2.

4 Analytic and Harmonic Functions

We begin our discussion with famous equations called the Cauchy-Riemann
equations.

A necessary but not sufficient condition for a function ( ) ( ) ( ) f z u x, y iv x, y = + to be
differentiable at a complex number
0
z is for f to satisfy the CRE at ( )
0 0 0
z x , y =

Example 2.22: Use the Cauchy Riemann Equations to prove that ( ) f z z = is not
differentiable anywhere in .
Solution:
( ) f z z x iy = =
( ) ( ) u x, y x v x, y y = =
1 1
x y
u v = =
0 ,
y
u = 0
x
v =
Note that
x y
u v x, y = for all , f z x yi = + therefore is not differentiable for all

Theorem 2.4.1 Cauchy Riemann Equations
Suppose that
f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
and that f(z) exists at a point z
0
= x
0
+ iy
0
. Then the first order partial derivatives of
u and v must exist at (x
0
, y
0
) and they must satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann Equations
u
x
= v
y
and u
y
= -v
x

at [x
0
,y
0
]. Also, f(z
0
) can be written as
f(z
0
) = u
x
+ iv
x




Example 2.23: Determine the largest possible subset of where f is differentiable,
given
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
a
b


f z xy iy
f z sin xcosh y i cos x sinh y
= +
= +

Solution:
( ) ( ) f z xy iy = + a
u xy v y = =
1
x y
u y v = =
0
y x
u x v = =
are all continuous for all
x y, x y
u , u v , v z
1
0
imples that
Thus CRE is satisfied only at
imples that

,

x y
y x
u v y
z i
u v x
= =

=
`
= =

)

( ) Therefore exists only at f z z i ' = and ( ) 1. f i ' =






Theorem 2.4.2 Let ( ) ( ) ( ) f z u x, y iv x, y = + be defined on a ball containing
0 0 0
z x iy = + . If u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann Equations
at ( )
0 0
x , y and both u and v have continuous first partial
derivatives at ( )
0 0
x , y , then ( )
0
f z ' exists, and we have
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 0 x x
f z u x , y iv x , y ' = +
( ) ( )
0 0 0 0 y y
v x , y iu x , y =
( ) ( ) f z sin xcosh y i cos x sinh y = + b
( ) u x, y sinxcosh y =
( ) v x, y cos x sinh y =
and
CRE is satisfied for all
and



x y
y x
u cos xcosh y v cos xcosh y
x, y
u sin x sinh y v sin x sinh y
= =

`
= =

)
are all continuous for all
x y x y
u , u , v , v x, y.
( ) Therefore exists for all z f z e ' and ( ) . f z cos xcosh y i sin x sinh y ' =


We now derive the Cauchy-Riemann Equations in polar coordinates.
We note that
( ) ( ) But .
x x
f z u iv x r cos , y r sin , z r cis ' = + = = =
Now, ( ) ( ) ( ) let f z u r, iv r, = + . We then have the following
( )
x r x x
u u r u

= + a
( )
y r y y
u u r u

= + b
( )
x r x x
v v r v

= + c
( )
y r y y
v v r v

= + d
We need to determine
x y x y
r r , , ,
x r cos =
( ) 1 Differentiating with respect to :
x x
x r sin r cos = + (e)
( )
0 Differentiating with respect to :
y y
y r sin r cos = + (f)
y r sin =
( ) 0 Differentiating with respect to :
x x
x r cos r sin = + (g)
( )
1 Differentiating with respect to :
y y
y r cos r sin = + (h)
( ) ( ) Using e and g , we have
( ) 1
x x
cos r sin r cos = +
( ) 0
x x
sin r cos r sin = +
2
2
0



x x
x x
x
cos r sin cos r cos
r sin cos r sin
cos r

= +
= +
=

By substitution in eq (g), we have
0

x
x
r cos cos sin
sin
r

= +
=

( ) ( ) Using f and h
( )
( )
0
1

y y
y y
y
cos r sin r cos
sin r cos r sin
r sin

= +
= +
=

By substitution in eq (f), we have
0

y
y
r sin sin cos
cos
r

= +
=




Thus, from eq( )
x r x x
u u r u

= + a :

x r
u sin
u u cos
r

=
from eq (b):
y r
u cos
u u sin
r

= +
from eq (c):
x r
v sin
v v cos
r

=
from eq (d):
y r
v cos
v v sin
r

= +
By CRE:
x y
u v = and
Y x
u v = :

r r
u sin v cos
u cos v sin
r r


= +
and
Y x
u v = :
r r
u cos v sin
u sin v cos
r r


+ = +
Finally, we have the CRE in polar coordinates:

v
u
r
r

= and
r
u
v
r

=
Now, since ( )
x x
f z u iv ' = + , then we have
( ) ( )( )
r r
f z u iv cos i sin ' = +
Thus, if ( ) ( ) ( ) f z u r, iv r, = + , then f is differentiable at
i
z r cis re

