JAYPEE UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING OF TECHNOLOGY RAGHOGARH (GUNA)M.P.

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING TRAINING REPORT

SUBMIOTTED BY MUKESH KUMAR

SUBMITTED TO T.S. GAMGARAM DGM,M&S ELECTRONICS

BHARATH HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED ,RAMACHANDRAPURAM, HYDERABAD-502032 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the following Students of jaypee university of engineering and technology have successfully completed industrial training in the Electronics department of BHEL . Project Associates: T.S. GANGARAM DGM,M&S ELECTRONICS

BHEL AN OVERVIEW BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the energy related/infrastructure sector today. BHEL was established more than 40 years ago when the first plant was set up in Bhopal ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in India, a dream that has been more than realized with a well-recognized track record of performance. It has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and achieved a sales turnover of Rs.7482.2 crores with a profit before tax of Rs.802.4 crores in 2002-2003.

BHEL caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., power Generation & Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, Defense, etc. The wide network of BHELs 14 manufacturing divisions, four Power Sector regional centers, eight service centers and 18 regional offices and a large number of Project Sites spread all over India and abroad enables the Company to promptly serve its customers and provide them with suitable products, systems and services-efficiently and at competitive prices. BHEL has already attained ISO 9001:2000 version quality standard certification for quality management. BHEL has secured ISO 14001 certification for environmental management systems and OHSAS 18001 certification for occupational health and safety management systems for its major units/divisions.

Power Generation

Power Generation Sector comprises of thermal, gas, hydro and nuclear power plant business. As of 31.3.2003 BHEL-supplied sets account for nearly

68,854 MW or 65% of the total installed capacity of 1,06,216MW in the country, as against Nil till 1969-70. BHEL has proven turnkey capabilities for executing power projects from concept to commissioning. It possesses the technology and capability to produce thermal sets with super critical parameters up to 1000MW unit rating and gas turbine-generator sets of up to 250 MW unit rating. Co-generation and combined cycle plants have been introduced to achieve higher plant efficiencies. To make efficient use of high-ash-content coal available in India, BHEL also supplies circulating fluidized bed combustion boilers for thermal plants. The Company manufactures220/235/500MW nuclear turbine generator sets. Custom-made hydro sets of Francis, Pelton and Kaplan types for different head-discharge combinations are also engineered and manufactured by BHEL. In all, orders for approximately 800 utility sets of thermal, hydro, gas and nuclear have been placed on the Company as on date. The power plant equipment manufactured by BHEL is base on contemporary technology comparable with the best in the world, and is also internationally competitive.

Transmission & Distribution (T&D)

BHEL offers wide-ranging products and systems for T&D applications. Products manufactured include: power transformers, instrument transformers, series shunt-reactors, capacitor banks, vacuum & SF6 circuit breakers, gasinsulated switchgears, energy meters, SCADA systems and insulators.

A strong engineering base enables the Company to undertake turnkey delivery of substations upto 400 kV level, series compensation systems (for increasing power transfer capability of transmission lines and improving system stability and voltage regulation), shunt compensation systems (for power factor and voltage improvement) and HVDC systems (for economic transfer of bulk power). BHEL has indigenously developed the state-of-the-art controlled shunt reactor (for reactive power management on long transmission lines). Presently, a 400 kV FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) project is under execution. The Company undertakes comprehensive projects to reduce ATC losses in distribution systems. Industries BHEL is a major contributor of equipment and systems to industries: cement, sugar, fertilizer, refineries, petrochemicals, paper, oil and gas, metallurgical and other process industries. The range of system & equipment supplied includes: captive power plants, co-generations plants, DG power plants, industrial steam turbines, industrial boilers and auxiliaries, waste heat recovery boilers, gas turbines, heat exchangers and pressure vessels, centrifugal compressors, electrical machines, pumps, valves, seamless steel tubes, electrostatic precipitations, fabric filters, reactors, fluidized bed combustion Boilers, chemical recovery boilers, process controls and material handling systems. The Company has commenced manufacture of large desalination plants to help augment the supply of drinking water to people.

