MODULE - I

COMPLEX VARIABLES
Complex number:
 The Real and Imaginary part of a complex number z= x + iy are x
and y respectively, and we write

Re z  x and Im z  y
 We may represent the complex number z in polar form:
z  r[cos  i sin  ]
 Where x= rcos, y= rsin ,r is called the absolute value and  is the
argument of Z.
Now
z  r ei
z  r ei

z r and arg z  
 Geometrically z is the distance of the point z from the origin. For
any complex number

z  x i y
z  x2  y 2

r  x2  y 2
  Distance between two points, z1  x1  iy1 and z2  x2  iy2
Now z1 – z2 = (x1 – x2) + i (y2 – y1) is a complex number.

 x1  x2    y1  y2 
2 2
z1  z2 

 Equations and inequalities of curves and regions in the

complex plane:
 Consider z  z0  R ---(1)
 Where z = x+iy is any point and z0=x0+iy0 is a fixed point, R is a
given real constant.

z  z0  R OR z  z0  R ei 0    2

 x  x0    y  y0 
2 2
R

 x  x0    y  y0 
2 2
 R 2 ----(2)
Equation (2) represents a circle C of radius R with the center at a
point (x0, y0). Hence equation (1) represents a circle C center at z 0 with
radius R in the complex plane
Consequently we have,
1. The inequality z  z0  R, holds for any point z inside C; ie. z  z0  R

represents set of complex points lies inside C or interior points of C.

such a region is called a circular disk or more precisely open circular
disk or open set.
Note: If R is very small say >0 (no matter, how small but not zero)
then z  z0   is called a nhd of the point z0.
2. The inequality z  z0  R , holds for any z inside and on the C. such a
region is called circular disk or closed set [ z  z0  R consists interior of
C and C itself].
3. The inequality z  z0  R represents exterior of the circle C.

4. The inequality r1  z  z0  r2 represents a region between two

concentric circles C1 and C2 of radii r1 and r2 respectively. Where z0 is
the center of circles. Such a region is called an open circular ring or
annular region.

5. Suppose z0 = 0, then z  R represents a circle C of radius R with

center at the origin in the complex plane.
Consequently we have the following:
The equation z  1 represents the unit circle of radius 1 with center at the
origin.
a) z  1 : represents the open unit disk.
b) z  1 : represents the closed unit disk.
[Students become completely familiar with representations of curves and
regions in the complex plane]
Complex variable:
 If x and y are real variables, then z=x+iy is said to be a complex
variable.
Complex Function:
 If, to each value of a complex variable z in some region of the
complex plane or z-plane there corresponds one or more values of
W in a well defined manner, then W is a function of z defined in
that region (domain), and we write W=f(z).
Observation:
 The real and imaginary part of a complex function W  f ( z)  u  iv
are u and v which are depends on:
i. x,y in Cartesian form.
ii. r,  in polar form.
Limit:
A complex valued function f(z) is said to have the limit l as z approaches
to z0 (except perhaps at z0) and if every positive real number ∈>0 (no
matter, how small but not zero) we can find a positive real number >0
such that f ( z)  l   whenever z  z0  for all values z  zor lim f ( z )  f ( z0 )
0 Z  Z0

 z  z0 means that, z approaches to z0 through independent of path.

z  z0
Continuity of : A complex function W  f ( z) is said to be continuous at
a point zo if
i) f(z0) is exists.
ii) lim f ( z )  f ( z0 )
Z  Z0

Note: If f(z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it

is continuous at every point of that region.
Derivative of f(z):
 u v u v
 and 
Note-1: The necessary conditions for f(z ) to be analytic are x y y x
these two relations are called Cauchy-Riemann Equations.
u u v v
Note-2: The sufficient conditions for f(z) to be analytic are, four partial derivatives , , ,
x y x y
must exist and must be continuous at all points of the region.

Example-1:
 Show that f(z)=Re z is not analytic.
Solution: f(z) = Re z =x
u=x and v=0
u v u v
 1,  0,  0,
x x y x
u v u v
C-R equation    ,are not satisfied
x y y x
Hence f(z)=Re z=x is not analytic similarly f(z)=Im z=y is not
analytic
Property-1: The real and imaginary parts of an analytic functions
f(z)=u+iv in some region of the z-plane are solutions of Laplace’s
equations in two variables.
 2u  2u  2v  2v
  0 and  0
x 2 y x 2 y 2

Solution: f(z)=u+iv is an analytic function, then

u v u v
( By C  R Equation)  and     (1)
x y y x

u v u v
Consider     (2),      (3)
x y y x

Diff (2) with respect to x

Diff (3) with respect to y
  2u  2 v
    (4)
x 2 xy

 2u  2v
    (5)
y 2 yx

Adding (4) and (5)

 2u  2u
  0    (6)
x 2 y 2

 2 v  2u
    (7)
Diff (2) with respect to y y 2 yx
 2v  2u
     (8)
Diff (2) with respect to x x 2 xy
 2v  2v
Adding (7) and (8) we get   0    (9)
x 2 y 2
 Thus both functions u(x,y) and v(x,y) satisfy the Laplace’s equations
in two variables. For this reasons, they are known as Harmonic
functions or Conjugate Harmonic function.
Polar form: If f(z)=u(r, )+i v(r, ) is an analytic function, then show
that u and v satisfy Laplace’s equation in polar form.
 Laplace equation in Polar form in two variables,

 2u 1 u 1  2u  2v 1 v 1  2v
  0 and   0
r 2 r r r 2  2 r 2 r r r 2  2
Orthogonal System:

 Two curves are said to be orthogonal to each other when they

intersect at right angles at each of their point of intersections.
Property: If w=f(z)=u+iv be an analytic function then the family of
curves u ( x, y )  c1 and v( x, y)  c2form an orthogonal system.
Solution: f(z)=u+iv is an analytic functions.
u v 

x y 
    C  R e quation
u v 

y x 

differentiate w.r.t, x we get

v v dy
 0
x y dx
v

dy
 x  m    (3)
dx v 2

y
 u v
 
 m1.m2  x  x
u v
y y
v v
y
  x (By C-R Equations)
v v

x y
m1.m2  1, form an orthogonal system

r
tan 1  where 1 being the angle between
dr
d
the radius vector and the tangent to the curve(1)
 r
tan 1 
u


u
r
u
r
tan 1   r    (5)
u

Differentiate (2) w. r. t. 

