Robotics & Automation

Image Acquisition
Image acquisition is the first step of image processing. In image processing, it is
defined as the action of retrieving an image from some source, usually a hardware-
based source for processing. It is the first step in the workflow sequence because,
without an image, no processing is possible. The image that is acquired is completely
unprocessed.

Now the incoming energy is transformed into a voltage by the combination of input
electrical power and sensor material that is responsive to a particular type of energy
being detected. The output voltage waveform is the response of the sensor(s) and a
digital quantity is obtained from each sensor by digitizing its response.

Fig: Single image sensor

Fig.1: Line sensor

Fig. 2: Array sensor

Prepared By : Dr. Pankaj Sahu (Dept. of MTE, JEC, Jabalpur)

 Robotics & Automation

Image Acquisition using a single sensor:

Example of a single sensor is a photodiode. Now to obtain a two-dimensional image

using a single sensor, the motion should be in both x and y directions.

• Rotation provides motion in one direction.

• Linear motion provides motion in the perpendicular direction.

Fig. 3: Combining a single sensor with motion to generate a 2D image

This is an inexpensive method and we can obtain high-resolution images with high
precision control. But the downside of this method is that it is slow.

Image Acquisition using a line sensor (sensor strips):

• The sensor strip provides imaging in one direction.

• Motion perpendicular to the strip provides imaging in other direction.

Fig. 4: Linear sensor strip

Prepared By : Dr. Pankaj Sahu (Dept. of MTE, JEC, Jabalpur)

 Robotics & Automation

Image Acquisition using an array sensor

In this, individual sensors are arranged in the form of a 2-D array as shown in Fig. 2.
This type of arrangement is found in digital cameras. e.g. CCD array

In this, the response of each sensor is proportional to the integral of the light energy
projected onto the surface of the sensor. Noise reduction is achieved by letting the
sensor integrate the input light signal over minutes or ever hours.

Advantage: Since sensor array is 2D, a complete image can be obtained by focusing
the energy pattern onto the surface of the array.

Fig. 5: An example of digital image acquisition using array sensor

The sensor array is coincident with the focal plane, it produces an output proportional
to the integral of light received at each sensor. Digital and analog circuitry sweep these
outputs and convert them to a video signal which is then digitized by another section
of the imaging system. The output is a digital image.

Prepared By : Dr. Pankaj Sahu (Dept. of MTE, JEC, Jabalpur)

 Robotics & Automation
Charge-Coupled Device (CCD)

A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an integrated circuit containing an array of linked,

or coupled, capacitors. Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can
transfer its electric charge to a neighbouring capacitor. CCD sensors are a major
technology used in digital imaging.

In a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region (an epitaxial layer of
silicon), and a transmission region made out of a shift register (the CCD, properly
speaking).

Fig. 6 CCD structure

In the Fig. shown above the charge packets (electrons, blue) are collected in potential
wells (yellow) created by applying positive voltage at the gate electrodes (G). Applying
positive voltage to the gate electrode in the correct sequence transfers the charge
packets.

An image is projected through a lens onto the capacitor array (the photoactive region),
causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the light
intensity at that location.

A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the

image, whereas a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures a
two-dimensional picture corresponding to the scene projected onto the focal plane of
the sensor.

Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor
to transfer its contents to its neighbour (operating as a shift register). The last capacitor
in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, which converts the charge into a
voltage.

By repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the
array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages. In a digital device, these voltages
are then sampled, digitized, and usually stored in memory; in an analog device (such
as an analog video camera), they are processed into a continuous analog signal (e.g.

Prepared By : Dr. Pankaj Sahu (Dept. of MTE, JEC, Jabalpur)

 Robotics & Automation
by feeding the output of the charge amplifier into a low-pass filter), which is then
processed and fed out to other circuits for transmission, recording, or other
processing.

Charge generation

Before the MOS capacitors are exposed to light, they are biased into the depletion
region; in n-channel CCDs, the silicon under the bias gate is slightly p-doped or
intrinsic.

The gate is then biased at a positive potential, above the threshold for strong inversion,
which will eventually result in the creation of an n channel below the gate as in a
MOSFET. However, it takes time to reach this thermal equilibrium: up to hours in high-
end scientific cameras cooled at low temperature.

Initially after biasing, the holes are pushed far into the substrate, and no mobile
electrons are at or near the surface; the CCD thus operates in a non-equilibrium state
called deep depletion.

Then, when electron–hole pairs are generated in the depletion region, they are
separated by the electric field, the electrons move toward the surface, and the holes
move toward the substrate. Four pair-generation processes can be identified:

• photo-generation (up to 95% of quantum efficiency),

• generation in the depletion region,
• generation at the surface, and
• generation in the neutral bulk.

The last three processes are known as dark-current generation, and add noise to the
image; they can limit the total usable integration time.

The accumulation of electrons at or near the surface can proceed either until image
integration is over and charge begins to be transferred, or thermal equilibrium is
reached. In this case, the well is said to be full.

The maximum capacity of each well is known as the well depth, typically about 105
electrons per pixel. CCDs are normally susceptible to ionizing radiation and energetic
particles which causes noise in the output of the CCD, and this must be taken into
consideration in satellites using CCDs.

Prepared By : Dr. Pankaj Sahu (Dept. of MTE, JEC, Jabalpur)