Transportation

BHEL is involved in the development, design, engineering, marketing production, installation, and maintenance and after-sales service of rolling stock and traction propulsion system. In the area of 350HP to 3100HP, both for mainline and shunting duty applications. BHELis also producing rolling stock for special applications viz., overhead equipment cars, Special well wagons, Railcum-road vehicle etc. Besides traction propulsion systems for in-house use, BHEL manufactures traction propulsion systems for other rolling stock producers of electric locomotives, diesel-electric locomotiveselectrical multiple units and metro cars. The electric and diesel traction equipment on Indian Railways are largely powered by electrical propulsion systems produced by BHEL. BHEL also undertakes retrofitting and overhauling of rolling stock. In the area of urban transportation systems, BHEL is also diversifying in the area of port handling equipment and pipelines transportation system.

Telecommunication

BHEL also caters to telecommunication Sector by way of small, medium and large switching systems.

Renewable Energy

Technologies that can be BHEL for exploiting non-conventional and renewable sources of energy include: wind electric generators, solar photovoltaic systems, stand-alone & grid-interactive solar power plants, solar heating systems, solar lanterns and battery-powered road vehicles. The Company has taken up R&D efforts for development of multi-junction amorphous silicon solar cells and fuel cells based systems.

Oil and Gas BHEL is a major contributor to the Oil and Gas sector industry in the country. BHELs product range includes Deep Drilling Oil Rigs, Mobile Rigs, Work Over Rigs, Well Heads and X-Mas Trees (of upto 10000 psi ratings), Choke and Kill Manifolds, Full Bore Gate Valves, Mud Valves, Mud line Suspension System, Casing Support System, Sub-Sea Well Heads, Block Valves, Seamless Pipes, Motors, Compressors, Heat Exchangers, etc. BHEL is the single largest supplier of Well Heads, X-Mas Trees and Oil Rigs to ONGC and OIL.

International Operations BHEL is one of the largest exporters of engineering products and services from India, ranking among the major power plant equipment suppliers in the world. Over the years, BHEL has established its references in about 60 countries around the world. These references almost encompass the entire product range of BHEL, covering turnkey power projects of thermal, hydro and gasbased types, substation projects, rehabilitation projects, besides a wide variety of products like, transformers, valves, well-head equipment, insulators, switchgears, heat exchangers, castings and forgings, centrifugal compressors, photovoltaic cell and panels, etc. The Company has been successful in meeting the ever-increasing customers requirements in terms of complexity of the works as well as the technological, quality and other requirements. BHEL possesses the requisite flexibility to interface and complement with international companies for large projects by supplying complementary equipment and meeting their production needs for intermediate as well as finished products.

Technology Up gradation, Research & Development

To remain competitive and meet customers expectations, BHEL lays great emphasis on the continuous up gradation of products and related technologies and development of new products. The company has upgraded its products to contemporary levels through continuous in-house efforts as well as through acquisition of new technologies from leading engineering organizations of the world. The Corporate R&D Division of Hyderabad, spread over a 140-acre complex, leads BHELs research efforts in a number of areas of importance to BHELs product range. BHELs investment in R&D is amongst the largest in the corporate sector in India. Products developed in-house in the last five years contributed to over 7% to the revenues in 2002-2003. The company is also engaged in research in futuristic areas such as application of super-conducting materials in power generation and industry and fuel cells for distributed, environment friendly power generation.

Human Resource Development Institute

BHEL has envisioned to becoming A world class innovative, competitive and profitable engineering enterprise, providing total business solutions. For realising this vision, continuous development and growth of the 47,000 strong highly skilled and motivated people making the Organization, is the only mantra. Human Resource Development Institute (HRDI), the Corporate Training Institute of the company, in association with the Advanced Technical Education

Centre (ATEC) in Hyderabad and the HRD Center at the units is responsible for the total human resource development of the company. Further, Competency Development/Assessment Centre for the Senior Executives is taken up by the HRDI.

Health, Safety and Environment Management

BHEL, as an integral part of business performance and in its endeavour of becoming a world-class organization and sharing the growing global concern on issues related to Environment, Occupational Health and Safety, is committed to protecting Environment in and around its own establishment, and providing safe and healthy working environment to all its employees. For fulfilling these obligations, Corporate Policies have been formulated as: Compliance with applicable Environmental Legislation/Regulation; Continual improvement in Environment Management Systems to protect our natural environment and control pollution; Promotion of activities for conservation of resources by Environment Management; Enhancement of Environmental Awareness amongst employees, customers and suppliers.

Occupational Health and Safety Policy Compliance with applicable Legislation and Regulations; Setting objectives and targets to eliminate/control/minimize risks due to Occupational and Safety Hazards; Appropriate structured training of employees on Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) aspects;

 Formulation and maintenance of OH&S Management programmes for continual improvement; Periodic review of OH&S Management System to ensure its continuing suitability, adequacy and effectiveness; Communication of OH&S Policy to all employees and interested parties.