v v dr
 0
 r d
v

 
dr
d v
r
r
tan 2  , where 2 being the angle between the radius and the tangent to the curve(2)
dr
d
 u v
r r
tan 1  tan 2  r  r
u v
 
1 v v
r. r
 r   r
 v
r
r 
 1 form an orthogonal system
Note: We have z  x  iy and z  x  iy

1
Now x  ( z  z )
2
1
y  (z  z )
2i
Consider f ( z )  u ( x, y )  i v( x, y )    (1)
 zz zz  zz zz 
f ( z)  u  ,   i v  , 
 2 2i   2 2i 
put z  z we get
f ( z )  u ( z, 0)  i v( z, 0)    (2)

 (2) is same as (1) if we replace x by z and y by 0

Similarly in polar form if we replace r by z and  by 0 in f ( z )  u(r , )  i v(r , )

This is due to Milne-Thomson

 1
Note : (i) sin(i x)  i sin h x or sin hx  sin(i x)
i
(ii) cos(i x)  cos hx
Example:1
Show that f(z)=sin z is analytic and hence find, f ( z)

Solution: f(z) = sin(z)

=sin(x+iy)
=sin(x)cos(iy)+cos(x)sin(iy)
f(z)=sin x cos hy + i cos x sin hy
Equating real and imaginary parts u=sinx coshy and v=cosx sin hy--(1)
u v
u and v satisfies necessary conditions 
x y

u v

y x

u v
f ( z )  i
x x
 cos x cos h y  i (  sin x) sin h y )    (*)
1
 cos( x) cos(iy )  i sin x. sin(iy )
i
 cos( x) cos(iy )  sin x sin(iy )
 cos( x  iy )
d [sin z ]
f ( z )  cos( z )   cos z
dz
or By Milne's Thomson method replace x by z and y by 0 in (*)
d [sin z ]
f ( z )  cos( z ).1  0  f ( z )  cos( z ) or  cos z
dz
 dw
2) Show that w  z  e z is analytic, hence find
dz
Solution : Let w  f ( z )  u  iv.
w  ( x  e x cos y )  i ( y  e x sin y )
Equating real and imaginary parts
u  ( x  e x cos y ), v  ( y  e x sin y )
u and v satisfies C-R equations
consider
dw u v
 f ( z )  i
dz x x
 (1  e cos y )  i (e x sin y )
x

 1  e x [cos y  i sin y ]    (1)

 1  e x .eiy
 1  ez
d[ z  ez ]
 1  ez
dz

Or By Milne’s-Thomson method replace x by z and y by 0 in (1), we get

derivative of z + ez
Example-3:
show that w  log( z )is analytic, hence find f ( z )
w  log[rei ]
w  log(r )  i equating real and imaginary parts
u  log(r ) and v   , u and v satisfies C-R equation in polar form.
consider
 u v 
f ( z )  e  i  i
 r r 
1 
 e  i  
r 
e  i

r
1
f ( z )  1    (1)
re
1
f ( z ) 
z
d [log z ] 1
 
dz z
d [log z ] 1
or by Milne's Thomson method replace r by z and  by 0 in RHS of (1), we get 
dz z
Cauchy's-Riemann equations in Cartesian form
Statement: The real and imaginary part of an analytic function
f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y) satisfies Cauchy’s-Riemann equations.
u v u v
 and  at each point
x y y x

Note: A function f(z) is analytic, then

u v
f ( z )  i limit approaches along the x-axis
x x
u u
and f ( z )  i limit approaches along the y-axis
y y

Example: The function f ( z )  z 2 is analytic for all z, and f ( z )  2 z

Solution:

f ( z )  ( x 2  y 2 )  i 2 xy is analytic every in the complex plane.

u=x 2  y 2 and v=2xy
u u v v
 2 x,  2 y,  2 y,  2x
x y x y
u v
f ( z )  i
x x
 2x  i2 y
 2( x  iy )
 2z
d (z2 )
  2z
dz
Note: If f(z)=u(r,)+iv(r,) then Cauchy-Riemann equation in polar
form:

u 1 v u v
 and  r
r r   r
 u v 
where f ( z )  e  i   i  limit
 r r 
approaches along the radial line and
e  i  v u 
f ( z )     i a limit approach along angular path.
r  

Construction of Analytic Function:

Construction of analytic function f ( z)  u  iv when u or v or u  v is given.

Example1: Find the Analytic Function f(z), whose real part is

e2 x [ x cos 2 y  y sin 2 y ].

Solution:

Given u  e 2 x [ x cos 2 y  y sin 2 y ]    (1)

Differentiate (1) w.r.t. x
u
 e 2 x  cos 2 y   2e 2 x  x cos 2 y  y sin 2 y     (2)
x
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. y
u
 e 2 x  2.x.sin 2 y  y.2 cos 2 y  sin 2 y     (3)
y
 u v
Consider f ( z ) 
i    (4)
x x
v u
By C-R Equations replace 
x y
u u
f ( z )  i    (5)
x y

using (2) and (3) on RHS (5)

f ( z )  e2 x cos 2 y  2 x cos 2 y  2 y sin 2 y   i e2 x 2 x sin 2 y  2 y cos 2 y  sin 2 y 

By Milne's Method replace x by z and y by 0

f ( z )  e 2 z [1  2 z ]
f ( z )  e 2 z  2e 2 z .z
int egrate we get
1 2z  e2 z e2 z 
f ( z)  e  2  .z  c
2  2 4 
1 1
f ( z )  e 2 z  ze 2 z  e 2 z  c
2 2
f ( z )  ze 2 z  c

Note : u  iv  ( x  iy )e 2 x .ei 2 y  c
 e2 x ( x  iy )(cos 2 y  i sin 2 y )
u  iv  e 2 x  ( x cos 2 y  y sin 2 y )  i ( y cos 2 y  x sin 2 y )   c
 u  e2 x [ x cos 2 y  y sin 2 y ]  c
v  e2 x ( y cos 2 y  x sin 2 y )
Taking c  0 we get
u  e2 x [ x cos 2 y  y sin 2 y ] which is real part
and v  e2 x [ y cos 2 y  x sin 2 y ] is imaginary part of a required analytic function f ( z )
 sin 2 x
2) Find the Analytic function whose real part is
cos 2 y  cos 2 x
sin 2 x
Solution : u       (1)
cosh 2 y  cos 2 x
Differentiate w.r.t. x
u (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x).2 cos 2 x  sin 2 x[2sin 2 x]

x (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2
u 2 cosh 2 y cos 2 x  2[cos 2 (2 x)  sin 2 2 x]

x (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2
u 2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y  2
      (2)
x (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2

