnel through the barrier to the other electrode, and produce an increased current which can be measured

STJ Array

Bolometers
Measure the energy from a radiation field, usually by measuring a change in resistance of some device as it is heated by the radiation Mainly used in FIR/sub-mm/microwave regime Sensitivity is measured through the Noise Equivalent Power (NEP): the power absorbed which produces S/N=1 at the output (units W/Hz0.5)

Components of a Bolometer
Absorber with heat capacity C Heat sink held at xed temperature T0 Small thermal conductance G between absorber and heat sink Load resistor RL Thermometer w. resistance R Constant current supply generating bias current I Device to measure voltage changes

Schematic of a bolometer

Typically use a semiconductor resistance thermometer, and a metal coated dielectric as the absorber

Semiconductor bolometers from SCUBA

Transition Edge Sensors as Bolometers

A superconducting material in the region of transition between its superconducting and normal states has a very steep dependence of resistance upon temperature Change in resistance results in a change in current through the thin lm, which is read out using a Superconducting Quantum Interference device (SQUID) amplier Typically thin lm metal bilayers are used, for instance the Scuba II detectors are a Molybdenum-Copper bilayer

Spiderweb bolometer

Resistance of a TES

Scuba II Bolometer Array

Scuba II, being built for the James Clerk Maxwell telescope, is an array of 80 x 80 TES pixels which will be used to map the sky at sub-mm wavelengths

Resistance against Temperature for a Scuba II test pixel