The major units of BHEL have already earned international recognition by implementation of ISO 14001 Environmental Management system and OHSAS 18001 Occupational Health and Safety Management System.

In pursuit of these policy requirements, BHEL will continuously strive to improve work practices in the light of advances made in technology and new understandings in Occupational Health, Safety and Environmental Science.

Participation in the Global Compact of the United Nations The Global Compact is a partnership between the United Nations, the business community international labour and NGOs. It provides a forum for them to work together and improve corporate practices through co-operation rather than confrontation. BHEL has joined the Global Compact of United Nations and has committed to support it and the set of core values enshrined in its nine principles:

Principles of the Global Compact Human Rights

1. Business should support and respect the protection of internationally proclaimed human rights and 2. Make sure they are not complicit in human rights abuses. Labour Standards 3. Business should uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining 4. The elimination of all forms of forces and compulsory labour 5. The effective abolition of child labour and 6. Eliminate discrimination Environment 7. Businesses should support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges 8. Undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility; and 9. Encourage the development and diffusion of environment-friendly technologies. By joining the Global Compact, BHEL would get a unique opportunity of networking with corporate and sharing experience relating to social responsibility on global basis.

INTRODUCTION TO DRIVES

DRIVES Drives are devices by which the speed of a motor can be controlled. These are essential for the CNC machines for precise axis movement and spindle rotation. The CNC system controls the drive by supplying them with the required input and receiving feedback signals from position feedback transducers. Drives are used in motor speed control for smoother, versatile control and to achieve specific torque speed characteristics.

TYPES OF DRIVES SYSTEMS: a) Hydraulic Control System b) Pneumatic Control System c) Electronically Control System

HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEM:

In the system, power is transmitted through the action of fluid flow under pressure. Hydraulically operated components are frequently used in hydraulic feedback systems and in combined electro mechanical-hydraulic systems.

Common hydraulic applications are power steering and brakes in automobiles, steering mechanism in ships and more significantly in the control of large machine tools.

PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM: These system employ air medium or other gases in special situations as a means of effecting control. The control principle of these systems is quite

similar to the hydraulic systems and has a quite number of advantages over the hydraulic systems these are i. Non-Inflammability: Air if used as a medium has advantage of being noninflammability, thus reducing a lot of fire hazards. ii. Low viscosity: Gases have very low viscosity as compare to fluids, used in hydraulic systems. Viscosity considerably with temperature causing marked effects on the performance of the control systems (hydraulic).

ELECTRONICALLY CONTROL SYSTEM: In this, the drive regulates the speed of the motor through control of armature voltage by varying the DC voltage applied to the motor. This control is accomplished by selecting a point on the AC input sine wave at which SCR begins to conduct. For effective speed control, feedbacks are provided. These feedbacks are negative i.e. opposite in sign to the input signal.

To control the motor speed, velocity command and tacho generator signals are summed, amplified and applied to the input of the inner current loop. The inner current loop sums up both the current feedback and velocity error signals. The difference error is amplified and used to control the gating of the power bridge circuit.

AC DRIVES - PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION Adjustable frequency AC motor drive controllers frequently termed inverters are typically more complex than DC controllers since they must perform two power section functions, that of conversion of the AC line power

source to DC and finally an inverter change from the DC to a coordinated adjustable frequency and voltage output to the AC motor. The appeal of the adjustable frequency drive is based upon the simplicity and reliability of the AC drive motor, which has no brushes, commutator or other parts that require routine maintenance, which more than compensates for the complexity of the AC controller. The robust construction, and low cost of the AC motor makes it very desirable for a wide range of uses. Also, the ability to make an existing standard constant speed AC motor an adjustable speed device simply by the addition of an adjustable frequency controller creates a very strong incentive for this type of drive.

FEEDBACK SYSTEMS USED IN DRIVES

PURPOSE OF FEEDBACK DEVICES: It is evident that feedback devices play a major role in effective machine tool control. These devices precisely and effectively supply information of the exact position of the machine tool slide and its federate to the control systems.

