INTRODUCTION TO PETROLOGY

WHAT IS PETROLOGY???

WHAT IS PETROLOGY???
Study of rocks (petros) igneous & metamorphic chiey in the lithosphere

WHAT IS PETROLOGY???
Study of rocks (petros) igneous & metamorphic chiey in the lithosphere We will be dealing with hot rocks tell us about composition & history of lithosphere origin of rocks involves: transfer of heat (energy) movement of material

WHAT IS PETROLOGY???
Study of rocks (petros) igneous & metamorphic chiey in the lithosphere We will be dealing with hot rocks tell us about composition & history of lithosphere origin of rocks involves: transfer of heat (energy) movement of material

LITHOSPHERE

THINK LIKE A PETROLOGIST

what criteria do we use to distinguish rocks? what do we want to know? how do we answer these questions?

WHAT DO WE WANT TO KNOW?

how do we make melts? what is melted, and where? what is the role of water? how do melts behave during solidication? what causes metamorphism? how are metamorphism & deformation related? how to rocks ow in the interior of mountain belts? how do tectonic rates compare to heat conduction rates? in what tectonic settings do these rocks form?

BASIS FOR UNDERSTANDING

eld methods & sample study (observation) theory, experiment & modeling (analytical)

THINGS TO CONSIDER

THINGS TO CONSIDER
materials of earth

THINGS TO CONSIDER
materials of earth physical conditions energy pressure temperature & heat

THINGS TO CONSIDER
materials of earth physical conditions energy pressure temperature & heat relationship to tectonics

THINGS TO CONSIDER
materials of earth physical conditions energy pressure temperature & heat relationship to tectonics

EgyPT

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich Fe-rich

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich Fe-rich

Structure of Earth:

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich Fe-rich

Structure of Earth: chemical divisions core, mantle & crust

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich Fe-rich

Structure of Earth: chemical divisions core, mantle & crust mechanical divisions mesosphere, asthenosphere & lithosphere

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich Fe-rich

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich Fe-rich

Core:

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich
outer core is liquid (no S-waves) inner core is solid

Core: Fe-Ni metallic alloy

Fe-rich

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich
outer core is liquid (no S-waves) inner core is solid differentiation at work! compositional separation within the planet (fractionation)

Core: Fe-Ni metallic alloy

Fe-rich

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich Fe-rich

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich Fe-rich
Mantle:

EARTH INTERIOR
peridotite (ultramac) greatest V, m & E (moves & carries heat)

Fe-rich

Si-rich

Mantle:

EARTH INTERIOR
peridotite (ultramac) greatest V, m & E (moves & carries heat) upper layer to 410 km (olivine to spinel) contains low velocity layer 60-220 km

Fe-rich

Si-rich

Mantle:

EARTH INTERIOR
peridotite (ultramac) greatest V, m & E (moves & carries heat) upper layer to 410 km (olivine to spinel) contains low velocity layer 60-220 km transition zone between 410-660 km (spinel to perovskite) SiIV to SiVI

Fe-rich

Si-rich

Mantle:

EARTH INTERIOR
peridotite (ultramac) greatest V, m & E (moves & carries heat) upper layer to 410 km (olivine to spinel) contains low velocity layer 60-220 km transition zone between 410-660 km (spinel to perovskite) SiIV to SiVI lower mantle has more gradual velocity increase

Fe-rich

Si-rich

Mantle:

EARTH INTERIOR
Si-rich Fe-rich

EARTH INTERIOR
Crust:

Fe-rich

Si-rich

EARTH INTERIOR
Crust: mac (magnesium + ferric) to felsic (feldspar + silica) rich in Si, Al, K, Na, Ca

Fe-rich

Si-rich

EARTH INTERIOR
Crust: mac (magnesium + ferric) to felsic (feldspar + silica) rich in Si, Al, K, Na, Ca two main types: oceanic continental + transitional

Fe-rich

Si-rich

EARTH INTERIOR

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust:

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust: thin: ~10 km on average

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust: thin: ~10 km on average dense: avg = 3.0 g/cm3