Differentiate (1) w.r.t. y

u sin 2 x[(2sinh 2 y )]

y (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2
u 2sin 2 x sinh 2 y
      (3)
y (cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2

u v
Consider f ( z )  i
x x
v u u u
By C-R equation replace  f ( z )  i
x y x y
f ( z ) 
 2 cos 2 x cosh 2 y  2  i 2 sin 2 x sinh 2 y
(cosh 2 y  cos 2 x) 2
By Milne's Thomson method replace x by z and y by 0
2[cos 2 z  1]  i.0
f ( z ) 
(1  cos 2 z ) 2
2[1  cos 2 z ]
f ( z ) 
(1  cos 2 z ) 2
2
f ( z ) 
[1  cos 2 z ]
2
f ( z ) 
2 sin 2 z
f ( z )   cos ec 2 z
int ergate
f ( z )   cot z  c

 1
3) Construct the analytic function whose imaginary part is  r -  sin  , r  0.
 r
Hence find the Real part.
 1
Solution: Given v   r   sin     (1)
 r
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. 
u  1 
  r   cos           (2)
  r
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. r
u  1
 1  2  sin             (3)
r  r 
  u v 
Consider f ( z )  e  i  i     (4)
 r r 
u 1 v
By C-R Equation replace  on
r r 
RHS of (4) we get
 1 v v 
f ( z )  e  i  i
 r  r 
 i  1  1  1  
f ( z )  e   r   cos   i  1  2  sin  

r  r  r  
By Milne's method replace r by z and  by 0

1  1 
f ( z )  e0   z   .1  i.0 
z z 
 1 
f ( z )  1  2 
 z 
Integrate we get
1
f ( z )  z   ic
z
1
To find real part: Consider f ( z )  rei   ic
rei
1
u  iv   r cos   ir sin     cos   i sin    ic
r
 1  1 
u  iv   r   cos   i  r   sin   c 
 r  r 
Equating real and imaginary parts
 1
u   r   cos 
 r
 1
v   r   sin   c to get actual imaginary part of an analytical function
 r
f ( z )  u  iv taking c  0
 1
 v   r   sin 
 r

4) Find an analytic function f ( z ) as a function of z

given that the sum of real and imaginary part is x3  y 3  3 xy ( x  y )
Solution : The sum of real and imaginary part is given by
u  v  x 3  y 3  3xy ( x  y )        (1)
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. x
u v
  3 x 2  0  3 xy  3 y ( x  y )
x x
u v
  3 x 2  3 xy  3 y ( x  y )    (2)
x x
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. y
u v
  0  3 y 2  3 xy (1)  3 x( x  y )
y y
u v
  3 y 2  3 xy  3 x( x  y )      (3)
y y
 u v
By C-R Equation replace 
y x
u v
 in(3)
x y
u v
  3 y 2  3 xy  3 x( x  y )      (4)
x x
Consider
u v
  3 x 2  3 xy  3 y ( x  y )
x x
u v
  3 y 2  3 xy  3 x( x  y )
x x
u
2  3 x 2  3 y 2  ( x  y )3( x  y )
x

u
2  3x 2  3 y 2  3x 2  3 y 2
x
u
 3 x 2  3 y 2          (5)
x
u v
  3 x 2  3 xy  3 y ( x  y )
x x
u v
  3 y 2  3 xy  3 x ( x  y )
x x
v
2  3 x 2  3 y 2  6 xy  ( x  y ).3( y  x)
x
=3 x 2  3 y 2  6 xy  3( x  y ) 2
 3 x 2  3 y 2  6 xy  3 x 2  3 y 2  6 xy
 12 xy
u
 6 xy        (6)
x
 u v
Consider f ( z )  i
x x

 3x 2  3 y 2   i 6 xy by (5)&(6) 
By Milne's Thomson method replace x by z and y by 0
f ( z )  3z 2
int egrat
f ( z)  z3  c
1
5) Find an analytic function f(z)-u+iv, given that u+v= cos 2  sin 2  , r  0
r2
1
Solution : u  v  cos 2  sin 2       (1)
r2
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. r
u v 2
   3  cos 2  sin 2       (2)
r r r
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. 
u v 2
   2sin 2  2 cos 2       (3)
  r 2
By C-R Equations
u 1 v 

r r  
 in LHS of (3)
u v 
 r
 r 
 v u 2
r r  2 sin 2  cos 2 
r r r
u v 2
  3 sin 2  cos 2       (4)
r r r
Consider
u v 2
  3  cos 2  sin 2 
r r r
u v 2
  3  cos 2  sin 2 
r r r
u 2
2  3  2 cos 2 
r r
u 2
 3 cos 2              (5)
r r
Subtract (3)-(4) we get
u 2
2   3  2sin 2 
r r
u 2
 sin 2          (6)
r r 3
 u v 
Consider f ( z )  e  i   i 
 r r 
 2 2 
f ( z )  e  i   3 cos 2  i 3 sin 2 
 r r 
By Milne's Thomson method replace r by z and  by 0
2
f ( z )   3
r
int egrate
 1 
f ( z )  2   2  +c
 2z 
1
f ( z )  2 +c
z
  1
6) Show that u   r   cos  is harmonic. find its harmonic
 r
conjugate and also corresponding analytic function.
 1
Solution: Given u   r   cos         (1)
 r
we shall show that u is a solution of Laplace's equation in two variables in polar form.
 2u 1 u 1  2u
i.e 2    0          (2)
r r r r 2  2
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. r
u  1
 1  2  cos                (3)
r  r 
Differentiate (3) w.r.t. r
 2u 2
  3 cos                 (4)
r 2
r
Differentiate (1) w.r.t. 
u  1 
 1   ( sin  )               (5)
  r 

Differentiate (5) w.r.t. 