Feedbacks are provided in closed loop systems where the output of the system is again fed to the input of the systems through a connection and the control action is provided by the difference between the command input and corresponding output feedbacks can be

1) Positive feedback 2) Negative feedback

1) POSITIVE FEEDBACK

In this type of feedback, the input and the feedback signals are of the same sign Hence as the output increases subsequently the input keeps on rising resulting in an Unbounded condition where the output goes to infinity theoretically. Hence the positive Feedback is not used in drives, as obviously the speed of the motor will rise in an unbounded fashion. 2) NEGATIVE FEEDBACK This type of feedback is used when the output is fed to the input as a feedback signal is the error or the difference between the two signals. When the controlled variable approaches the equivalent command value, the signal, which is actuating the system, tends to zero.

TYPES OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACKS There are basically two types of feedbacks provided in the drive. They are Position Feedback Velocity Feedback

POSITION FEEDBACK:

A machine tool slide can be moved mechanically, hydraulically or electromechanically. The most important part is how accurately the slide can be moved to the desired position and this is obtained by providing position feedback devices.

The function of a position-measuring device is to give an output in the form of a train of electric pulses of an analog signal. By processing these signals the exact position or displacement of the machine tools can be obtained.

VELOCITY FEEDBACK:

This type of feedback in control systems tells the control elements the velocity, at which it is functioning. For example, a tachometer is a velocity feedback device. A tacho-generator is a simple generator designed to produce a voltage strictly proportional to its angular velocity. To provide feedback, it is introduced into the drove where the Reference voltage and this feedback are summed up. The difference between these two signals will form the error or the actuating signal to control the motor used in conjunction with the drive.

INTRODUCTION TO CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS

ELEMENTS OF A CNC SYSTEM The basic elements of a CNC system are Control panel Control circuits Power supply

CONTROL PANEL System control panel consists of display unit, alphanumeric keyboard, and status indicators. The machine control panel consist rotary switches for axis selection, feed override, spindle speed override etc. and pushbuttons for jogging, feed hold, cycle start, coolant ON etc.

DISPLAY UNIT KEYBOARD The keyboard of the CNC system is used to input data. It consists of selected or all alphanumeric characters, special characters keys such as %, /, [,] and special function keys such as end of block, cancel, cursor controls etc. in the CNC system is to be displayed by means of light emitting diodes (LEDS) which may be in Red, Green or Yellow colors.

STATUS INDICATORS Some of the important status information like axis home, over travel, in position, servo error, program end, and program stop etc.

CONTROL CIRCUITS The CNC control circuits are configured in two forms: Logic rack system Master PCB system

In latest CNC systems where microprocessors are used for control, the processor boards and other logic boards are housed on a single logic rack. In

the master PCB system, a big PCB containing the processor and memory deices is directly mounted in the enclosure. Additional boards like memory board, programmable controller board, and interface board are plunged onto the main board. All the interface connections are made on the same board through suitable connector arrangements.

POWER SUPPLIES The CNC system requires a power supply for its operation. Generally custom-built power supplies are used. They must be highly reliable and have in built protections and must have low ripple voltage at output for a typical CNC system.

The voltages as mentioned below are required + 5 V DC 5% 10 to 30 A. 12 V DC 5% 2 to 5 A. + 24 V DC 10% 5 to 10 A.

These power supplies should have over voltage and short circuit protection. Switching mode power supplies are highly efficient and smaller in size and find use in any CNC systems. The various protections that a power supply should possess are given below.

Over voltage protection Under voltage protection Short circuit protection Line voltage transients suppression

DEVICES OF CNC SYSTEMS To implement various decisions, logic gates such as AND, OR, NAND, NOT, XOR are being used in control circuits. Monostable multivibrator circuits, shift registers, counters are used in counting and timers are used timings circuits. The application of tri-state logic circuit is a must in the CNC circuits as data lines from different devices are clubbed together as a bus and at a specific time, a selected device can be enabled to send or receive data by means of tristate logic devices. Other devices such as decoders, DACs, line drivers and receivers, operational amplifiers etc. are used in CNC for various functions.

In addition to the above basic elements the CNC system must be interfaced with following devices.

Driving devices Feedback devices

DRIVING DEVICES

Driving elements for CNC system are usually DC or AC servomotors or stepper motors. The type selected is determined by the power requirements of the machine tool, the power source available and the desired dynamic torque characteristics.

FEEDBACK DEVICES

The feedback devices allow the control system to compare the machines actual position with the commanded position. The result of this

comparison provides the ability of position control. The standard feedback devices are either digital transducers or analog transducers whose output is converted digital form.

