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Unit_III
Complex Numbers:

In the system of real numbers R we can solve all quadratic equations of the
form
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , a 0 , and the discriminant b 2 4ac 0 . When the discriminant
b 2 4ac < 0 , the solution of this quadratic equation do not belong to the
system of .
In fact , a simple quadratic equation of the form x 2 + 1 = 0 , does possesses
solution in real. This difficulty was overcame by introducing the imaginary
part unit i, where i 2 = 1 .
Thus the set of complex numbers defined as . C = {( x + iy ) : x, y R and i = 1 } .

co

Some Basic Results:

bu
s.

1. If z = x +iy is a complex number, then the complex number z = x iy is

called the complex conjugate of z , and z z = ( x + iy )( x iy ) = x 2 + y 2
2.If z= x+iy is a complex number , then the modulus of z, denoted by
z = x2 + y2

.a
l

ls

yl

la

3. A complex number z = x + iy is represented by a point p(x ,y) in the

Cartesian plane with abscissa x and ordinate y. Then the x-axis is called real
axis and the y-axis is called the imaginary axis.The point p(x, y) is referred
to as the point z.

Let OP= r and XOP = . Then x = r cos , y = rsin

Every Complex number can z = x +iy be expressed in the form as given
below
z = r(cos + isin )
polar form
z = rei
exponential form

We observe that r = x + y the modulus of z and it represents the

distance of the point z from the origin. Also
y
= tan -1 the angle is called the arg ument of z.
x
4. Let z 0 = x 0 + iy 0 then z - z 0 = ( x x0 ) + i( y y 0 )

( x x 0 ) 2 + ( y y 0 )2 .

Now z - z 0 may be represented as

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and z z 0 = R serves as the complex equation

of the circle C with (x0 , y 0 ) and radius R. In particular z = 1 represents the
circle with center at the origin and radius equal to 1.
z - z 0 = R (cos + i sin )

Functions of a complex variable:

Let C be a set complex numbers. If to each complex number z in C there
corresponds a unique complex number w ., then w is called a complex
function of z defined on C, and we write w = f(z). Hence ,w has a real part ,
say u and an imaginary part , say v. Then , w has the representation
W= f(z) = u(x,y) + i v(x,y) (Cartesian form)
W = u(r,) + i v(r,)

(polar form)

is defined at z 0 and

lim f(z) = z
z z 0

co
m

Continuity :
A complex valued function f(z) is said to be continuous at a point z 0 if f(z)
.

lls

yl

la

bu

s.

Note:
1. If a complex valued function f(z) is differentiable at a point z 0 , then
it is continuous at z 0 .
2. The converse of the above result is not always true. The continuity of
a complex function need not imply its differentiability.
Derivative of a complex function:

.a

The derivative of a complex function f at a point z = z 0 , denoted by f (z 0 ),

f(z + z ) f(z 0 )
, provided this limit exists.
is defined as f 1 ( z 0 ) = lim 0
z 0
z
Substituting z = z - z 0 , we have

f(z) f(z 0 )
z 0
z
We should remember that by the definition of limit f(z) is defined in a
neighborhood of z 0 and z may approach z 0 from any direction in the
complex plane . The derivative of a function at a point is unique if it exists.
Analytic Functions. Cauchy-Riemann equations.
In complex analysis we are interested in the functions, which are
differentiable in some domain, called the analytic functions. A large variety
of functions of complex variables which are useful for applications purpose
are analytic.
f 1 ( z 0 ) = lim

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A Function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point z 0 , if it is differentiable

at z 0 and, in addition , it is differentiable throughout some
neighborhood of z 0 .
Further a function f(z) is said to be analytic in a domain D if f(z) is defined
and differentiable at all points of D. In fact , analyticity is a global
property while differentiability is a local property.
The terms regular and holomorphic are also used in place of analytic.

Cauchy-Riemann Equations :

and u = v

. At the point z = x + iy.

bu

u = v

s.

co

Cauchy Riemann equations provide a criterion for the analyticity of a

complex function W = f(z) = u(x,y) + i v(x,y) .
Statement: Necessary conditions for a function to be analytic.:
If f(z) = u(x,y) + i v(x,y) is continuous in some neighborhood of a point
z= x+ iy and is differentiable at z , then the first order partial derivatives of
u(x,y) and v(x,y) exist and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations
y

z 0

x + iy
--------(I)

z 0

{ u ( x + x, y + y) + i v (x + x, y + y) } {u (x.y) + i v(x, y) }

f 1 ( z ) = lim

f(z + z ) f(z)
z

w
.a

f ( z ) = lim

lls

yl

la

Proof:
Since f(z) is differentiable at z, we have

Let us assume z to wholly real and wholly imaginary.