 2u  1
   r   cos         (6)
 2  r 
Consider
 2u 1 u 1  2u 2 1 1  1 1
   cos    1   cos    r   cos 
 2 r r r 2  2 r 3 r  r2  r2  r
2 1 1 1 1
 3 cos   cos   3 cos   cos   3 cos 
r r r r r
2 2
 3 cos   3 cos 
r r
0
 u is solution of equation(2)
Hence u is harmonic function.
Consider
 u v 
f ( z )  e  i  i      (7)
 r r 

u v
By C-R Equation =-r
 r
v 1 u
 replace  in (7)
r r 
 1  i  1 
f ( z )  e  i  1  2  cos    r   sin  
 r  r r 
By Milne's Thomson method replace r by z and  by 0
 1 
f ( z )   1    i.o
 z2 
 1 
f ( z )   1  
 z2 

Integrate
1
f ( z)  z 
z
To find harmonic Conjugate
1
consider u  iv  rei  e  i
r
 1  1
u  iv   r   cos   i  r   sin 
 r  r
Equating real and imaginary parts
 1
 u   r   cos 
 r
 1
v   r   sin 
 r
which is required conjugate harmonic
  2 2 
 f ( z )  4 f ( z )
2 2
7) If f(z) is a regular function of z show that  2 2 
 x y 

Solution:

We have f ( z )  u  iv
 f ( z)  u 2  v 2       (1)
 u 2  v 2        (2)
2
f ( z)
u v
and f ( z )  i
x x
 u   v 
2 2

 f ( z )      
 x   x 
 u   v 
2 2

f ( z )       (3)
2
 
 x   x 
Differentiate (2) w.r.t. x
 f ( z)
2
 2 2

(u  v )
x x
u v
 2u 2
x x
Again differentiate w.r.t. x
 2 f ( z )
2
   u v  
 2  u  v 
x 2  x  x x  
  2u u u  2v v v 
 2 u 2  v 2  
 x x  x x x x 
  2u  u 2  2 v  v  
2

2 u 2     v 2          (4)
 x  x  x  x  
Similarly Differentiate (2) w.r.t. y we get
2 f ( z)
2
  2u  u 2  2v  v  
2

 2 u 2     v 2          (5)
y 2 y  y  y  y  
 
Adding (4) and (5) we get
2 f ( z)
2
2 f ( z)
2
   2u  2u    2 v  2 v   u   v   u   v  
2 2 2 2

  2 u  2  2   v  2  2                  (6)
x 2 y 2   x y   x y   x   x   y   y  

w. k. t. if f(z)=u+iv is regular or analytic function then real part u and

imaginary part v satisfies Laplace equation in two variables or two

dimensional Laplace equation.

 2u  2u  2v  2v
   0 and  0
x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2
Using these on RHS of (6)
 2 2   u  2  v  2  u  2  v  2 
 2  2  f ( z )  2            
2

 x y   x   x   y   y  
u v u v
By C-R Equations  , 
x y y x
 u  2  v  2  v  2  u  2 
 2             
 x   x   x   x  

  u 2  v  
2

 2 2    2   
  x   x  
 u 2  v  2 
 4      
 x   x  
 4 f ( z )
2
[from (3)]
Complex integration:
Line Integral:
Let f(z) be a single valued complex function and
continuous defined at each point on a curve C between end points A and
B, in the z-plane. Then the line integral of f(z) along the curve C
traversed from A to B is denoted by
B

 f ( z)dz
A
or  f ( z)dz
C

Note: Now, we divide this curve C into n parts between the points
A  A1 ( z1 ), A2 ( z2 ),       An ( zn )  B
We get n line segments say C1 : A1 to A2 , C2 : A2 to A3        Cn : An 1 to An
 C : C1  C2  C3            Cn, is union of C1C2    Cn

 f ( z )dz 
C

C1  C2  C3  Cn
f ( z )dz

=  f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz         f ( z )dz

C1 C2 C3 Cn

or
B A2 A3 A4 An

 f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz         

A A1 A2 A3 An1
f ( z )dz
Note: If curve C is traversed from B to A then line integral of f ( z ) along C is


C
f ( z )dz    f ( z )dz
C
A B
ie.  f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz
B A

Note: Now setting z  x  iy

f ( z )  u ( x, y )  i v ( x, y )
or f ( z )  u  iv
 dz  dx  idy

 f ( z )dz   (u  iv)(dx  idy)

C C

  (udx  vdy )  i (vdx  udy )

C

 f ( z )dz  (udx  vdy )  i  (vdx  udy )

C C C

This shows that evaluationof the line integral of a complex function can be
reduced to the evaluation of two line integrals of real functions.
B ( x2 , y2 ) ( x2 , y2 ) ( x2 , y2 )


A ( x1 , y1 )
f ( z )dz  
( x1 , y1 )
(udx  vdy )  i 
( x1 , y1 )
(vdx  udy )

2i

 z 
2
Example: Evaluate dz along
0

x
(i) The line y  , (ii) The real axis upto 2 and then vertically to 2  i
2
Solution: We have z  x  iy
dz  dx  idy
(i) Line integral of f(z)=  z  along the curve x=2y between the points z1  0 and z 2  2  i
2
Along oA: x=2y dx=2dy
2i (2,1)

 z  
2
dz  ( x  iy ) 2 (dx  idy )
0 (0,0)

Replace x  2 y and dx  2dy

2i (2,1)

 z  
2
dz  (2 y  iy ) 2 (2dy  idy )
0 (0,0)

Here integral is a function of y alone and y varies from 0 to 1

1
  (2  i) (2  i) y .dy
2 2

y 0
1
5  y3 
 (2  i )  
3  30
5
 (2  i )
3
(ii) Line intergral along the real axis upto 2 and then vertically (2+i)

Here Curve C : C1  C2
where C : O to A divided into C1 : O to B and C2 : B to A
2i (2,0) (2,1)

 z   
2
dz  ( x  iy ) (dx  idy ) 
2
( x  iy ) 2 (dx  idy )
0 (0,0) (2,0)

In the first integral x is varies from 0 to 2 and y=0  dy=0

In the second integral y is varies from 0 to 1 and x=2  dx=0
Using these on RHS of the above integral
2 1

 x dx   (2  iy ) 2 .idy
2
=
x 0 y 0
1
 2  iy  
2 3
x3
 i 
3 3i 
0 0
8 1
  
 (2  i ) 3  8 

3 3
8 1
   (3  4i )(2  i )  8
3 3
8 1
   6  11i 
3 3
8 1
  (6  11i )
3 3
1
 [14  11i ]
3

Example  2 : Evalute  z 3dz ,along the circle z  1.

