Evaporators PDF

NPTEL Chemical Engineering Chemical Engineering Design - II
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Module #3
DESIGN OF EVAPORATOR: INTRODUCTION, TYPES OF EVAPORATORS, METHODS OF
FEEDING OF EVAPORATORS, GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF EVAPORATOR
1. INTRODUCTION
2. TYPE OF EVAPORATORS
2.1. Short-Tube Vertical Evaporators
2.2. Basket-type Vertical Evaporators
2.3. Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators
2.4. Falling Film Evaporators
2.5. Rising or Climbing Film Evaporators
2.6. Forced Circulation Evaporators
2.7 Agitated Thin Film Evaporator
2.8. Gasketed Plate Evaporator
3. METHODS OF FEEDING OF EVAPORATORS
3.1. Forward feed
3.2. Backward feed
3.3. Mixed feed
3.4. Parallel feed
3. PERFORMANCE OF EVAPORATORS (CAPACITY AND
ECONOMY)
5. THERMAL/ POCESS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
5.1. Tube size, arrangement and materials
5.2. Heat transfer coefficients
5.3. Boiling point elevation (BPE)
5.4. Selection of suitable evaporator
6. MECHANICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
7. THERMAL DESIGN CALCULATIONS
7.1. Single effect calculations
7.2. Multiple effect calculations



Lecture 1: Introduction and Evaporator
Classifications
1. INTRODUCTION
Evaporation is the removal of solvent as vapor from a solution, slurry or suspension
of solid in a liquid. The aim is to concentrate a non-volatile solute, such as organic
compounds, inorganic salts, acids or bases from a solvent. Common solutes are
caustic soda, caustic potash, sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, phosphoric acid, and
urea. The most common solvent in most of the evaporation systems is water.
Evaporation differs from the other mass transfer operations such as distillation and
drying. In distillation, the components of a solution are separated depending upon
their distribution between vapor and liquid phases based on the difference of relative
volatility of the substances. Removal of moisture from a substance in presence of a
hot gas stream to carry away the moisture leaving a solid residue as the product is
generally called drying. Evaporation is normally stopped before the solute starts to
precipitate in the operation of an evaporator.
Invention of evaporators: Norbert Rillieux is famous for his invention of the
multiple effect pan evaporator for sugar refining process in 1881. Rillieux was born in
New Orleans, Louisiana in 1806. He used the steam generated from one pan to heat
the sugar juice in the next pan for energy efficient means of water evaporation.
2. TYPE OF EVAPORATORS
Evaporator consists of a heat exchanger for boiling the solution with special
provisions for separation of liquid and vapor phases. Most of the industrial
evaporators have tubular heating surfaces. The tubes may be horizontal or vertical,
long or short; the liquid may be inside or outside the tubes.
2.1. Short-Tube Vertical Evaporators
Short-tube vertical evaporators are the oldest but still widely used in sugar industry
in evaporation of cane-sugar juice. These are also known as calandria or Robert
evaporators. This evaporator was first built by Robert. It became so common in
process industry that this evaporator is sometimes known as standard evaporator.
Short-tube vertical evaporators consist of a short tube bundle (about 4 to 10 ft in
length) enclosed in a cylindrical shell. This is called calandria. A evaporator of this

type is shown in Figure 3.1. The feed is introduced above the upper tube sheet and
steam is introduced to the shell or steam chest of the calandria. The solution is heated
and partly vaporized in the tubes.
The central tube in a calandria is of longer diameter. Typically its downcomer area is
taken as 40 to 70% of the total cross sectional area of tubes. The circulation rate
through the downcomer/downtake is many times the feed rate. The flow area of the
downtake is normally approximately equal to the total tubular flow area.

Figure 3.1. Calandria type evaporator.
2.2. Basket-type Vertical Evaporators
The construction and operational features of basket-type evaporators are very similar
to those of the standard evaporator except that the downtake is annular. The tube
bundle with fixed tube sheets forms a basket hung in the centre of the evaporator from
internal brackets. The diameter of the tube bundle is smaller than the diameter of
evaporator vessel, thus forming an annular space for circulation of liquid. The tube
bundle can be removed for the purpose of cleaning and maintenance and thus basket
evaporators are more suitable than standard evaporators for scale forming solutions.
The vapor generated strikes a deflector plate fixed close to the steam pipe that reduces
entrained liquid droplets from the vapor.


2.3. Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators
This is another most widely employed natural circulation evaporator because it is
often the cheapest per unit of capacity. The long vertical tube bundle is fixed with a
shell that extends into a larger diameter vapor chamber at the top (Figure 3.2). The
long-tube vertical (LTV) evaporator consists of one pass shell and tube heat
exchanger. In this type of evaporator, the liquid flows as a thin film on the walls of
long (from 12 to 30 feet in length) and vertical heated tube. Both rising film and
falling types are used. Tube length usually varies from 20 to 65 ft. The main
advantage of this type of evaporators is higher heat transfer rate. The feed enters at the
bottom and the liquid starts boiling at lower part of the tube. The LTV evaporators are
commonly used in concentrating black liquors in the paper and pulp industries.