The feedback devices may be classified as linear transducers and rotational transducers. Linear transducers Linear scale (optical or metallic) Track Encoder Inductosyn

Rotary transducers Rotary Encoder VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE We can divide the world of electronic motor drives into two categories: AC and DC. A motor drive controls the speed, torque, direction and resulting horsepower of a motor. A DC drive typically controls a shunt wound DC motor, which has separate armature and field circuits. AC drives control AC induction motors, and-like their DC counterparts-control speed, torque, and horsepower.

Drive Changes Motor Speed A drive provides the frequency and voltage output necessary to change the speed of a motor. Shows a basic PWM drive. All PWM drives contain these main parts, with subtle differences in hardware and software components.

Figure 6, Basic PWM Drive Components Although some drives accept single-phase input power, we'll focus on the 3-phase drive. But to simplify illustrations, the waveforms in the following drive figures show only one phase of input and output. The input section of the drive is the converter. It contains six diodes, arranged in an electrical bridge. These diodes convert AC power to DC power. The next section-the DC bus section-sees a fixed DC voltage. The DC Bus section filters and smoothes out the waveform. The diodes actually reconstruct the negative halves of the waveform onto the positive half. In a 460V unit, we measure an average DC bus voltage of about 650V to 680V. We can calculate this as line voltage times 1.414. The inductor (L) and the capacitor (C) work together to filter out any AC component of the DC waveform. The smoother the DC waveform, the cleaner the output waveform from the drive. The DC bus feeds the final section of the drive: the inverter. As the name implies, this section inverts the DC voltage back to AC. But, it does so in a variable voltage and frequency output. That depends on what kind of power devices our drive uses. If we have many SCR-based drives in our facility, see the Sidebar. Bipolar Transistor technology began superceding SCRs in drives in the

mid-1970s. In the early 1990s, those gave way to using Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) technology, which will form the basis for our discussion. Switching Bus With IGBTs Today's inverters use Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) to switch the DC bus on and off at specific intervals. In doing so, the inverter actually creates a variable AC voltage and frequency output. As shown in Fig. 7, the output of the drive doesn't provide an exact replica of the AC input sine waveform. Instead, it provides voltage pulses that are at a constant magnitude.

Figure 7, Drive Output Waveform The drive's control board signals the power device's control circuits to turn "on" the waveform positive half or negative half of the power device. This alternating of positive and negative switches recreates the 3-phase output. The longer the power device remains on, the higher the output voltage. The less time the power device is on, the lower the output voltage (shown in Fig.8). Conversely, the longer the power device is off, the lower the output frequency.

Figure 8, Drive Output Waveform Components The speed at which power devices switch on and off is the carrier frequency, also known as the switch frequency. The higher the switch frequency, the more resolution each PWM pulse contains. Typical switch frequencies are 3,000 to 4,000 times per second (3KHz to 4KHz). (With an older, SCR-based drive, switch frequencies are 250 to 500 times per second). As you can imagine, the higher the switch frequency, the smoother the output waveform and the higher the resolution. However, higher switch frequencies decrease the efficiency of the drive because of increased heat in the power devices.

Shrinking cost and size Drives vary in the complexity of their designs, but the designs continue to improve. Drives come in smaller packages with each generation. The trend is similar to that of the personal computer. More features, better performance, and lower cost with successive generations. Unlike computers, however, drives have dramatically improved in their reliability and ease of use. And also unlike computers, the typical drive of today doesn't spew gratuitous harmonics into our distribution system-nor does it affect our power factor. Drives are

increasingly becoming "plug and play." As electronic power components improve in reliability and decrease in size, the cost and size of VFDs will continue to decrease. While all that is going on, their performance and ease of use will only get better.

IGBTs better than SCRs With the large installed base of SCRs, An SCR (originally referred to as a thyristor) contains a control element called a gate. The gate acts as the "turnon" switch that allows the device to fully conduct voltage. The device conducts voltage until the polarity of the device reverses-and then it automatically "turns off." Special circuitry, usually requiring another circuit board and associated wiring, controls this switching. The SCR's output depends on how soon in the control cycle that gate turns on. The IGBT output also depends the length of time the gate is on. However, it can turn off anytime in the control cycle, providing a more precise output waveform. IGBTs also require a control circuit connected to the gate, but this circuitry is less complex and doesn't require a reversal of polarity.