Case I: When z wholly real, then y = 0 , so that z = x .The limit on
the right side of equation (I) becomes,

f 1 ( z ) = lim
x 0

{ u ( x + x, y) x

u(x.y) }

+ i lim
z 0

{v( x + x, y) -

v(x.y) }

u
v
+i
.
--------------------------------------(II)
x
x
Case II: When z wholly imaginary, then x = 0 , so that z = iy .The
=

limit on the right side of equation (I) becomes,

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f 1 ( z ) = lim

{ u ( x, y + y) iy

y 0

u(x.y) }

1 u v
+
i y y

+ i lim
y 0

v u
i
y y

{v( x, y + y) -

v(x.y) }

iy

---------------------------------------(III)

Since f(z) is differentiable the value of the limits obtained from (II) and (III)
must be equal.

u
v
+i
=
x
x

v u
i
y y

Comparing the real and imaginary parts, we get

co
m

u
v
u
v
at the z = (x,y).
=
and
=
x
y
y
x

la

bu

s.

These are known as the Cauchy-Riemann equations. Satisfaction of these

equations is necessary for differentiability and analyticity of the function f(z)
at a given point. Thus, if a function f(z) does not satisfy the CauchyRiemann equations at a point, it is not differentiable and hence not analytic
at that point.

dw
, and determine where w is not analytic.
dz
Let us consider z in exponential form , z = re i = r (cos + i sin )
y
r = (x 2 + y 2 ) , = tan 1
x
w = u + iv = log(x + iy)
1
y
= log(x 2 + y 2 ) + i tan -1
2
x

.a
l

ls

yl

Ex 1: If w= logz, find

Equating real and imaginary parts

1
y
log(x 2 + y 2 ) : v = tan -1
2
x
u
x
v
y
= 2
:
= 2
2
x
x +y
x
x + y2

u=

u
y
= 2
y
x + y2

v
x
= 2
y x + y 2

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Now from- C-R equations

u
v
=
x
y

and

u
v
=
y
x

Thus w = logz the C-R equations holds good for (x 2 + y 2 ) 0

Further ,

dw u
dv
x
y
=
+i
= 2

i
dz x
dx (x + y 2 )
x 2 + y2

x - iy
z
1
dw
= 2
=
=
x + y2
z
dz
z (z )

()

co

Thus every point other than origin ( i.e. x 2 + y 2 0 ) w=logz is

differentiable and the function logz is analytic every where except at origin.

bu
s.

Ex2: Show that the function w= sinz is analytic and find the derivative.

lls

yl

la

w = u + iv = sin(x + iy)
= sinx cosiy + cosx siniy ------------------------(1)
e ix e ix
e ix e -ix
and cosx =
Now sin x =
2i
2
sinix = isinhx : cosix = coshx

w
.a

Using these in equation (1)

W = (u + iv ) = sinx coshy + icosx sinhy
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
u = sinx coshy : v= cosx sinhy

u
v
= cosx coshy ,
= sin x sinh y
x
x
-------------------------(2)

u
v
= sinx sinhy ,
= cosx coshy
y
y
The C-R equations are satisfied

u
v
=
x
y

and

u
v
=
y
x

f(z) = sinz is analytic.

u
dv
+i
= cosx coshy + i(- sinx ) sinh y
x
dx
= cosx cosiy sinx sin iy

f 1 (z ) =

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= cos(x + iy ) = cosz
Consequences of C-R Equations:
1). If f(z)= u + iv is an analytic function then u and v both satisfy the two
dimensional Laplace equation.

2 2
+ 2 = 0 This equation is also written as 2 = 0 .
2
x
y
Here 2 is the two- dimensional Laplacian.
Since f(z) is analytic we have Cauchy-Riemann equations

(I )

and

u
v
=
y
x

( II )

u
v
=
x
y

2u
2v
and
=
y 2
y x

bu
s.