Figure 3.2. Long-Tube Vertical Evaporators.


2.4. Falling Film Evaporators
In a falling film evaporator, the liquid is fed at the top of the tubes in a vertical tube
bundle. The liquid is allowed to flow down through the inner wall of the tubes as a
film. As the liquid travels down the tubes the solvent vaporizes and the concentration
gradually increases. Vapor and liquid are usually separated at the bottom of the tubes
and the thick liquor is taken out. Evaporator liquid is recirculated through the tubes by
a pump below the vapor-liquid separator. This type of evaporator is illustrated in
Figure 3.3. The distribution of liquid in the inner wall of the tubes greatly affects the
performance of this type of evaporator.
The falling film evaporator is largely used for concentration of fruit juices and heat
sensitive materials because of the low holdup time. The device is suitable for scale-
forming solutions as boiling occur on the surface of the film.

Figure 3.3. Falling-film evaporator.


2.5. Rising or Climbing Film Evaporators
The LTV evaporator is frequently called a rising or climbing film evaporator. The
liquid starts boiling at the lower part of the tube and the liquid and vapor flow upward
through the tube. If the heat transfer rate is significantly higher, the ascending flows
generated due to higher specific volume of the vapor-liquid mixture, causes liquid and
vapor to flow upwards in parallel flow. The liquid flows as a thin film along the tube
wall. This co-current upward movement against gravity has the advantageous effect
of creating a high degree of turbulence in the liquid. This is useful during evaporation
of highly viscous and fouling solutions.
2.6. Forced Circulation Evaporators
Forced circulation evaporators are usually more costly than natural circulation
evaporators. However the natural circulation evaporators are not suitable under some
situations such as:
- highly viscous solutions due to low heat transfer coefficient
- solution containing suspended particles
- for heat sensitive materials
All these problems may be overcome when the liquid is circulated at high velocity
through the heat exchanger tubes to enhance the heat transfer rate and inhibit particle
deposition. Any evaporator that uses pump to ensure higher circulation velocity is
called a forced circulation evaporator. The main components of a forced circulation
evaporator are a tubular shell and tube heat exchanger (either horizontal or vertical), a
flash chamber (separator) mounted above the heat exchanger and a circulating pump
(Figure 3.4). The solution is heated in the heat exchanger without boiling and the
superheated solution flashes off (partially evaporated) at a lower pressure are reduced
in the flash chamber. The pump pumps feed and liquor from the flash chamber and
forces it through the heat exchanger tubes back to the flash chamber.


Forced circulation evaporator is commonly used for concentration of caustic and brine
solutions and also in evaporation of corrosive solution.

Figure 3.4. Vertical tube forced-circulation evaporator.


2.7 Agitated Thin Film Evaporator
Agitated thin film evaporator consists of a vertical steam-jacketed cylinder and the
feed solution flows down as a film along the inner surface of large diameter jacket
(Figure 3.5). Liquid is distributed on the tube wall by a rotating assembly of blades
mounted on shaft placed coaxially with the inner tube. The blades maintain a close
clearance of around 1.5 mm or less from the inner tube wall.
The main advantage is that rotating blades permits handling of extremely viscous
solutions. The device is suitable to concentrate solutions having viscosity as high as
up to 100 P.

Figure 3.5. Agitated thin-film evaporator.


2.8. Gasketed Plate Evaporator
The gasketed-plate evaporator is also called the plate evaporator because the design is
similar to that of a plate heat exchanger. A number of embossed plates with four
corner openings are mounted by an upper and a bottom carrying bar. The gasket is
placed at the periphery of the plates. The interfering gaskets of two adjacent plates
prevent the mixing of the fluids and lead the fluid to the respective flow path through
the corner opening (Figure 3.6). The fluids may either flow in series or parallel
depending on the gasket arrangement.
The heat transfer coefficient is greatly enhanced due to high turbulent flow through
narrow passages. This evaporator is suitable for high viscous, fouling, foaming and
heat sensitive solutions.
This type of evaporators is mainly used for concentration of food products,
pharmaceuticals, emulsions, glue, etc.


Figure 3.6. Plate-evaporator.