Maintainace a VFD

By integrating some simple, logical steps into our preventative maintenance program, we can ensure our drives provide many years of trouble-free service. A Quick Overview A VFD controls the speed, torque and direction of an AC Induction motor. It takes fixed voltage and frequency AC input and converts it to a variable voltage and frequency AC output. In very small VFDs, a single power pack unit may contain the converter and inverter. Fairly involved control circuitry coordinates the switching of power devices, typically through a control board that dictates the firing of power components in the proper sequence. A microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP) meets all the Internal logic and decision requirements. From this description, we can see a VFD is basically a computer and power supply. And the same safety and equipment precautions we would apply to a computer and to a power supply apply here. VFD maintenance requirements fall into three basic categories:

Keep it clean Keep it dry; and Keep the connections tight

AC CONTROLLER TYPES A number of different types of AC motor controllers are currently in common use as general purpose drives: Pulse Width Modulated (PWM),

Current Source Input (CSI), and the Load Commutated Inverter (LCI). Each type offers specific benefits and characteristics but the PWM type has been selected by Fincor Electronics as offering the best combination of simplicity, performance and economy for general purpose applications.

PWM Controllers - The PWM controller converts the AC power source to a fixed DC voltage by a full-wave rectifier. The resultant DC voltage is smoothed by a filter network and applied to a pulse width modulated inverter using high power transistors. The speed reference command is directed to the microprocessor, which simultaneously optimizes the carrier (chopping) frequency and inverter output frequency to maintain a proper volts/Hz ratio and high efficiency throughout the normal speed range. See Block Diagram, Figure 7. The voltage applied to the motor is a pulsed approximation of a true sinusoidal waveform as shown in Figure 8. This is commonly called a PWM waveform because both the carrier frequency and pulse width is changed (modulated) to change the effective voltage amplitude and frequency. The current waveform very closely follows the shape of a sine wave and therefore provides improved low speed motor performance, efficiency, and minimal motor heating.

AC MOTOR CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS The synchronous speed of an AC induction motor is directly proportional to the applied frequency. Speed = 120 x Frequency No. Of Motor Poles

The synchronous speed is the speed of the rotating electrical field, not the actual motor rotor speed. The difference between the synchronous speed and the full-load motor speed is called slip, which is normally expressed in percent. The percentage of slip is determined by the design of the motor, primarily the rotor resistance. NEMA has assigned code letters (A, B, C, D, etc.) to standardize motor characteristics including slip. The type most commonly used is NEMA Design B with 3% slip at rated operating conditions. Figure 9 shows typical speed/torque curves for NEMA Design Band D motors.

As the applied frequency is changed, the motor will run faster or slower as shown by Figure 10. The actual full-load motor slip (as a percent of the motor synchronous speed) varies in inverse proportion to the frequency, where a 3%

slip motor 60 Hz would have a 6% slip at 30 Hz or 1 1/2 % slip at 120 Hz. Motor speed is limited only by the maximum inverter output frequency, load torque requirements, and the mechanical integrity of the motor.

IGBTs Basics

Recent technology advances in power electronics have arisen primarily from improvements in semiconductor power devices, with insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) leading the market today for medium power applications. IGBTs feature many desirable properties including a MOS input gate, high switching speed, low conduction voltage drop, high current carrying capability, and a high degree of robustness. Devices have drawn closer to the 'ideal switch', with typical voltage ratings of 600 - 1700 volts, on-state voltage of 1.7 - 2.0 volts at currents of up to 1000 amperes, and switching speeds of

200 - 500 ns. The availability of IGBTs has lowered the cost of systems and enhanced the number of economically viable applications 1. Introduction The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) combines the positive attributes of BJTs and MOSFETs. BJTs have lower conduction losses in the onstate, especially in devices with larger blocking voltages, but have longer switching times, especially at turn-off while MOSFETs can be turned on and off much faster, but their on-state conduction losses are larger, especially in devices rated for higher blocking voltages. Hence, IGBTs have lower on-state voltage drop with high blocking voltage capabilities in addition to fast switching speeds. IGBTs have a vertical structure as shown in Fig. 1. This structure is quite similar to that of the vertical diffused MOSFET except for the presence of the p+ layer that forms the drain of the IGBT. This layer forms a pn junction (labeled J1 in the figure), which injects minority carriers into what would appear to be the drain drift region of the vertical MOSFET. The gate and source of the IGBT are laid out in an interdigitated geometry similar to that used for the vertical MOSFET.