2u
2v
=
x 2
x y

co

Differentiating (I) w,r,t. x and (II) w.r.t y partially we get

w
w
.a
lls

yl

la

2v
2v
=
is always true and hence we have
But
x y
y x
2u
2u
2u
2u
+
= 0 ,this implies u is harmonic.
= 2
or
x 2
y 2
x 2
y
Similarly Differentiating (I) w.r.t . y and (II) w.r.t.y partially we get

2v
2v
= 2
x 2
y

2v
2v
= 0 , this implies v harmonic.
or 2 +
x
y 2

If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function, then u and v are harmonic

functions. Here , u and v are called harmonic conjugates of each other.
Consequence II:
If f(z) = u + iv is an analytic function, then the equations u ( x, y ) = c1
And v( x, y ) = c 2 represent orthogonal families of curves.
Soln:
u (x, y ) = c1 -------------(i)
v(x, y ) = c 2 --------------(ii)
Differentiating eqn (i) partially w.r.t x

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u
dy
x = m --------- (I)
or
=
1
dx
u
y

u u dy
+
=0
x y dx

Differentiating eqn (ii) partially w.r.t. x

v
dy
x = m ---------(II)
or
=
2
dx
v
y
The two families are orthogonal to each other , then m1m 2 = 1 ,
And using C-R equations

(u x )(v x ) = (v y )( u y ) = 1
(u y )(v y ) (u y )(v y )

bu
s.

m 1m 2 =

co
m

v v dy
+
=0
x y dx

la

Hence the curves intersect orthogonally at every point of intersection.

x 2 + 2y 2 = c 2

x2
= c1 :
y

.a

lls

yl

Note: The converse of the above result is not true. The following example
reveals the property.
x2
u=
:
v = x 2 + 2y 2
y

u
dy
x = (2x y ) = 2y = m for curve c
=
1
1
(- x 2 y 2 ) x
dx
u
y
v
dy
x = (2x ) = x = m for curve c
=
2
2
(4y ) 2y
dx
v
y
m1m 2 = 1 . They intersect orthogonally.
But C-R Equations are not satisfied

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u
v

x
y

u
v

y
x

and

Some different forms of C-R Equations:

If w = f(z) = u+ iv , is analytic , then the following results follows.
1. f 1 ( z ) =

u
v
+i
=
x
x

u
v
v u
= i + i

i
y
y y
y

u
v
u
v
= i + i

+i
y
x
x
y
w
w
= i
x
y
2
2
2
2
2
u v 1 2 u v
1
f (z ) = + f (z ) = +
x x
x x

la

2.

bu
s.

co
m

u u v u
= + = +
x y x y
2

using C-R Equations.

lls

yl

.a

Based on the results above mentioned the following results are valid,
2

1
(
)
(
)
f
z
(
)
+
f
z
=
f
z

a)

b) is any differential function of x and y then

2

2

1
=

+
+
= f (z ) .
x y u v

2
2
2
2
c) 2 + 2 [Re f (z ) ] = 2 f 1 ( z )
y
x

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2
2
2
2
d) 2 + 2 f ( z ) = 4 f 1 ( z )
y
x

co

Construction of An Analytic Function When real or

Imaginary part is Given
(Putting in Exact differential M dx + N dy = 0)
The Cauchy-Riemann equations provide a method of constructing
an analytic function f(z) = u+iv when u or v or u v is given.
Suppose u is given, we determine the differential dv , since
v = v(x,y),
v
v
dx + dy using C-R equations ,this becomes
x
y
u
u
dv = dx + dy = M. dx + N dy
y
x
2u
2u

M
=0
= 2 +
And it is clear that

x
y 2
x y
Because u is harmonic. This shows that M dx + N dy is an exact differential.
Consequently , v can be obtained by integrating M w.r.t. x by treating y as a
constant and integrating w.r.t. y only those terms in N that do not contain x,
and adding the results.
Similarly, if v is given then by using

w
.a

lls

yl

la

bu
s.

dv =

v
v
u
u
dx + dy = dx dy .
y
x
x
y

du =

Following the procedure explained above we find u, and hence

f(z) u + iv can be obtained. Analogous procedure is adopted to find
u+iv when u v is given.
Milne-Thomson Method:
An alternative method of finding u iv when u or v or u v
is given.
Suppose we are required to find an analytic function f(z) = u+ iv
when u is given. We recall that

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u u
f ( z) = i
x y

------------------------(I)

u
u
= ( x, y) and
= ( x, y) -------(II)
x
y
--------(III)
Then f (z) = ( x, y) i ( x, y)

Let us we set

Replacing x by z and y by 0, this becomes

f (z) = (z,0) i (z,0)

-------(IV)
From which the required analytic function f(z) can be got.
Similarly , if v is given we can find the analytic function f(z) = u+ iv by
2

co

s.

starting with

v v
f ( z ) = + i Analogous procedure is used when u v is given.
y x

w
.a

lls

yl

la

bu

Applications to flow problems:

As the real and imaginary parts of an analytic function are the

solutions of the Laplaces equation in two variable. The conjugate functions
provide solutions to a number of field and flow problems.
Let v be the velocity of a two dimensional incompressible fluid with
irrigational motion, V =

v v
i+
j ------------------------------(1)
x y

Since the motion is irrotational curl V= 0.