Lecture 2: Methods of Feeding of Evaporators
3. METHODS OF FEEDING OF EVAPORATORS
Evaporators are classified by the number of effects. In case of a single-effect
evaporator, the vapor from the boiling liquor is condensed and the concentrated
product is withdrawn from the bottom of the evaporator. Although the operation is
simple, the device does not use steam efficiently. Typically 1.1 to 1.3 kg of steam is
required to evaporate 1 kg of water.
The steam consumption per unit mass of water evaporated can be increased by putting
more than one evaporator in series such that the vapor from one evaporator is used in
the second evaporator for heating. The vapor from the second evaporator is condensed
and the arrangement is called double-effect evaporators. The heat from the vapor
generated in the first evaporator is used in the second evaporator. Evaporation of
water is nearly doubled in double effect evaporation system compared to single effect
per unit mass of steam used. Additional effects can be added in series in the same way
to get a triple-effect evaporator, quadruple-effect evaporator and so on. There are
several configurations based on feeding arrangement.
3.1. Forward feed
The typical feeding method of multi-effect evaporators is forward. Both feed and
steam are introduced in the first effect and the feed passed from effect to effect
parallel to the vapor from the earlier effect. Concentration increases from the first
effect to the last. Forward feeding operation is helpful when the concentrated product
may degenerate if exposed to high temperature. The product is withdrawn from the
last effect. It requires a pump for feeding of dilute solution to the first effect. A pump
removes thick liquor from the last effect. The liquid from one effect to the next effect
also can be transferred without a pump as the flow occurs in the direction of
decreasing pressure. The arrangement of forward feeding is shown in Figure 3.7a.
3.2. Backward feed
In backward feed configuration, the feed enters at the last effect (coldest effect) and is
pumped through the successive effects. The product is withdrawn from the first effect
(hottest) where the steam is introduced (Figure 3.7b). This method of feeding
requires a pump between each pair of effects to transfer liquid from lower pressure
effects to higher pressure effects. It is advantageous when cold feed entering needs to

be heated to a lower temperature than in forward feed operation. Backward feed is
commonly used when products are viscous and exposure to higher temperature
increases the rate of heat transfer due to reduction in viscosity of the liquid.
3.3. Mixed feed
In the mixed feed operation, the dilute feed liquid enters at an intermediate effect and
flows in the next higher effect till it reaches the last effect of the series. In this section,
liquid flows in the forward feed mode. Partly concentrated liquor is then pumped back
to the effect before the one to which the fresh feed was introduced for further
concentration as shown in Figure 3.7c. Mixed feed arrangement eliminates some of
the pumps needed in backward configuration as flow occurs due to pressure
difference whenever applicable.
3.4. Parallel feed
The fresh feed is introduced to each effect and in this configuration the product is
withdrawn of from the same effect in parallel feed operation (Figure 3.7d). In parallel
feeding, there is no transfer of liquid from one effect to another effect. It is used
primarily when the feed is saturated and the product is solid containing slurry. This is
most common in crystallizing evaporators.

Condensate
Steam
I II III
IV
Feed
Vapor to
Condenser
Thick
Liquor
3.7a. Forward feed.


I II III
IV
Feed
Condensate
Steam
Vapor to
Condenser
Thick
Liquor
3.7b. Backward feed.
I II III
IV
Feed
Condensate
Steam
Vapor to
Condenser
Thick
Liquor
3.7c. Mixed feed.


Figure 3.7. Methods of feeding of evaporator: a: forward feed; b: backward feed; c: mixed feed; d: parallel feed.
4. PERFORMANCE OF EVAPORATORS (CAPACITY
AND ECONOMY)
The performance of a steam-heated evaporator is measured in terms of its capacity
and economy. Capacity is defined as the number of kilogram of water vaporized per
hour. Economy (or steam economy) is the number kilogram of water vaporized from
all the effects per kilogram of steam used. For single effect evaporator, the steam
economy is about 0.8 (<1). The capacity is about n-times that of a single effect
evaporator and the economy is about 0.8n for a n-effect evaporators. However,
pumps, interconnecting pipes and valves are required for transfer of liquid from one
effect to another effect that increases both equipment and operating costs.
5. THERMAL/ POCESS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Many factors must be carefully considered when designing evaporators. The type of
evaporator or heat exchangers, forced or natural circulation, feeding arrangement,
boiling point elevation, heat transfer coefficient, fouling, tube size and arrangement
are all very important.
Types of evaporators have already been discussed and the guidelines for selection of
most suitable evaporator are addressed in the next section.

I II III
IV
Feed
Condensate
Steam
Vapor to
Condenser
Thick
Liquor
3.7d. Parallel feed.
Feed Feed Feed
Thick
Liquor
Thick
Liquor
Thick
Liquor

5.1. Tube size, arrangement and materials
The selection of suitable tube diameter, tube length and tube layout is determined by
trial and error calculations. The details are discussed in design of shell and tube heat
exchangers (module #1). If the pressure drop is more than the allowable pressure drop
further adjustments in tube diameter, tube length and tube-layout is required.
A variety of materials including low carbon steel, stainless steel, brass, copper,
cupronickel etc. are used. However the selection of tube materials depends on the
corrosiveness of the solution and working conditions.
5.2. Heat transfer coefficients
The heat transfer coefficient of condensing steam in shell side is normally very high
compared to the liquid side. Therefore tube side (liquid side) heat transfer coefficient
practically controls the rate of heat transfer.
The overall heat transfer coefficient should be either known/ calculated from the
performance data of an operating evaporator of the same type and processing the
same solution. Typical values of overall heat transfer coefficient are given in Table
3.1.
Table 3.1. Typical overall heat transfer coefficients in evaporators ([2] page 388).
Type of evaporator
Overall heat transfer coefficient
W.m
-2
C
-1
Btu.ft
-2
h
-1
F
-1