C

Solution: The given Curve C is z  1

Complex variable z in polar form
z  rei
r  1 and  varies from 0 to 2
z  ei
dz  ei .id
dz  iei d
  z 3 dz   z 3 dz
C z 1

Along z  1, r=1,  =0 to 2 
2
  (ei ) 3 .i e i d
 0
2
=i  e 4 i d
0
2
 e 4 i 
i 
 4i  0
1
  e8 i  1
4  
1
 z 3 dz   cos 8  i sin 8  1
C
4
1
 1  0  1
4
0
(2,4)

Example-3: Evaluate 
(0,3)
(2 y  x 2 )dx  (3x  y )dy along

(i) The parabola x  2t and y  t 2  3

(ii) The straight line from (0,3) to (2,4)
Solution :
(i) Along x=2t and y  t 2  3, from the given limit, x  0 to 2
and y  3 to 4. Compute limit for t ie.
Here t varies from 0 to 1, as x varies from 0 to 2 and y varies from 3 to 4
 x  2t dx  2dt
y  t2  3 dy=2tdt
(2,4)

Let I= 
(0,3)
(2 y  x 2 )dx  (3x  y )dy

1
I   2(t  3)  4t 2  2dt   6t  t 2  3 2t dt
2

t 0
1
 2  6t 2  6  dt  6t 2  t 3  3t  dt
t 0
1
 2  6t 2  6  6t 2  t 3  3t  dt
t 0
1
 2  12t 2  3t  t 3  6  dt
t 0
1
12t 3 3t 2 t 4 
 2    6t 
 3 2 4 0
12 3 1 
 2     6
3 2 4 
 7
 2 10  
 4

2
 40  7
4
33

2
(ii) Along straight line from (0,3) to (2, 4).
Equation of line joining the points (0,3) to (2, 4)
y  y1 y y
 2 1
x  x1 ( x2  x1 )
y 3 43

x  0 (2  0)
y 3 1

x 2
1
x  2y  6 or y   x  6
2
(2,4)

Let I= 
(0,3)
(2 y  x 2 )dx  (3x  y )dy      (1)

1 dx
Taking y  ( x  6)  dy  and x varies from 0 to 2
2 2
 1 2   dx
2
1
I=   2. ( x  6)  x dx  3x  ( x  6) 
0    2
2 2
2
dx
  ( x 2  x  6)dx  (6 x  x  6)
0
4
 2
1
   4 x 2  4 x  24  5 x  6  dx
40
2
1

  4 x 2  9 x  18 dx
40

2
1  x3 x2 
  4  9  18 x 
4 3 2 0
1 8 4 
  4   9   36 
4 3 2 
1  32 
  18  36
4  3 

1  32  54  108 

4  3 
194

12
97

6
Cauchy’s Theorem
Statement: If f(z) is analytic function and f ( z ) is continuous
at all points inside and on a simple closed curve C
then  f ( z)dz  0
C

Proof : Let f ( z )=u  iv and z  x  iy,

dz  dx  idy as usual.
Then

 f ( z )dz   (udx  vdy)  i  (vdx  udy)        (1)

C C C

The given curve in the complex plane is a simple closed curve C

Greens Theorem states that

 N M 
C Mdx  Ndy  A  x  y dx dy, Where A is a region bounded by A
Applying this theorem on RHS of (1) we obtain
  (v) u   u v 
 f ( z )dz   
C A
x
 dx dy  i    dx dy
y  A 
x y 
u v u v
Since f ( z ) is analytic, we have Cauchy Riemann Equations  , 
x y y x
 v v   u u 
C f ( z ) dz  A  x x 
  dx dy  i A  x  x dx dy
0 This proves Cauchy's Theorem
Extension of Cauchy’s Theorem:
If f  z  is analytic in the region D between two simple closed curve C and C1 , then

 f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz
C C1

To Prove this, we need to introduced the cross cut AB, say

Now f ( z ) is analytic at all points inside and on a simple closed curve
: C  AB  C1  BA, By Cauchy's Theorem

 f ( z )dz  0

C  AB C1  BA
f ( z )dz  0

 f ( z )dz  
C AB
f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz 
C1

BA
f ( z )dz  0

 f ( z )dz  
C AB
f ( z )dz  
 C1
f ( z )dz  
 AB
f ( z ) dz  0

 f ( z )dz  
C AB
f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz 
C1

AB
f ( z )dz  0
 f ( z)dz   f ( z)dz  0
C C1

 f ( z)dz   f ( z)dz
C C1

If C1 , C2 , C3 ............Cn be any n number of closed curves with in C then

 f ( z)dz   f ( z)dz   f ( z )dz   f ( z )dz  ....................   f ( z )dz

C C1 C2 C3 Cn

Example: Verify Cauchy’s Theorem for the function f ( z)  z 2 where C is

the square having vertices (0,0), (1,0), (1,1),(0,1).
Solution:
Here the given curve C is the square in the Complex plane as shown in
the above figure.

Since f ( z )  z 2 is analytic everywhere in the complex plane, it is analytic at all points inside and on the curve C.
By Cauchy's Theorem

 f ( z)dz  0
C

 z dz  0..................(*)
2

 z dz   z dz   z dz   z dz   z dz
2 2 2 2 2

C OA AB BC CO
(1,0) (1,1) (0,1) (0,0)

 z dz   z dz   z dz   z dz  
2 2 2 2
z 2dz..................(1)
C (0,0) (1,0) (1,1) (0,1)
(1,0) (1,0)

 z dz   ( x  iy) (dx  idy)

2 2
Consider
(0,0) (0,0)

Here y  0  dy  0 and x varies from 0 to 1

1
  ( x  io) (dx  o)
2

x 0
1

x 0
 x 2 dx

1
 ...............(2)
3
(1,1) (1,1)

 z dz   ( x  iy ) 2 (dx  idy )
2
Consider
(1,0) (1,0)