Fig. 1: Physical structure of an IGBT

The IGBT structure shown in Fig. 1 has a parasitic thyristor which could latch up in IGBTs if it is turned on. The n + buffer layer between the p + drain contact and the n + drift layer, with proper doping density and thickness, can significantly improve the operation of the IGBT, in two important respects. It lower2 the on-state voltage drop of the device and, and shortens the turn-off time. On the other hand, the presence of this layer greatly reduces the reverse blocking capability of the IGBT. The circuit symbol for an n-channel IGBT is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: IGBT circuit symbol 2. IGBTs Switching Characteristics One of the main important performance features of any semiconductorswitching device is its switching characteristics. Understanding the device switching characteristics greatly improves its utilization in the various applications. The main performance switching characteristics of power semiconductor switching devices are the turn-on and turn-off switching transients in addition to the safe operating area (SOA) of the device. Since most loads are inductive in nature, which subjects devices to higher stresses, the turn-on and turn-off transients of the IGBT are obtained with an inductive load test circuit as shown in Fig. 1. The load inductance is assumed to

be high enough so as to hold the load current constant during switching transitions. The freewheeling clamp diode is required to maintain current flow in the inductor when the device under test (DUT) is turned off.

Fig. 1: Inductive load test circuit

2.1 Turn-on Transients The turn-on switching transients of an IGBT with an inductive load are shown in Fig. 2. The turn-on switching transients of IGBTs are very similar to MOSFETs since the IGBT is essentially acting as a MOSFET during most of the turn-on interval. With gate voltage applied across the gate to emitter terminals of the IGBT, the gate to emitter voltage rises up in an exponential fashion from zero to VGE (th) due to the circuit gate resistance (RG) and the gate to emitter capacitance (Cge). The Miller effect capacitance (Cgc) effect is very small due to the high voltage across the device terminals.

Fig. 2: IGBT turn-on switching transient with inductive load Beyond VGE(th), the gate to emitter voltage continues to rise as before and the drain current begins to increase linearly as shown above. Due to the clamp diode, the collector to emitter voltage remains at Vdc as the IGBT current is less than Io. Once the IGBT is carrying the full load current but is still in the active region, the gate to emitter voltage becomes temporarily clamped to VGE,Io, which is the voltage required to maintain the IGBT current at Io. At this stage, the collector to emitter voltage starts decreasing in two distinctive intervals tfv1 and tfv2. The first time interval corresponds to the traverse through the active region while the second time interval corresponds to the completion of the transient in the ohmic region. During these intervals, the Miller capacitance becomes significant where it discharges to maintain the gate to source voltage constant. When the Miller capacitance

is fully discharged, the gate to emitter voltage is allowed to charge up to VG and the IGBT goes into deep saturation. The resultant turn on switching losses are shown in the above figure. The on energy loss is approximately estimated via,

The above switching waveforms are ideal in the since that the clamp diode reverse recovery effects are neglected. If these effects are included, an additional spike in the current waveform results as shown in the previous figure. As a result, additional energy losses will be incurred within the device. 2.2 Turn-off Transients The turn-off switching transient of an IGBT with an inductive load is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: IGBT turnoff switching transient with inductive load When a negative gate signal is applied across the gate to emitter junction, the gate to emitter voltage starts decreasing in a linear fashion. Once the gate to emitter voltage drops below the threshold voltage (VGE (th)), the collector to

emitter voltage starts increasing linearly. The IGBT current remains constant during this mode since the clamp diode is off. When the collector to emitter voltage reaches the dc input voltage, the clamp diode starts conducting and the IGBT current falls down linearly. The rapid drop in the IGBT current occurs during the time interval tfi1, which corresponds, to the turn-off of the MOSFET part of the IGBT (Fig. 4). The tailing of the collector current during the second interval tfi2 is due to the stored charge in the n- drift region of the device. This is due to the fact that the MOSFET is off and there is no reverse voltage applied to the IGBT terminals that could generate a negative drain current so as to remove the stored charge. The only way for stored charge removal is by recombination within the n- drift region. Since it is desirable that the excess carriers lifetime be large so as to reduce the on-state voltage drop, the duration of the tail current becomes long. This will result in additional switching losses within the device. This time increases also with temperature similar to the tailing effect in BJTs. Hence; a trade off between the on-state voltage drop and faster turn-off times must be made.