Hence V can be written as

i+
j -----------------------------(II)
x
y

Therefore , is the velocity component which is called the velocity

potential. From (I) and (II) we have

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v v
=
,
=
x x y y

------------------------(III)

Since the fluid is incompressible div V = 0.

co

+ = 0 -----------------------(IV)
x x y y
2 2
+
= 0 This indicates that is harmonic.
x 2 y 2
The function (x, y ) is called the velocity potential , and the curves
(x, y ) = c are known as equi -potential lines.

s.

Note : The existence of conjugate harmonic function (x, y ) so that

w
.a

lls

yl

la

bu

w(z) = (x, y ) + i (x, y ) is Analytic.

x
dy
y v y
The slope is Given by
=
=
=
dx
vx

x
y

This shows that the velocity of the fluid particle is along the tangent to the
1
curve (x, y ) = c , the particle moves along the curve.

(x, y ) = c1 - is called stream lines (x, y ) = c - called equipotential

lines. As the equipotential lines and stream lines cut orthogonally.

w(z) = (x, y ) + i (x, y )

dw

=
+i
=
i
dz x
x x
y

= vx vy

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The magnitude of the fluid velocity

(v

2
x

+ v 2y ) =

dw
dz

The flow pattern is represented by function w(z) known as complex

potential.
Complex potential w(z) can be taken to represent other two-dimensional
problems. (steady flow)

(x, y ) = c --- interpreted as equipotential lines.

(x, y ) = c1 --- interpreted as Lines of force

co

1. In electrostatics

s.

2. In heat flow problems:

la

bu

(x, y ) = c --- Interpreted as Isothermal lines

(x, y ) = c1 --- interpreted as heat flow lines.

lls

yl

Cauchy Riemann equations in polar form:

w
.a

Let f(z) = f(re i ) = u(r, ) + iv(r, ) be analytic at a point z, then

there exists four continuous first order partial derivatives ,

u u v v
,
,
,
and satisfy the equations
r r
u 1 v v
1 u
=
: =
.
,
r r r
r
i
Proof: The function is analytic at a point z = re .
f ( z ) = lim
1

z 0

f(z + z ) f(z) exists and it is unique.

z

Now f(z) = u(r, ) + iv(r, ).

Let z be the increment in z , corresponding increments are

r , in r and .

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f ( z ) = lim
1

{ u (r + r , + ) + i v (r + r, + ) } {u (r. ) + i v(r, ) }
z

z 0

f ( z ) = lim
1

{ u (r + r, + ) -

u(r. ) }

z 0

{v(r + r, + ) - v(r.) }

+ i lim

z0

------------------------(I)

Now

z = re

z =

z
z
r +
.
r

z =

(re )r + (re )
r

and z is a function two variables r and , then we have

bu
s.

co

z = e r + i r e
When z tends to zero, we have the two following possibilities.
i

f ( z ) = lim
1

w
.a

Z 0 , implies r 0

{ u (r + r, ) -

And

= 0, so that z = e r

lls

(I). Let

yl

la

r 0

u(r. ) }

e r
i

+ i lim

{v(r + r , ) -

r 0

v(r. ) }

e r

The limit exists,

u v
f ( z) = e + i
r
r

-----------------(I)

2. Let r = 0 , so that z = i r e
And z 0, imply 0

f ( z ) = lim
1

{ u (r, + ) i r e
i

u(r. ) }

+ i lim

{v(r, + ) -

z 0

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ir e
i

v(r. ) }

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1
i re
i

v = 1 i u + v
u
+i
i
r e

1 v i u ------------ (II)
f (z) = e

r r
From (I) and(II) we have
1

-i

v
1 u or ru
=
r
r

u 1 v
=
r r

= v , rv = u
r

co
m

Which are the C-R Equations in polar form.

Harmonic Function:

equation

bu
s.

A function -is said to be harmonic function if it satisfies Laplaces

=0
2

.a

lls

1 1
+
+
=0
r r r r

yl

la

Let f(z) = f(re i ) = u(r, ) + iv(r, ) be analytic. We shall show that

u and v satisfy Laplaces equation in polar form.