Here x  1, dx  0 and y varies from 0 to 1

1
= 
y 0
(1  iy ) 2 (idy )
 1
i  (1  iy)
2

y 0
1
 (1  iy )3 
i  (1+i) 2  2i
 3i  0
1
 (1  i )3  1
3
1
  (1  i )(2i )  1
3
1
  2i  2  1
3
1
  2i  3
3
2
 i  1....................(3)
3
(0,1)

Consider 
(1,1)
( x  iy ) 2 ( dx  idy )

Here y  1, dy  0 and x varies from 1 to 0

0

 ( x  i)
2
= dx
x 1
0
( x  i )3

3 1

1 3
 i  (1  i )3 
3
1
  i  (1  i )2i 
3
1
  i  2i  2
3
1
  3i  2
3
2
 i  .............(4)
3
 (0,0) (0,0)

Consider 
(0,1)
z 2 dz  
(0,1)
( x  iy ) 2 (dx  idy )

Here x  0, dx  0 and y varies from 1 to 0

0
=  (iy ) 2 idy
y 1
0
 y3 
 i  
 3 1
 1
 i 0  
 3
i
 ...............(5)
3

Substitute 2,3,4&5 on RHS of (1)

1 2i 2 i
 z dz  3  3  1  3  i  3
2

2 2i 2 2i
   
3 3 3 3
0 Hence Cauchy's Theorem verified
If C is the circle z =1 verify Cauchy's Theorem for f ( z )  z 3

Example-2:
2
Show that 
C
z dz  i  1, where C is the square having vertices (0,0)(1,0)(1,1)(0,1).

Give the reason for Cauchy's theorem not being satisfied.

Solution:-
2 2 2 2 2

C
z dz  
0A
z dz  
AB
z dz  
BC
z dz  
C0
z dz

(1,0) (1,1) (0,1) (0,0)

 ( x  y )(dx  idy )   (x  y )(dx  idy )   (x  y )(dx  idy )   ( x 2  y 2 )(dx  idy )

2 2 2 2 2 2
=
(0,0) (1,0) (1,1) (0,1)
 1 1 0 0
 
x 0
x 2 dx  
y 0
(1  y 2 )idy   ( x 2  1)dx 
x 1

y 1
y 2 .idy

1 4 4 i
 i  
3 3 3 3
 1  i
2
  z  i  1  0. Hence Cauchy's Theorem is not verified since f ( z )= z  x 2  y 2
2

ie. u  iv  x 2  y 2 is not analytic. The necessary conditions u x  v y , u y  vx are not

satisfied. This is the reason for Cauchy's Theorem not being satisfied.

Cauchy’s Integral formula:

Statement: If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve C and if a is
1 f ( z)
any point within C, then f (a)  
2 i C ( z  a)
dz

Proof: Consider a closed curve C with ‘a’ is a point within C

f ( z)
Consider function which is a analytic at all points within C except at z  a.
( z  a)
with the point 'a ' as centre and radius r, draw a small circle C1
lying entirely within C
f ( z)
Now being analytic in the region
( z  a)
enclosed by C1 and C , we have by Cauchy's Theorem
f ( z) f ( z)
C z  a C ( z  a)dz
dz 
1
For any point z on C1 , z - a  rei
and dz  i rei d  z  a  rei
Where  varies from 0 to 2
2
f ( z) f (a  r ei ) i
C ( z  a)dz  
0
r ei
.ire d

2
 i  f (a  r ei )d
0

in the limiting form, as the circle C1 shrinks to the point 'a' ie as r  0,

The above line integral approach to

2
f ( z)
C ( z  a)dz  i 0 f (a)d
2
 i f ( a )  d
0

 2 i. f ( a)
1 f ( z)
2 i C ( z  a )
 f (a)  dz ,

which is the desired Cauchy's Integral formula

Note:- Generalized the Cauchy's Integral formula:
1 f ( z)
(i) f (a)  
2 i C ( z  a) 2
dz

1 f ( z)
(ii) f (a)  
2 i C ( z  a) 3
dz and so on

1 f ( z)
2 i C ( z  a) n 1
f n (a )  dz

Note:- In view of solving problems we consider Cauchy's integral formula as

f ( z) 2 i f (a) if a is inside C
C ( z  a)  0
dz 
if a is outside C

Problems on Cauchy’s Integral formula:

Example-1:
ez
Evaluate  dz over each of the following regions C:
C
( z  i )

(i ) z  2 (ii) z  (iii) z  1  1
2
Solution:
ez f ( z)
C ( z  i )dx  C  z  ()i dz
where f(z)=e z , which is analytic everywhere in the complex plane
(i) z  2 is a circle centre at the origin and radius 2

ez f ( z)
C ( z  i ) C  z  (i )dz
dz 

Here the point a  -i lies inside the circle z  2 and f ( z )  e z

is analytic within and on the circle z  2 . By Cauchy's Integral Formula
 2 i f (-i )
 2 i e i
 2 i  cos   i sin  
 2 i

 
(ii) z  is a circle centre at the origin and radius
2 2
ez f ( z)
C ( z  i ) C  z  (i )dz
dz 

Here point a=-i lies outside the circle


circle z  , by Cauchy,s Integral
2
ez
formula C ( z  i )  0
(iii) z  1  1 is a circle centre at the point (1.0) and radius 1.
ez f ( z)
C ( z  i ) C  z  (i )dz
dz 

Here point a=-i lies outside the circle

z  1  1 by Cauchu's Integral formula
ez
C ( z  i )dz  0
Evaluate using Cauchy's integral formula:
e2 z
(i) C ( z  1)( z  2)dz where C represents the circle z  3.
e2 z f ( z)
Solution:  dz   dz..................(1)
C
( z  1)( z  2) C
( z  1)( z  2)
Where f ( z )  e 2 z which is analytic every where in the complex plane.
1 A B
Consider  
( z  1)( z  2) ( z  1) ( z  2)

1  A( z  2)  B ( z  1)
1
put z  2, B 
3
1
put z  -1 A  -
3
1 1

1 3  3

( z  1)( z  2) ( z  1) ( z  2)
1 1 1 
    ................(2)
3   z  2  ( z  1) 

using (2) in (1) we get

e2 z 1 1 1 
C ( z  1)( z  2)dz  C f ( z ). 3   z  2    z  1  dz
 
1  f ( z ) f ( z) 
  dz   dz  ....................(*)
C
3 C ( z  2) z  (1)  
z  3 is a circle centre at the origin and radius 3
 1  f ( z ) f ( z) 
  dz   dz 
C
3 C ( z  2) z  (1)  
here point a =2, a =-1 both lies inside the
circle z =3
1 1
= 2 if (2) - 2 if (-1)
3 3
1 1
 2 i e 4  2 i e 2
3 3
1
 2 i e 4  e 2 
3
2 i 4 2
 e  e 
3 

Singular point, Poles and Residues:

(i) A point z=a at which the complex function f(z) is fails to be
analytic is called a singular point or singularity of f(z).