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust: thin: ~10 km on average dense: avg = 3.0 g/cm3 relatively uniform stratigraphy (= ophiolite suite)

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust: thin: ~10 km on average dense: avg = 3.0 g/cm3 relatively uniform stratigraphy (= ophiolite suite) sediments

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust: thin: ~10 km on average dense: avg = 3.0 g/cm3 relatively uniform stratigraphy (= ophiolite suite) sediments pillow basalt

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust: thin: ~10 km on average dense: avg = 3.0 g/cm3 relatively uniform stratigraphy (= ophiolite suite) sediments pillow basalt sheeted dikes

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust: thin: ~10 km on average dense: avg = 3.0 g/cm3 relatively uniform stratigraphy (= ophiolite suite) sediments pillow basalt sheeted dikes massive gabbro

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust: thin: ~10 km on average dense: avg = 3.0 g/cm3 relatively uniform stratigraphy (= ophiolite suite) sediments pillow basalt sheeted dikes massive gabbro ultramac rocks (mantle)

EARTH INTERIOR
Oceanic crust: thin: ~10 km on average dense: avg = 3.0 g/cm3 relatively uniform stratigraphy (= ophiolite suite) sediments pillow basalt sheeted dikes massive gabbro ultramac rocks (mantle)

mafic rocks

CONTINENTAL

OCEANIC

EARTH INTERIOR

EARTH INTERIOR
Continental crust: thicker: 20-90 km (avg = 35 km) less dense: avg = 2.7 g/cm3 highly variable composition average = granodiorite

CHEMICAL DIVISIONS

CHEMICAL DIVISIONS
divisions separate Earth into Si-rich and Fe-rich spheres, largely a result of early chemical differentiation based on a redistribution of matter, prior to major solidication, by density

CHEMICAL DIVISIONS
divisions separate Earth into Si-rich and Fe-rich spheres, largely a result of early chemical differentiation based on a redistribution of matter, prior to major solidication, by density later, continued differentiation was (and is) mostly a result of melting and igneous process

CHEMICAL DIVISIONS
divisions separate Earth into Si-rich and Fe-rich spheres, largely a result of early chemical differentiation based on a redistribution of matter, prior to major solidication, by density later, continued differentiation was (and is) mostly a result of melting and igneous process how do we know these things???

CHEMICAL DIVISIONS
divisions separate Earth into Si-rich and Fe-rich spheres, largely a result of early chemical differentiation based on a redistribution of matter, prior to major solidication, by density later, continued differentiation was (and is) mostly a result of melting and igneous process how do we know these things??? seismic velocity structure

CHEMICAL DIVISIONS
divisions separate Earth into Si-rich and Fe-rich spheres, largely a result of early chemical differentiation based on a redistribution of matter, prior to major solidication, by density later, continued differentiation was (and is) mostly a result of melting and igneous process how do we know these things??? seismic velocity structure meteorites

CHEMICAL DIVISIONS
divisions separate Earth into Si-rich and Fe-rich spheres, largely a result of early chemical differentiation based on a redistribution of matter, prior to major solidication, by density later, continued differentiation was (and is) mostly a result of melting and igneous process how do we know these things??? seismic velocity structure meteorites xenoliths in volcanics

CHEMICAL DIVISIONS
divisions separate Earth into Si-rich and Fe-rich spheres, largely a result of early chemical differentiation based on a redistribution of matter, prior to major solidication, by density later, continued differentiation was (and is) mostly a result of melting and igneous process how do we know these things??? seismic velocity structure meteorites xenoliths in volcanics experimental petrology

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS

Figure 1-3.Variation in P and S wave velocities with depth. Compositional subdivisions of the Earth are on the left, rheological subdivisions on the right. After Kearey and Vine (1990), Global Tectonics. Blackwell Scientic. Oxford.

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
Velocity structure (v)

Figure 1-3.Variation in P and S wave velocities with depth. Compositional subdivisions of the Earth are on the left, rheological subdivisions on the right. After Kearey and Vine (1990), Global Tectonics. Blackwell Scientic. Oxford.