The C-R equations in polar form are given by,

v
1 u ------------(II)
=
r
r

u 1 v ---------(I)
=
r r

Differentiating (I) w.r.t r and (II) w.r. , partially , we get

v
u
u u
v
: r
=
r
+
=
r

r
r r
And we have v = v
r r
2

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1 u
u u
r
+
=
r
r
r
2

Dividing by r we, get

u 1 u 1 u
+
+
=0
r
r r r
Hence u-satisfies Laplaces equation in polar form.
The function is harmonic. Similarly v- is harmonic.
2

Orthogonal System:

d
, being the angle between
dr
the radius vector and tangent. The angle between the tangents at
the point of intersection of the curves is 1 2 . Tan Tan = 1,is
the condition for orthogonal.
1

bu

s.
co

Let r = f( ) and tan = r

lls

yl
la

Consider u(r, ) = c1 .
Differentiating w.r.t , treating r as a function of .
u

dr

=
d
u

r

w
w

.a

u dr u
+
=0
r d

Thus Tan = r d
dr
1

= r ( r )
u

(u )

=- r

(u r ) ---------(I)
(u )

Similarly for the curve v(r, ) = c 2

Tan = - r
2

(v r )
(v )

-----------(II)

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(
r u ) (r v )
r
r
Tan Tan =
(u ) (v )
1

ru = v , rv = u

By C-R Equations

The equation reduces to

v ) (- u )
(

= 1
Tan Tan =
(v ) (u )
2

om

us
.c

Hence the polar family of curves u(r, ) = c1 and v(r, ) = c 2 ,

intersect orthogonally.

lls

yl

la
b

Construction of An Analytic Function When real or

Imaginary part is Given(Polar form.)
The method due to Exact differential and Milne-Thomson is
explained in earlier section .

.a

1
(cos2 ) is harmonic . find also an analytic
r

function.
Soln:

Ex: Verify that u =

u 2
= cos2
r r

: u = 2 sin2
r

u 6
= cos2 :
r
r
2

u
4
=

cos2 .
2
4

r
Then the Laplace equation in polar form is given by,
2

u
1 u
1 u
6
4
2
+
+
=
cos2 cos2 cos2 = 0
r
r
r
r r
r
r
2

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Hence u-satisfies the laplace equation and hence is harmonic.

Let us find required analytic function f(z) = u+iv.
We note that from the theory of differentials,
dv =

v
v
dr + d
r

Using C-R equations

ru = v , rv = u
r

co

1 u
u
= dr + r d
r
r
2
2

= sin2 dr cos2 d
r
r

bu
s.

= d - sin2
r

lls

From this v = - 1 sin2 + c

r

yl

la

w
.a

1
1

f(z) = u + iv = cos2 + i - sin2 + c

r
r

1
[cos2 - isin2 ] + ic
r

1
e
r

- 2i

+ ic =

1
+ ic
(r e )
i

1
+ ic.
z
Ex 2:Find an analytic function f(z)= u+iv given that
f(z) =

1
v = r - sin
r

r0

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Soln: v = r + 1 sin

: v = r 1 cos

To find u using the differentials

du =

u
u
dr +
d
r

Using C-R equations

ru = v , rv = u
r

1 v
v
=
dr + - d
r
r

1 1
1

= r - cos dr - r 1 + sin d
r r
r

la

bu
s.

= 1 1 cos dr - r + 1 sin d
r
r

co

lls

w
.a

1
u = r + cos + c
r

yl

= d r + cos
r

f(z) = u+iv

1
1
= r + cos + c + i r - sin
r
r
1
= r(cos + isin + (cos - isin ) + c
r
1
1
f(z) = r e + e = z + + c
r
z
Ex: Construction an analytic function given u = r cos2 .
i

-i

(Milne Thomson Method)

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u = r cos2 -----------(I)
u
u
= 2r sin2
= 2rcos2

r
2

u v
f ( z) = e + i
r
r
i

Using C-R equations

r u = v , r v = u
r

-1
f (z ) = e 2 rcos2 + i (- 2r sin2 )
r

-i

co
m

= e [2 rcos2 + i (2r sin2 )]

-i

= 2 r e [cos2 + isin2 ]

bu
la

lls

yl

Now put r = z , and = 0 .

f 1 (z ) = 2z on integrating
f (z ) = z 2 + c .

s.

-i

.a

COMPLETION OF UNIT-I

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.a
lls

yl
la

bu

s.

co

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