Long-tube vertical evaporator
Natural circulation
Forced circulation

1000-2700
2000-7500

200-550
400-1500
Short-tube vertical or calandria evaporators 750-2500 150-500
Agitated-film evaporators
Low to medium viscosity (<1 P)
High viscosity (> 1P)

1800-2700
1500

300-500
300
Falling film evaporators (viscosity <0.1 P) 500-2500 100-500
Rising film evaporators 2000-5000 100-1000


5.3. Boiling point elevation (BPE)
Most evaporators produce concentrated liquor having a boiling point considerably
higher than that of pure solvent (or water). This phenomenon is called boiling point
elevation (BPE). BPE occurs as the vapor pressure of a solution (usually aqueous
solution) is less than that of pure solvent at the same temperature. Boiling point of a
solution is a colligative property. It depends on the concentration of solute in the
solution for a pair of solute and solvent.
BPE of the concentrated liquor reduces the effective temperature driving force
compared to the boiling of pure solvent. Equilibrium vapor generated from a solution
exhibiting boiling point elevation is superheated with respect to vapor generated
during boiling of pure solvent. The vapor is generated at the solution boiling point,
which is higher than the pure component boiling point. The vapor, however, is solute
free, so it wont condense until the extra heat corresponding to the elevation is
removed, thus it is superheated. Therefore the BPE of the concentrated solution must
be known for evaporator design.
Determination of BPE: For strong solutions, the BPE data is estimated from an
empirical rule known as Dhring rule. This states that the boiling point of a given
solution is a linear function of the boiling point of pure water at the same pressure.
Thus if the boiling point of the solution is plotted against the corresponding boiling
point of pure water at the same pressure, a straight line is generated. Different lines
are obtained if such plots made for solution of different concentrations. The main
advantage is that a Dhring lines can be drawn if boiling points of a solution and
water (read from steam table) at two different pressures are known. This line can be
used to predict boiling point of a solution at any pressure. A Dhring plot for the
NaOH-water system can be found in heat transfer text books ([1] (page 472) and [2]
(page 386).


5.4. Selection of suitable evaporator
The selection of the most suitable evaporator type depends on a number of factors.
Mainly these are: (i) throughput, (ii) viscosity of the solution (and its increase during
evaporation), (iii) nature of the product and solvent (such as heat sensitivity and
corrosiveness), (iv) fouling characteristics and, (v) foaming characteristics. A
selection guidelines based on these factors is given in Figure 3.8.
Evaporator
type
Feed condition
Suitable
for
heat
sensitive
material
Viscosity, cP
Foaming
Scaling
or
fouling
Crystals
producing
Solids
in
suspension
High
viscosity
>1000
Medium
viscosity
100 to
1000
Low
viscosity
<100
Calandria
(short tube
vertical)

No

Forced
circulation

yes
Falling
film

no
Natural
circulation

no
Agitated
film
(Single
pass)
yes
Long tube
falling film

yes
Long tube
raising film

yes
Figure 3.8. Selection guide of evaporators [3].


6. MECHANICAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Temperature and pressure are the two important factors that affect the mechanical
design of evaporator systems. Many other factors like startup, shutdown, upset,
dryout, external loading from supports, pulsating pressure, wind loading, earthquake
load etc. also significantly affect the evaporator operation. Various factors are
considered that affect the mechanical design of equipment and their affect is detailed
in heat exchanger design (module #1). Here the temperature and pressure factors are
outlined below in brief.
Operating temperature and pressure: The operating temperature is the temperature
that is maintained for the specified operation of the metal vessel suitably selected
during design. The operating pressure is the pressure at the top of a pressure vessel.
However if its a tall vessel static hydraulic head even during mal-operation needs to
be consider.
Design temperature and pressure: It is important to determine both minimum and
maximum anticipated operating temperature and pressure in order to obtain the design
temperature and pressure. The design pressure is generally is the sum of the maximum
allowable pressure and the static head of the fluid in the pressure vessel. The
combination of temperature and pressure affect the mechanical design of the
equipment. Much of design considerations are also related pressure design too.
Maximum allowable working pressure: The maximum allowable working pressure
is the maximum pressure to which the equipment can be safely operated. Generally, it
should not be less than the maximum anticipated operating pressure divided by a
factor of 0.90 [4].
Thermal expansion: Differential thermal expansion between various parts of
equipment has a significant effect on the mechanical design. There may be a
significant difference of expansion between the shell and the tube side because of
temperature difference of two fluids. Thermal expansion may also determine the way
in which tubes are fixed to the tube sheet. Usually a suitable expansion joint is
centrally placed between two segments of the shell when the differential expansion
may be large.