Fig. 4: equivalent circuit of the IGBT

The removal of stored charge can be greatly enhanced with the addition of an n+ buffer layer, which acts as a sink for the excess holes and significantly shortens the tail time. This layer has a much shorter excess carrier life time which results in a greater recombination rate within this layer. The resultant gradient in hole density in the drift region causes a large flux of diffusing holes towards the buffer region which greatly enhances the removal rate of holes from the drift region and shortens the tail time. This device structure is referred to as Punch-Through (PT) IGBT while the structure without the n+ buffer region is referred to as Non Punch-Through (NPT) IGBT (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5: (a) Non Punch Through (NPT) IGBT (b) Punch Through (PT) IGBT The turn off energy loss, also shown in Fig. 3, can be evaluated in a similar fashion as the turn-on losses, namely,

IGBT (INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR)

During last few years, great progress has been made in development of new power semiconductor devices. The higher operating frequency and simpler semiconductor drive requirement provide rising output power for model power electronics equipment. The new generation of our semiconductors is capable of conducting more current and blocking higher voltage. The IGBT is the outgrowth of power MOSFET technology. More is like a MOSFET than a Bi-polar transistor (BJT) in structure, the IGBT has some characteristics of both like a MOSFET, the gate of IGBT is isolated and drive power is very low. The ON state conduction voltage of an IGBT is similar to that of a Bi-polar transistor. Since the maximum current rating of IGBT modules is around 1KA and voltage rating is around 3KV,IGBT will continue to be used instead of GTOs at higher power levels. Power semiconductors need management. They require careful control to ensure that they operate with in their safe operating areas. Over current detection is required to ensure that they shutdown in a safe manner when there is short circuit of the load. They must also withstand over voltages. Power semiconductor module manufacture now provides inverter bridges in a single module (complete with gate driver and protection circuit). There is also the possibility of including rectifier bridges and also a transistor for switching a resistor for switching a resistor across the DC rails for regeneration. There are now known as intelligent power modules. The user has only a single task the external generation of PWM gate signals, but in the future this task may also move inside the power mode. IGBT operates with low losses that reduce running temperature and more immune to disturbances. Further development of IGBTs involve

integration of all control and protection electronics in the same package (Intelligent inverter). IGBT is also known as Metal Oxide Gate Transistor (MOSIGT); Conductivity Modulated Field Effect Transistor (COMFET) or Gain Modulated Field Effect Transistor (GEMFET). It was also initially called Insulated Gate Transistor (IGT).

APPLICATIONS OF IGBT: IGBT are widely used in medium power applications such as

DC and AC motor drives UPS systems Power supplies and drives for solenoids Relays and contactors

ADVANTAGES: Through IGBTs are somewhat more expensive than BJTs yet they are becoming popular because of lower gate drives requirements, lower switching losses and smaller snubber circuit requirements.IGBT converters more efficient with less size as well as cost, as compared to converters based on BJTs.Recently, IGBT inverter induction-motor drives using 15-20 KHz switching frequency are finding favor where audio noise is objectionable .In most applications, IGBTs will eventually push out BJTs. At present the state of the art IGBTs are available up to 1200V,500A.

ADVANTAGES OF AC DRIVE

They use conventional, low cost, 3-phase AC induction motors for most applications

AC motors require virtually no maintenance and are preferred for applications where the motor is mounted in an area not easily reached for servicing or replacement

AC motors are smaller, lighter, more commonly available, and less expensive than DC motors

AC motors are better suited for high-speed operation (over 2500 rpm) since there are no brushes, and commutation is not a problem

Whenever the operating environment is wet, corrosive or explosive and special motor enclosures are required. Special AC motor enclosure types are more readily available at lower prices

Multiple motors in a system must operate simultaneously at common frequency/speed

It is desirable to use an existing constant speed AC motor already mounted and wired on a machine

When the application load varies greatly and light loads may be encountered for

prolonged periods. DC motor commutators and brushes may wear rapidly under this condition

Low cost electronic motor reversing is required.

It is important to have a back up (constant speed) if the controller should fail.

CONCLUSION In industries when driving mechanical load with given torque slip characteristics, the speed can be controlled by controlling either its synchronous speed or the rotors Slip. 3-phase induction motors are commonly employed in adjustable speed drives. They admirably suited to fulfill the demand of loads requiring substantially a constant speed. The most effective adjustable frequency drives use state-of-the-art technology pulse width modulation combined with variable frequency drive (VFD) and superior flexibility. The combination of IGBT and surface mounted device technology has allowed more compact unless complex design with reduced cost compare to constant speed drives.