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
Velocity structure (v)
v increases with density () v = f ()

Figure 1-3.Variation in P and S wave velocities with depth. Compositional subdivisions of the Earth are on the left, rheological subdivisions on the right. After Kearey and Vine (1990), Global Tectonics. Blackwell Scientic. Oxford.

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
Velocity structure (v)
v increases with density () v = f () dependent on physical properties & compositions = f (X, T)

Figure 1-3.Variation in P and S wave velocities with depth. Compositional subdivisions of the Earth are on the left, rheological subdivisions on the right. After Kearey and Vine (1990), Global Tectonics. Blackwell Scientic. Oxford.

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
Velocity structure (v)
v increases with density () v = f () dependent on physical properties & compositions = f (X, T) v increases with depth (z) mostly!

Figure 1-3.Variation in P and S wave velocities with depth. Compositional subdivisions of the Earth are on the left, rheological subdivisions on the right. After Kearey and Vine (1990), Global Tectonics. Blackwell Scientic. Oxford.

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
Velocity structure (v)
v increases with density () v = f () dependent on physical properties & compositions = f (X, T) v increases with depth (z) mostly! v discontinuities indicate a change in material composition properties Figure 1-3.Variation in P and S wave velocities with depth. Compositional subdivisions of the Earth are on the left,
rheological subdivisions on the right. After Kearey and Vine (1990), Global Tectonics. Blackwell Scientic. Oxford.

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
composition property LVZ

CMB

OC-IC

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
composition
Velocity boundaries

property LVZ

CMB

OC-IC

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
composition
Velocity boundaries
source of LVZ?

property LVZ

CMB

OC-IC

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
composition
Velocity boundaries
source of LVZ? warmer? liquid?

property LVZ

CMB

OC-IC

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
composition
Velocity boundaries
source of LVZ? warmer? liquid? source of CMB?

property LVZ

CMB

OC-IC

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
composition
Velocity boundaries
source of LVZ? warmer? liquid? source of CMB? change in composition

property LVZ

CMB

OC-IC

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
composition
Velocity boundaries
source of LVZ? warmer? liquid? source of CMB? change in composition source of OC-IC?

property LVZ

CMB

OC-IC

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
composition
Velocity boundaries
source of LVZ? warmer? liquid? source of CMB? change in composition source of OC-IC? phase change (S to L)

property LVZ

CMB

OC-IC

MECHANICAL DIVISIONS
composition
Velocity boundaries
source of LVZ? warmer? liquid? source of CMB? change in composition source of OC-IC? phase change (S to L)

property

LVZ LETS LOOK IN MORE DETAIL CMB

OC-IC

PETROLOGY & TECTONICS

major mineral transformations occur at ~410 and ~660 km result from isochemical phase changes due to increased P marked by seismic velocity discontinuities

Mineral olivine spinel perovskite

Structure tetrahedral dense tetrahedral octahedral

Depth
~410 km ~660 km

Density low

high

VARIATION IN SEISMIC VELOCITY, DENSITY & MINERAL STRUCTURE

LO

HI

VARIATION IN SEISMIC VELOCITY, DENSITY & MINERAL STRUCTURE

LO

LO

HI

HI

VARIATION IN SEISMIC VELOCITY, DENSITY & MINERAL STRUCTURE

LO

LO

HI

HI

MG-SILICATES
VARIATION IN SEISMIC VELOCITY, DENSITY & MINERAL STRUCTURE

LO

LO

T S A

O N HE
T.Z.

. H SP

HI

HI

O S E

H P S

E R E

MG-SILICATES
VARIATION IN SEISMIC VELOCITY, DENSITY & MINERAL STRUCTURE

PETROLOGY & TECTONICS

Resulting divisions
lithosphere asthenosphere mesosphere

PETROLOGY & TECTONICS

Resulting divisions
lithosphere asthenosphere mesosphere

properties?

PETROLOGY & TECTONICS

Resulting divisions
lithosphere asthenosphere mesosphere

properties? connections?

PETROLOGY & TECTONICS

Resulting divisions
lithosphere asthenosphere mesosphere

properties? connections? is the mantle solid everywhere?