= = if
u, v satisfy the CRE in polar coordinates and
r
u , u , v

and
r
v are continuous at
.
i
z re

=

Example 2.24: Determine where ( ) f z ' exists given
( )
2

i
f z re ,

= < <
Solution:
( ) ( )
2 2
; u r, r cos v r, r sin

= =
1 1
2 2 2 2
r
u cos v r cos
r


= =
1 1
2 2 2 2
r
u r sin v sin
r

= =
0 Note that all are continuous for all , r >
By CRE , we have

1
2 2
r
v
cos u
r r

= = and
1
2 2
r
u
sin v
r r

= =
Theorem 2.4.3 Let the function
f(z) = u(r, ) + iv(r, )
be defined throughout some neighborhood of a non-zero point
z
0
= r
o
i
e
and suppose that the first-order partial derivatives of the
functions u and v with respect to r and exist everywhere in that
neighborhood. If those partial derivatives are continuous at (r
0
,
0
) and satisfy the polar form
ru
r
=

v and

u = -rv
r

of the Cauchy-Riemann equations at (r
0
,
0
), then f (
0
) exists.
The derivative f (
0
) is given by
f (z
0
) =
i
e

(u
r
+ iv
r
)
where the right hand side is to be evaluated at (r
0
,
0
).
( )
2
Thus, is differentiable everywhere except at the origin.
i
f z re , ,

= < <

Example 2.25: Let
( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 f z z x y xyi = = +

Therefore, is entire. f
Example 2.26: Suppose ( )
2 2
1

x yi
f z
z x y

= =
+

Then,
( )
2 2 2 2
;
x y
u x, y v
x y x y

= =
+ +
( )( ) ( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 0 2
x y
x y x x x y x y
u u
x y x y
+ +
= =
+ +

( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2
x y
y x xy
u u
x y x y

= =
+ +

0 is analytic everywhere except at f z = and 0 thus, is a singular point. z =
Definition 2.4.3:
5. A function f is analytic at a point
0
z if there exists an open ball ( )
0
B z ,
such that ( ) f z ' exists for all ( )
0
z B z , e .


0
z
( )
( )
0
z B z , z
f z
e
' exists



6. f is analytic at a region R _ if f is analytic at every z R e .
7. If f is analytic at every complex number z then f is an entire function.
8. If f is analytic at every point in a ball ( )
0
B z , except at
0
z , then
0
z is
called a singular point of f .
( ) 2 for all f z z z ' = e
Definition 2.4.3:
1. A function f is analytic at a point
0
z if there exists an open ball ( )
0
B z ,
such that ( ) f z ' exists for all ( )
0
z B z , e .


0
z
( )
( )
0
z B z , z
f z
e
' exists



2. f is analytic at a region R _ if f is analytic at every z R e .
3. If f is analytic at every complex number z then f is an entire function.
4. If f is analytic at every point in a ball ( )
0
B z , except at
0
z , then
0
z is
called a singular point of f .
Example 2.27: Consider ( ) f z z x yi = =
1 1
0 0



x y
y x
u x v y
u v
u v
= =
= =
= =

We note that CRE are not satisfied. Hence f (z) does not exist everywhere and f
is not analytic everywhere.
Example 2.28: ( ) ( )
3
3
1 f z x i y = +
( )
3
3
1 , u x v y = =
( )
2
2
3 3 1 ,
x y
u x v y = =
0 0
y x
u v = =
Thus, ( )
2
2
1 x y =
2
0 1 0 and x y = =
0 1 x y = =
This means that CRE satisfied only at z i = , and so ( ) exists only at f z z i ' =
Consequently, is not analytic anywhere. f
Example 2.29 The quotient f(z) =
) 1 )( 3 (
4
2 2
3
+
+
z z
z
is analytic throughout the z-plane except for
the singular points z = 3 and z = i .

EXERCISES 2.4
1. Show that f(z) and its derivative f(z) exist everywhere and find f(z) when
a. f(z) = iz + 2
b. f(z) = z
3

c. f(z) = sin(x) cosh(y) + i cos(x) sinh(y)
2. Determine where f(z) exists and find its value when
a.
2 2
( ) f z x iy = + b.
3 3
( ) (1 ) f z x i y = + c. f(z) = z Imz
3. Use the polar coordinates to find f(z) if
4
1
( ) f z
z
=
4. Find the singular points:
4.1
3
2 1
( )
z
f z
z z
+
=
+
4.2
3
2
( )
3 2
z i
f z
z z
+
=
+
4.3
( ) ( )
2
2
1
( )
2 2 2
z
f z
z z z
+
=
+ +