Lecture 3: Thermal Design Calculation
7. THERMAL DESIGN CALCULATION
7.1. Single effect calculations
Single effect evaporator calculations are pretty straight forward. The latent heat of
condensation of the steam is transferred through the heating surface to vaporize water
from a boiling solution. Therefore two enthalpy balance equations are required to in
order to calculate the rate of solvent vaporization and the rate of required input heat.
Generally it is possible to solve the energy and the material balance equations
analytically by a sequential approach. The following assumptions are made to
develop the mass and energy balance equations:-
o there is no leakage or entrainment
o the flow of non-condensable is negligible
o heat loss from the evaporator system is negligible
From the enthalpy data of the solutions, steam and condensate, the rate of heat input
or the rate of steam flow can be calculated. The overall heat transfer coefficient
D
U (including dirt factor) is should be either known from the performance data of an
operating evaporator of the same type and processing the same solution or a
reasonable value can be selected from the standard text books ([1] Table 16.1 page
475; [2] Table 9.2 page 388). With this information the required area of heat transfer
can be estimated.
Calculate the tube-side and shell-side pressure drop using the method discussed
during design of shell & tube exchanger from specified values of the tube length,
diameter and the tube layout (refer module #1 for detail calculations). If the pressure
drop value is more than the corresponding allowable pressure drop, further
adjustments in the heat exchanger configuration will be required.
7.2. Multiple effect calculations
Typically, multiple effect evaporator calculations require a trial-and-error approach as
many of the necessary properties depend on unknown intermediate temperatures.
Often the heat transfer areas in all effects are considered to be equal. Use of equal size
evaporator in all effects, reduces the cost of equipment significantly. In a typical
evaporator problem, you are provided with the supply pressure and temperature of

steam, the operating pressure of the final effect, the feed and concentrations. The
designer is often required to have trial estimates of overall heat transfer coefficients.
The overall strategy is to estimate intermediate temperatures. The energy and material
balance equations are solved sequentially to determine the heat transferred in each
effect and the heat transfer area. If the areas are not equal, the calculation is repeated
to revise the intermediate temperatures and the procedure is repeated till the heat
transfer area in all effects are equal.
The arrangement of a forward feed triple effect evaporator is shown in Figure 3.9.
The energy balance equations in all effects are given below:

Figure 3.9. Flow rates and pressure in a triple effect evaporator ([2] page 399).
Effect I:
1 1 1 1 1
( )
f f s s f s s s s l
m H m H m m H m H m H + = + +
(3.1)
If the sensible heat of the steam is neglected this equation can be rewritten as-
1 1 1 1
( )
f f s s f s s s
m H m m m H m H + = +
(3.2)
Effect II:
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
f s s s f s s s s
m m H m m m m H m H + = +
(3.3)
Effect III:
1 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 3
( ) ( )
f s s s s f s s s s s
m m m H m m m m m H m H + = +
(3.4)

Condensate
Steam
(m
s
, T
s
, P
s
)
I II III
Feed
(m
f
, T
f
)
Vapor to
Condenser
Thick
Liquor
(m
s1
, T
b1
, P
1
)
(m
s2
, T
b2
, P
2
) (m
s3
, T
b3
, P
3
)
T
b2
, P
2
, H
2

T
b1
, P
1,
H
1

T
b3
, P
3
, H
3


where,
sk
m is the rate of vapor generated in the k
th
effect
f
m and
s
m are the feed and steam flow rate
k
H is the enthalpy of the solution leaving the k
th
effect at
s
T and
s
P
sk
H is the enthalpy of vapor (steam) generated in the k
th
effect
lk
H is the enthalpy of liquid in the k
th
effect
s
is latent heat of steam introduced in the 1
st
effect at
s
P .
1 s
and
2 s
are the latent heats of steam condensation at pressure
1
P and
2
P
respectively.
If U
D1
, U
D2
and U
D3
are the corresponding overall heat transfer coefficients and A
1
, A
2

and A
3
are the heat transfer area required, then it may be written as -
Effect I:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( )
s s D s b D
Q m U A T T U A T = = = A (3.5)
Effect II:
2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2
( )
s s D w b D
Q m U A T T U A T = = = A (3.6)
Effect III:
3 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3
( )
s s D w b D
Q m U A T T U A T = = = A (3.7)
where,
k
Q is the quantity of heat transferred in k
th
effect
bk
T is the boiling point of the solution in k
th
effect at the prevailing pressure
s
T is the steam temperature condensing in the 1
st
effect
( )
bk wk
T T is the boiling point elevation in the k
th
effect, where
wk
T is the boiling
point of pure solvent (water) in k
th
effect at the prevailing pressure
Eqs. 3.2 to 3.7 are solved to calculate the heat transfer area by trial-and-error
calculations.
The calculation steps can be summarized as follows
1. Initially temperature in each effect is estimated. To make this estimation, it is
assumed that the heat transfer area in all effects is equal. This leads to:
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 D D D
U A T U A T U A T A = A = A (3.8)
Determine the overall temperature drop between the steam in the 1
st
effect and the
saturation temperature of the last effect (considering the BPE in all effects).
1 2 3 3
( )
tot s w
T T T T T T BPE A = A +A +A =
(3.9)
where,
1 1 2 2 3 3
( ) ( ) ( )
b w b w b w
BPE T T T T T T = + +
(3.10)