MANTLE GEOTHERM

MANTLE GEOTHERM

compare continental, oceanic & ridge

MANTLE GEOTHERM

compare continental, oceanic & ridge typical continental geotherm = 25 C/km

MANTLE GEOTHERM

compare continental, oceanic & ridge typical continental geotherm = 25 C/km T @ 100 km = 1000 C (enough to melt rocks!)

MANTLE GEOTHERM

compare continental, oceanic & ridge typical continental geotherm = 25 C/km T @ 100 km = 1000 C (enough to melt rocks!) are they molten? P too high? where?

CAN MELTING OCCUR?

compare geotherm to petrologic solidus for mantle rocks (peridotite) if dry conditions, no melting possible (geotherm below solidus) solid lherzolite is stable at T above geotherm

CAN MELTING OCCUR?

under wet conditions (with H2O or CO2), solidus shifts to lower T melting can occur where T > solidus low seismic velocities indicate partial melting between 100-250 km (the LVZ) the LVZ marks the base of plates formed by rigid lithosphere

CAN MELTING OCCUR?

under wet conditions (with H2O or CO2), solidus shifts to lower T melting can occur where T > solidus low seismic velocities indicate partial melting between 100-250 km (the LVZ) the LVZ marks the base of plates formed by rigid lithosphere

LITHOSPHERE

LITHOSPHERE

LITHOSPHERE
lithosphere includes crust + upper mantle

LITHOSPHERE
lithosphere includes crust + upper mantle can be oceanic, continental, or both

LITHOSPHERE
lithosphere includes crust + upper mantle can be oceanic, continental, or both typical lithosphere is 100 km (70-125 km)

LITHOSPHERE
lithosphere includes crust + upper mantle can be oceanic, continental, or both typical lithosphere is 100 km (70-125 km) largely solid material (silicates)

LITHOSPHERE
lithosphere includes crust + upper mantle can be oceanic, continental, or both typical lithosphere is 100 km (70-125 km) largely solid material (silicates) lowest densities (2.7-3.0 g/cm3)

LITHOSPHERE
lithosphere includes crust + upper mantle can be oceanic, continental, or both typical lithosphere is 100 km (70-125 km) largely solid material (silicates) lowest densities (2.7-3.0 g/cm3) slowest seismic velocities (6-8 km/sec)

LITHOSPHERE
lithosphere includes crust + upper mantle can be oceanic, continental, or both typical lithosphere is 100 km (70-125 km) largely solid material (silicates) lowest densities (2.7-3.0 g/cm3) slowest seismic velocities (6-8 km/sec) internal boundary is the Moho (density boundary)

LITHOSPHERE
lithosphere includes crust + upper mantle can be oceanic, continental, or both typical lithosphere is 100 km (70-125 km) largely solid material (silicates) lowest densities (2.7-3.0 g/cm3) slowest seismic velocities (6-8 km/sec) internal boundary is the Moho (density boundary) base of lithosphere is the low-velocity zone (LVZ)

LITHOSPHERE

lithosphere = plate

lithosphere includes crust + upper mantle can be oceanic, continental, or both typical lithosphere is 100 km (70-125 km) largely solid material (silicates) lowest densities (2.7-3.0 g/cm3) slowest seismic velocities (6-8 km/sec) internal boundary is the Moho (density boundary) base of lithosphere is the low-velocity zone (LVZ)

EgyPT

Physical conditions of Earth necessary to understand petrologic process: 1. pressure 2. temperature 3. energy & heat

PRESSURE GRADIENT

Figure 1-8. Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25, 297-356. Elsevier Science.

PRESSURE GRADIENT
P = gh

Figure 1-8. Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25, 297-356. Elsevier Science.

PRESSURE GRADIENT
P = gh P increases with depth

Figure 1-8. Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25, 297-356. Elsevier Science.

PRESSURE GRADIENT
P = gh P increases with depth

Figure 1-8. Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25, 297-356. Elsevier Science.