Example:

1
(1) f ( z )  , z  0 is a singular point
z
1
(2) f ( z )  , z  2 is a singular point
z2
(ii) A singular point z=a is said to be an isolated singular point of f(z) if
there exists a neighborhood of a which encloses no other singular point
of f(z).

Example:

1 1
f ( z )  , z  0 is an isolated singylar point of f ( z )  ,
z z
since nhd of '0' which encloses no other singular point of
1 1
f ( z )  or is analytic everywhere in the complex plane except at z  0
z z
Note: If a is an isolated singular point of a function f(z) then we can
expand f(z) by Laurent’s series given by

 
f ( z )   an ( z  a)   bn ( z  a)  n ...............(1)
n

n 0 n 1

in the domain 0  z  a  R
Here the first term involving positive power series
of ( z - a) is called analytic part of f ( z ) and
second part involving negative power series of ( z - a) is called
principle part of f ( z ).

Note: The nature of the isolated singularity depends upon the number of
terms in principle part. Hence we have the following cases.
(i) Removable Singularity: If all the negative powers of

( z - a) in (1) are completely absent then f ( z )   an ( z  a ) n .
n 0

Here the singularity can be removed by defining f ( z )

at point z  a in such a way that it becomes analytic
at z  a. such singularity is called a removable singularity.

z  sin z
Example: f ( z ) 
z2
Here z  0 is a singularity
z  sin z 1   z3 z5 z7 
   z   z     ................ 
z2 z2   3! 5! 7! 
1  z3 z5 z7 
 2    ................
z  3! 5! 7! 
z z3 z5
    .....................
3! 5! 7!
Since there is no negative powers of z in the expansion
z  0 is a removable singularity

 ii  Poles: If all the negative powers of  z - a  in 1 after the m th

term are missing, then the singularity at z  a is called a pole of order 'm'

b1 b2 bm
ie. f ( z )=  an ( z  a) n    ...............   0  ....
n 0 ( z  a ) ( z  a ) 2
( z  a ) m

Note: A pole order one is called a simple pole.

Note: Poles of f ( z ) can be determine by equating the denominator to zero
 ez
Example: f ( z ) 
( z  1) 4
Here z  1 is a singularity and put z -1  t
 z  t 1
ez et 1
 4
( z  1) 4 t
e
 4 .et
t

e  t2 t 3 
 4 1  t    ...............  
t  2! 3! 
1 1 1 1 t t2 
 e  4  3  2     .........................
t t 2t 6t 4! 5! 
 1 1 1 1 ( z  1) ( z  1) 2 
 e       ............
 ( z  1) ( z  1) 2( z  1) 6( z  1)
4 3 2
4! 5! 
Here there are four terms containing negative powers of (z-1)
thus z=1 is a pole of order four.

(iii) Essential Singularity: If the number of negative powers

of ( z - a ) in (1) is infinite, then z  a is called an essential Singularity.
1

Example: f ( z )  ze z2

 1 1 1 
=z 1  2    ..............
 
3 4
z 2! z 3! z
1 1 1
 z  2
  .........................
z 2! z 3! z 4
1 2 1 3
f ( z )  z  z 1  z  z  .........................(*)
2! 3!
Here there are infinite number of terms in the negative powers of z,
therefore z  0 is an essential singularity of f ( z ).
Expansion given by (*) is expansion of f ( z )
around an isolated singularity z  0.
Residues:
The coefficient of ( z - a) 1 in the
expansion of f ( z ) around an isolated singularity
is called the residue of f ( z ) at that point.

The residue of f ( z ) at z  a is given by

1
Res f (a)= 
2 i C
f ( z )dz or  f ( z )dz  2 i Res f (a )
C
Cauchy’s Residue Theorem:
Statement: If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve C except at a
finite number of singular points a1 a2 ...................an all are within C, then

 f ( z )dz  2 i  Re s f (a )  Re s f (a )  ................  Re s f (a )
C
1 2 n
Example:
Using Cauchy’s residue theorem, Evaluate
z2
C ( z 1)2 ( z  2)2 dz, Where C is the circle z  2.5

Solution:

z2
Clearly f ( z )  is analytic within and
( z  1) 2 ( z  2)
on a given circle z  2.5, except at z  1, and z  -2.
z =1 is a pole of order 2.
5
 Re s f (1)= ...................(1)
9
z  2 is a simple pole
4
 Re s f (-2)=
9
By Cauchy's residue Theorem
z2
C ( z  1)2 ( z  2)dz  2 i Re s f (1)  Re s f (2)
5 4 
 2 i   
9 9 
 2 i
Conformal Transformation:
Definition: Suppose two curves C1 and C2 in the Z – plane intersect
at the point P and the corresponding curves and in the W – Plane
intersect at . If the angle of intersection of the curves at P is the same
as the angle of intersection of the curves at in magnitude and
sense.Then the transformation is said to be conformal.
Note: If w=f(z) is an analytic function of z in a region of the z – plane
then w=f(z) is conformal at all points of that regions where f ( z)  0

Note: To investigate the specific properties of a mapping w=f(z). We

may consider the images of
i) Straight line x= constant
ii) Straight line y=constant
III) z  constant and the lines through the origin

Note: The curves defined by u(x , y) =constant and v(x , y) = constant,

the pre images in the z –plane can be investigated. These curves are
called the level curves of u and v.
1) Discuss the transformation w  z2

Solution:

w  z 2 ................(1)
w  ( x  iy ) 2
u  iv  x 2  y 2  i 2 xy
Equating real and imaginary parts
u  x 2  y 2 and v  2 xy
dw
 2 z  0 for z =0 therefore it is a critical point of the mapping
dz

Case (i) Determine the images of the straight line x=constant.