2. Calculate the total amount of solvent vaporized from the feed and product
concentration and feed flow rate. It is assumed that heat transfer rate in each effect
is roughly equal. This signifies that the rates of vaporization in each effect are also
roughly equal. Calculate the approximate vaporization rate in each effect (it is
one-third of total amount of solvent vaporized in one effect in case triple effect
system). Calculate the concentration in each effect and find out the BPE in each
effect. Then calculate the overall temperature drop (
tot
T A ).
3. Redistribute the overall temperature drop (
tot
T A ) among all the effects. Since the
areas are the same (
1 2 3
A A A = = ), the temperature difference in each effect is
roughly proportional to the overall heat transfer coefficients.
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 1
2 1 3 1
2 3
1 1
1 2 3 1
2 3
,
1
D D D
D D
D D
D D
tot
D D
U T U T U T
U U
T T T T
U U
U U
T T T T T
U U
A = A = A
| | | |
A = A A = A
| |
\ . \ .
| |
A = A + A + A = A + +
|
\ .
(3.11)
Thus, calculate
1
T A ,
2
T A and
3
T A .
4. Use the calculated value of
1
T A ,
2
T A and
3
T A ; and the composition estimated to
calculate the enthalpy values. The same reference temperatures for enthalpy must
be used for all streams, including those taken from steam tables, etc. Solve the
enthalpy balance equation sequentially to find out
s
m ,
1 s
m and
2 s
m .
5. Use heat transfer equations to calculate the heat transfer area for each effect.
1 1 2 2
1 2 1
1 1 2 2 3 3
, ,
s s s s s s
D D D
m m m
A A A
U T U T U T

= = =
A A A
(3.12)
6. Compare the areas calculated. If they are not equal, repeat the calculation. Using
the areas obtained to revise the temperature estimates. The recommended
approach is to use the ratio of the calculated heat transfer area for an effect to the
arithmetic mean of the calculated areas as shown:
1
1, 1 new
mean
A
T T
A
| |
A = A
|
\ .
(3.13)
Repeat the calculations until the area of each effect is equal.


The procedure above discussed is applicable for forward feed evaporators. The energy
balance equation can developed accordingly for backward feed system. Here also the
area for each effect is considered to be equal.
The heat transfer area required to obtain the product purity from a specified feed is
illustrated in the next example for forward feed evaporator system.


Lecture 4: Solved Example
Design problem
A 5% aqueous solution of a high molecular weight solute has to be concentrated to
40% in a forward-feed double effect evaporator at the rate of 8000 kg.h
-1
. The feed
temperature is 40C. Saturated steam at 3.5 kg.cm
-2
is available for heating. A
vacuum of 600 mm Hg is maintained in the second effect. Calculate the area
requirements, if calandria of equal area are used. The overall heat transfer coefficients
are 550 and 370 kcal.h
-1
m
-2
C
-1
in the first and the last effect respectively. The
specific heat of the concentrated liquor is 0.87 kcal.kg
-1
C
-1
.

SOLUTION
Part 1. Thermal design
Pressure in effect I to be decided.
Pressure in effect II = 760 - 600 = 160 mm Hg
Boiling point at this pressure = 60 C (from steam table)
(high molecular wt. solute, BPE is neglected)
Latent heat vapor generated in effect II at 160 mm Hg (0.2133bar) = 563 kcal.kg
-1

(
2 s
)
Heating steam is at 3.5 kg.cm
-2
gauge; temp (
s
T )=148 C; Latent heat (
s
)= 506
kcal.kg
-1

Feed rate = 8000 kg.h
-1
, Solute content = 5%
Final concentration = 40%
Solid in = 8000 0. 05 = 400 kg.h
-1
, water in = 8000-400= 7600 kg.h
-1

Product out (40% solid) = 400/0.40 kg.h
-1

= 1000 kg.h
-1

Water out with the product = 1000 (1-0.40) kg.h
-1

= 600 kg.h
-1

Total evaporation rate in two effects (
1 2 s s
m m + ) = 7600- 600 = 7000 kg.h
-1

(3.A)
Allow equal areas to two effects, i.e.,
1 1 2 2 D D
U T U T A = A
1 2 tot
T T T A = A +A = 148-60 = 88 C