PRESSURE GRADIENT
P = gh P increases with depth Mantle: nearly linear through mantle ~ 30 MPa/km 1 GPa at base of avg crust

Figure 1-8. Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25, 297-356. Elsevier Science.

PRESSURE GRADIENT
P = gh P increases with depth Mantle: nearly linear through mantle ~ 30 MPa/km 1 GPa at base of avg crust slope (P/z) depends on density (composition & compressibility) of material

Figure 1-8. Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25, 297-356. Elsevier Science.

PRESSURE GRADIENT
H IG H DE

LOW

P = gh P increases with depth Mantle: nearly linear through mantle ~ 30 MPa/km 1 GPa at base of avg crust slope (P/z) depends on density (composition & compressibility) of material

N S IT Y

DEN Y SIT

Figure 1-8. Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25, 297-356. Elsevier Science.

PRESSURE GRADIENT

P = gh P increases with depth Core: increases more rapidly since alloy is more dense smaller increase in P with depth suggests inner core is more uniform, solid, and has decreasing compressibility

Figure 1-8. Pressure variation with depth. From Dziewonski and Anderson (1981). Phys. Earth Planet. Int., 25, 297-356. Elsevier Science.

PRESSURE IN THE CRUST

gh

PRESSURE IN THE CRUST

in the crust, rocks feel a lithostatic pressure like a submarine feels hydrostatic pressure on its hull implies equal pressure in all directions when materials can ow

gh

PRESSURE IN THE CRUST

in the crust, rocks feel a lithostatic pressure like a submarine feels hydrostatic pressure on its hull implies equal pressure in all directions when materials can ow for shallow rocks, can have differential pressure (where horizontal stress vertical stress), causing rocks to deform gh

PRESSURE IN THE CRUST

in the crust, rocks feel a lithostatic pressure like a submarine feels hydrostatic pressure on its hull implies equal pressure in all directions when materials can ow for shallow rocks, can have differential pressure (where horizontal stress vertical stress), causing rocks to deform gh

PRESSURE IN THE CRUST

in the crust, rocks feel a lithostatic pressure like a submarine feels hydrostatic pressure on its hull implies equal pressure in all directions when materials can ow for shallow rocks, can have differential pressure (where horizontal stress vertical stress), causing rocks to deform based on normal crustal densities, 1 kbar = 3.3 km gh

ENERGY

ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work (subatomic, to mountain, to mantle scale)

ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work (subatomic, to mountain, to mantle scale) 1. kinetic energy: EK = 1/2mv2

motion of a body

ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work (subatomic, to mountain, to mantle scale) 1. kinetic energy: EK = 1/2mv2

motion of a body

2. potential energy: EP = mgz energy of position; can be converted to Ek

ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work (subatomic, to mountain, to mantle scale) 1. kinetic energy: EK = 1/2mv2

motion of a body

2. potential energy: EP = mgz energy of position; can be converted to Ek

3. thermal energy: ET = EK + EP motions & attractions in a body (subatomic and larger) ET heat (transferred energy)

HEAT SOURCES IN THE EARTH

HEAT SOURCES IN THE EARTH

1. Heat from the early accretion and differentiation of the Earth

original heat of early core separation (PV work of compression) still slowly reaching surface as geotherm decays

HEAT SOURCES IN THE EARTH

1. Heat from the early accretion and differentiation of the Earth

original heat of early core separation (PV work of compression) still slowly reaching surface as geotherm decays

2. Heat released by the radioactive breakdown of unstable nuclides

heat production (A) from decay of U, Th & K mostly in crustal rocks

HEAT SOURCES IN THE EARTH

1. Heat from the early accretion and differentiation of the Earth

original heat of early core separation (PV work of compression) still slowly reaching surface as geotherm decays

2. Heat released by the radioactive breakdown of unstable nuclides

heat production (A) from decay of U, Th & K mostly in crustal rocks

3. Latent heat associated with outer core crystallization

continues today!