 The line x  c1 has the image
u  c12  y 2 and v  2c1 y
Now eliminate y from the above relali
v 2  4c12 
 c1  u 
2 2
 .......................(3)
Equation given by (3) is a parabola with focus
at the origin and opening to the left.
Case (ii) Determine the images of the straight line y=constant.

The line y=c2 has the image

u  x 2  c22 and v  2c2 x
now eliminate x from the above relations.
v 2  4c22 (u 2  c22 )..................(4)
Equation given by (4) is a parabola with focus
at the origin opening to the right

Here the pairs of lines x  c1 and y  c2

in the z- plane map into parabolas in the w- plane as shown in the above figure
Case (iii)

Determine the images of z  r

Taking z  rei
 w  r 2 e2i
w  R ei ............(5) Where R=r 2
 =2
w R
 The angles at the origin are doubled under the mapping w=z 2 .

The first quadrant of the z-plane 0    is
2
mapped upon the entire upper half of the w-plane
Equations given by (3) represents a straight line passing through the
origin with slope m=tan c in the w – plane.
Thus the line y=constant in the z – plane is mapped onto straight line
passing through the origin in the w – plane under the transformation
W=ez
Bilinear Transformation:
 Let a,b,c and d be complex constant such that ad-bc≠0. Then the
transformation defined by
az  b
w .......................(1)
cz  d

is called Bilinear Transformation

 from (1) we find

b  wd
z .................(2)
cw  a
is also calleda Bilinear Transformation
dw
Note: The condition ad-bc  0 ensures that 0
dz
ie. The transformation is conformal if ad - bc  0
 Invariant Point:

Invariant points of bilinear transformation,

If z maps into itself in the w-plane ie w=z
az  b
z= or cz 2  (d  a) z  b  0..........(3)
cz  d
 Equation given by (3) is a quadratic equation in z, the roots of the
equation are which are Z1, Z2 invariant points or fixed points of
the Bilinear transformation.
 Cross Ratio: Bilinear transformation preserves cross ratio of three
points say points Z1, Z2 Z3 of the z-plane maps onto the points W1 W2
W3 of the w-plane.

this cross ration is given by

( w  w1 )( w2  w3 ) ( z  z1 )( z2  z3 )

( w  w3 )( w2  w1 ) ( z  z3 )( z2  z1 )
Solving this equation for w interms of z
we obtain the unique bilinear transformation
that transforms z1 z 2 z3 onto w1 w2 w3 respectively
Example: Find the bilinear transformation that transforms
the points z1  i z2  1, z3  1 onto the points w1  1, w2  0, w3  
respectively. Also find the invarient points and the images of region
z  1 under this transformation.
Solution: The required bilinear transformation is given by
( w  w1 )( w2  w3 ) ( z  z1 )( z2  z3 )

( w  w3 )( w2  w1 ) ( z  z3 )( z2  z1 )
 w 
( w  w1 )  2  1 w3
 w3  ( z  z1 )( z2  z3 ) w
 0 w3  
w  ( z  z3 )( z2  z1 ) w3
w3   w3  ( w2  w1 )
 w3 
( w  1)(0  1) ( z  i)(1  1)

(0  1)(0  1) ( z  1)(1  i)
( z  i )(1  1)
( w  1) 
( z  1)(1  i )
2( z  i )
w  1 
( z  1)(1  i )
2( z  i )
w  1
( z  1)(1  i )

( z  1)(1  i )  2( z  i )
w
( z  1)(1  i )
z  iz  1  i  z  iz  1  i

( z  1)(1  i )
( z  1)(1  i )  2( z  i )
w
( z  1)(1  i )
z  iz  1  i  2 z  2i

( z  1)(1  i )
  z  iz  1  i

( z  1)(1  i )
(1  z )  i (1  z )

( z  1)(1  i )
(1  z )(1  i )

( z  1)(1  i )
(1  z ) (1  i ) (1  i )

(1  z ) (1  i ) (1  i )
(1  z ) 2i
w . (1+i) 2  2i
(1  z ) 2
1- i 2  2
i (1  z )
w ............(*) is a required bilinear transform
1 z
To find the invariant points of bilinear transform
Taking w=2 in equation (*)
i (1  z )
z
(1  z )
z 2  z  i  iz
z 2  (1  i ) z  i  0
(1  i )  (1  i ) 2  4(i )
z
2
(1  i )  2i  4i

2
(1  i )  6i

2
(1  i )  6i (1  i )  6i
 z1  , z2  are
2 2
invarient points.
To find the image of z  1 (ie. interior points of the unit circle)
i (1  z )
w=
(1  z )
w  wz  i  iz
wz  iz  i  w
z(w  i)  i  w
iw
z .............(2)
iw

Now z  1
iw
1
iw
iw  iw
i  (u  iv)  i  (u  iv )
u  i (1  v)  u  i (i  v)
 u  i (1  v)   u  i (1  v)
u  i (1  v)  u  i (1  v)

u 2  (1  v) 2  u 2  (1  v) 2
u 2  v 2  2v  1  u 2  v 2  2v  1
4v  0
4v  0
v0
Thus under the given transformation, the circular region z  1
(ie. interior of the circle z  1) in the z-plane is mapped
onto the upper - half of the w-plane.

2) Find the bilinear transformation that the points z  -1, i,1

onto the points w  1, i, -1 respectively.
Solution: Let z1  -1, z2  i z3  1
w1  -1, w2  i w3  1
The required bilinear transformation is given by
( w  w1 )( w2  w3 ) ( z  z1 )( z2  z3 )

( w  w3 )( w2  w1 ) ( z  z3 )( z2  z1 )
( w  1)(i  1) ( z  1)(i  1)

( w  1)(i  1) ( z  1)(i  1)

( w  1) ( z  1) (i  1) 2
 .
( w  1) ( z  1) (i  1) 2
( z  1) (2i)
= 
( z  1) (2i)
( w  1) (1  z )

( w  1) ( z  1)
( w  1) (1  z )

( w  1) (1  z )
( w  1)(1  z )  ( w  1)(1  z )
w  wz  1  z  w  wz  1  z
2 wz  2  0
2 wz  2
1
w   this is the requird transformation
z