U
D1
= 550, U
D2
= 370 kcal.h
-1
m
-2
C
-1

1
T A = 35.4 C &
2
T A = 52.6 C (3.11)
Temperature of the vapor leaving effect I (T
b1
) =148 35.4 = 112.6 C
Latent heat vapor generated in effect I at 112.6 C = 531 kcal.kg
-1
(
1 s
)
Energy balance for effect I:
1 1 1 1
( )
f f s s f s s s
m H m m m H m H + = +
(3.2)
Enthalpy values: reference temperature = 112.6 C (temp of solution leaving effect I)
f
H = (40 - 112.6)(1 kcal/ kg C) = -72.6 kcal/ kg
1
H = 0 kcal/ kg (w.r.t. the reference temperature of 112.6 C)
s
= 506 kcal/ kg;
1 s
= 531 kcal/ kg
(8000)(-72.6) + m
s
(506) = (8000-m
s1
)(0) + m
s1
(531)
m
s
= 1.05m
s1
+ 1148 (3.B)
Energy balance for effect II:
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
f s s s f s s s s
m m H m m m m H m H + = + (3.
3)
Enthalpy values: reference temperature = 60 C (temp of solution leaving effect II)
1
H = (112.6 - 60)(0.94 kcal/ kg C)= 49.4 kcal/ kg
(Specific heat of the solution leaving the 1
st
effect is taken as the mean value of the sp.
heat of feed and the concentrated liquor, i.e.,
1 0.87
2
+
=0.94)
2
H = 0 kcal/ kg (w.r.t. the reference temperature of 60 C)
1 s
= 531 kcal/ kg;
2 s
= 563 kcal/ kg
(8000 - m
s1
)(49.4) + m
s1
(531) = (8000-m
s1
- m
s2
)(0) + m
s2
(563)
m
s2
= 0.855m
s1
+ 702.6
(3.C)
Solving Eqs. 3.A, 3.B and 3.C for m
s,
m
s1
and m
s2
:
m
s
= 4713;

m
s1
= 3395 and m
s2
= 3605 kg/ h
Areas:
2
1
1 1
(4713)(506)
122.5 m
(550)(35.4)
s s
D
m
A
U T
= = =
A
;
2 1 1
2
2 2
(3395)(531)
92.6 m
(370)(52.6)
s s
D
m
A
U T
= = =
A

The areas in the two effects are not equal. Revised calculation is required.

The revised temperature difference in 1
st
effect,
o o
1 2
40 C and 48 C T T A = A = taken for
the calculation (you may also continue the calculation with this revised
value
o
1,
38.84 C
new
T A = (3.13)
Temperature of the saturated vapor from the first effect = 148 -60= 108 C
Corresponding evaporator drum pressure = 1.2116 bar
Latent heat of the vapor leaving the 1
st
effect at 108 C= 530 kcal/ kg (
1 s
)
Corresponding pressure in the vapor drum = 1.3317 bar
Revised calculation: Energy balance for effect I (reference temperature 108 C)

(8000)(-72.6) + m
s
(506) = (8000-m
s1
)(0) + m
s1
(530)
(3.2)
m
s
= 1.047m
s1
+ 1075
(3.D)
Revised calculation: Energy balance for effect II (reference temperature 60 C)
(8000 - m
s1
)(0.94)(108-60) + m
s1
(530) = (8000-m
s1
- m
s2
)(0) + m
s2
(563)
(3.3)
m
s2
= 0.8612m
s1
+641
(3.E)
Solving 3.A, 3.D and 3.E, m
s
= 4652;

m
s1
= 3417 and m
s2
= 3583 kg/ h
Areas:
2
1
1 1
(4652)(506)
107 m
(550)(40)
s s
D
m
A
U T
= = =
A
;
2 1 1
2
2 2
(3417)(530)
102 m
(370)(48)
s s
D
m
A
U T
= = =
A

These areas are fairly close, use A
1
= A
2
= 104 m
2
plus overdesign. About 10% excess
area will provide a reasonable overdesign.
Tube details:
Let us select 1 inch nominal diameter, 80 schedule, brass tubes of 12 ft in length
Outer tube diameter (d
o
) = 42.16 mm
Inner tube diameter (d
i
) = 32.46 mm
Tube length (L) = 12 ft = 3.6576 m
Surface area of each tube (a) = d
o
L = 42.16410
-3
3.6576 = 0.4845 m
2

Number of tubes required providing 10% overdesign (N
t
) = A /a = (115/0.4845) ~238
Tube pitch (triangular), P
T
= 1.25 d
o
= 1.25 42.164 = 52.71 53 ~ mm
Total area occupied by tubes = N
t
(1/2) P
T
P
T
sin (where = 60)
= 238 0.5 (5310
-3
)
2
0.866

= 0.2894 m
2

This area is generally divided by a factor which varies from 0.8 to 1 to find out the
actual area. This allows for position adjustment of peripheral tubes as those cant be
too close to tube sheet edge.
Actual area required = 0.2894/ 0.9 (0.9 is selected)
= 0.3216 m
2

The central downcomer area is generally taken as 40 to 70% of the total cross
sectional area of tubes. Consider 50% of the total tube cross sectional area.
Therefore, downcomer area = 0.5 [N
t
(/4) d
o
2
]
= 0.5 [238 (/4) (0.04216)
2
]
= 0.1661 m
2

Downcomer diameter = [(4 0.1661)/]
= 0.460 m
Total area of tube sheet in evaporator = downcomer area + area occupied by tubes
= 0.1661+ 0.3216 m
2