HEAT PRODUCTION
Rock Abundance of radioactive element U Granite Basalt Peridotite 4 0.5 0.02 Th 13 2 0.06 K 4 1.5 0.02
(joules/kg/yr)

Heat produced A 0.03 0.005 0.0001

from Decker & Decker (1981)

HEAT PRODUCTION
Rock Abundance of radioactive element U Granite Basalt 4 0.5 Th 13 2 K 4 1.5
(joules/kg/yr)

Heat produced A 0.03 0.005

Peridotite

If more heat-producing elements in continental crust, why are Ts lower??

0.02 0.06 0.02

0.0001

from Decker & Decker (1981)

HEAT PRODUCTION
Crustal Ts are lower because of: 1. less of it compared to mantle 2. continental crust is a good insulator 3. its thicker 4. it suffers from surface cooling

HEAT TRANSFER
1. radiation

conversion of IR energy from hot body; travels as a wave efcient in a vacuum or transparent material; not efcient in rocks!

HEAT TRANSFER
2. conduction

transfer of EK by vibration & contact, one molecule to another does not occur in a vacuum greatest transfer with greatest T (thermal gradient) conduction increases with increasing surface area depends on thermal conductivity (k) of material, given by: q = kT/z

HEAT TRANSFER
3. convection

movement of material with contrasting T, which changes density gravity acts on , in which less dense material (ie, hotter) rises movement of solid can occur in viscous mantle rocks, including rise of plumes

HEAT TRANSFER
4. advection

heat carried by owing liquids or viscous bodies (e.g., water, magma) to cooler surroundings

LAVA FLOW

MAGMA

WHAT FORMS OF HEAT TRANSFER?

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT

Figure 1-9. Estimated ranges of oceanic and continental steadystate geotherms to a depth of 100 km using upper and lower limits based on heat ows measured near the surface. After Sclater et al. (1980), Earth. Rev. Geophys. Space Sci., 18, 269-311.

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
T/z is the slope of T variation

with depth

Figure 1-9. Estimated ranges of oceanic and continental steadystate geotherms to a depth of 100 km using upper and lower limits based on heat ows measured near the surface. After Sclater et al. (1980), Earth. Rev. Geophys. Space Sci., 18, 269-311.

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
T/z is the slope of T variation

with depth

gradient drives conductive cooling toward the surface

Figure 1-9. Estimated ranges of oceanic and continental steadystate geotherms to a depth of 100 km using upper and lower limits based on heat ows measured near the surface. After Sclater et al. (1980), Earth. Rev. Geophys. Space Sci., 18, 269-311.

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
T/z is the slope of T variation

with depth

gradient drives conductive cooling toward the surface why steeper curve at depth?

Figure 1-9. Estimated ranges of oceanic and continental steadystate geotherms to a depth of 100 km using upper and lower limits based on heat ows measured near the surface. After Sclater et al. (1980), Earth. Rev. Geophys. Space Sci., 18, 269-311.

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
T/z is the slope of T variation

with depth

gradient drives conductive cooling toward the surface why steeper curve at depth? more heat production in crust

Figure 1-9. Estimated ranges of oceanic and continental steadystate geotherms to a depth of 100 km using upper and lower limits based on heat ows measured near the surface. After Sclater et al. (1980), Earth. Rev. Geophys. Space Sci., 18, 269-311.

GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
T/z is the slope of T variation

with depth

gradient drives conductive cooling toward the surface why steeper curve at depth? more heat production in crust more efcient convective mixing of heat in the mantle
Figure 1-9. Estimated ranges of oceanic and continental steadystate geotherms to a depth of 100 km using upper and lower limits based on heat ows measured near the surface. After Sclater et al. (1980), Earth. Rev. Geophys. Space Sci., 18, 269-311.

IGNEOUS TECTONIC SETTINGS

1. mid-ocean ridge 2. continental rift 3. oceanic island arc 4. continental-margin arc 5. back-arc basin 6. oceanic hotspot 7. continental hotspot

IGNEOUS TECTONIC SETTINGS

1. mid-ocean ridge 2. continental rift 3. oceanic island arc 4. continental-margin arc 5. back-arc basin 6. oceanic hotspot 7. continental hotspot

WHATS MELTING? HOW? WHERE DOES IT GO?

IGNEOUS ROCKS

next week well begin igneous rocks!