= 0.4877 m
2

Tube sheet diameter = [(4 0.4877)/ ]
= 0.788 m


Lecture 5: Mechanical Design
Part 2. Mechanical design
A few basic parts of mechanical design of evaporator are shown below. The
systematic approach of mechanical design of shell and tube heat exchanger is
discussed in module #1.
Process design parameters and materials of construction:
Consider a standard vertical short tube evaporator (calandria type) for this service
Evaporator drum operated at 1.3317 bar pressure
Amount of water to be evaporated = 7000 kg/hr
Heating surface required A =115 m
2

Steam is available to first effect at 3.433 bar pressure
Density of 5% feed liquid (
l
)= 1050 kg/m
3
(assumed)
Density of water vapor (
v
)=
PM
RT
at saturated vapor temperature in the first effect
(108C).
= (1.331718) / (8.314 10
-5
381)
= 0.757 kg/m
3

Design pressure (P) = 5% more than the maximum working pressure
= 1.053.433
= 3.605 bar
= 3.6749 kgf/cm
2

Volumetric flow rate of water vapor (V ): 7000/(0.7573500)= 2.57 m
3
/s
Evaporator shell: low carbon steel (IS-2062)
Tube material: brass
Permissible stress for low carbon steel = 980 kg/cm
2

Modulus of elasticity for low carbon steel = 1910
5
kg/cm
2

Modulus of elasticity for brass = 9.510
5
kg/cm
2

Conical head at bottom: cone angle =120
Conical head at top: cone angle= 120


1. Check for tube thickness
The tube thickness is given by
2
i
t
Pd
t
fJ P
=

The permissible stress of brass ( f ) = 538 kg/cm
2
; Welding or joint efficiency, J = 1 is
used for seamless tube
Therefore, t
t
= (3.6749 32.46) / [(2 538 1) 3.6749]
= 0.111 mm
The specified thickness is 4.85 mm. Therefore, the selected tube is suitable for this
service.
2. Calandria sheet thickness calculation
Thickness is given by:
2
o
s
PD
t
fJ P
=
+

= (3.6749 785) /[(29800.85) +3.6749]
= 1.73 mm
Normally, the corrosion allowance of 3 mm is used for carbon steel.
It may be taken as t
s
= 10 mm
3. Tube sheet thickness
Please refer module #2 (section 2.3.5) for the calculation of tube sheet thickness
according to the TEMA code and the minimum tube sheet thickness as per IS:4503
specification also needs to be checked.
4. Evaporator drum diameter determination
The following equation helps to estimate the drum diameter. The diameter of the
drum may be same as that of the calandria. However, it is necessary to check the size
from the point of satisfactory entrainment separation ([5] page 253].
( )
/ 0.0172 ( ) /
d l v v
V
R
A

| |
=
|
\ .

where, V=volumetric flow rate of vapor [m
3
/s]
A=cross sectional area of drum
For drums having wire mesh as entrainment separator device, R
d
may be taken as 1.3.
( )
0.0172 ( ) /
d l v v
V
A
R
| |
|
=
|

\ .

= (2.57) / [1.30.0172 {(1050 0.757)/0.757}]
= 3.087 m
2


The drum diameter= {(4 3.087)/3.14}
= 1.98 m
Drum height is usually taken as 2 to 5 times of tube sheet diameter
Thus, the drum height = 40.788 = 3.152 m
The tube length is in between the border line of short tube (4 to 10) and long tube
( >12). Therefore higher head space is required to arrest entrainment by mis-tallying
deflector plates.
5. Drum thickness
Drum is operating at 1.3317 bar pressure
Design pressure = 1.398 bar
= 1.4253 kgf/cm
2

Drum thickness:
2
o
d
PD
t
fJ P
=
+

= (1.4253 785) /[(29800.85) +1.4253]
= 0.671 mm
Therefore the same thickness of 10 mm for both the drum and calandria sheet may be
used including the tolerance for corrosion.

Note: The drum thickness is to be calculated based on the external pressure if the
drum is under vacuum.
Practice problem:
A triple-effect forward feed evaporator of the long-tube vertical type is to be used to
concentrate 4,000 kg/h of a 9.5% solution of caustic soda available at 40C to 50%
solution. Saturated steam at 3.5 kg.cm
-2
is available. A vacuum of 700 mm Hg is
maintained in the last effect. The overall heat transfer coefficients are 5800, 3300 and
2400 Wm
-2
C
-1
, corrected for BPEs may be used for the 1
st
, 2
nd
and 3
rd
effects
respectively. Calculate the heat transfer area required (assume equal areas in all three
effects), steam economy and rate of steam consumption.


Reference books

[1]. McCabe W.L., Smith J.C. and Harriott P. Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 5
th
Ed., (1993), pp. 463-494.
[2]. Dutta B.K. Heat Transfer-Principles and Applications, PHI Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 1
st
Ed. (2006), pp. 361-420.
[3]. Parker N.H. How to specify evaporators, Chem. Eng., May 27, 1963, pp.
135-140.
[4]. Minton P.E. Hand Book of Evaporation Technology, Noyes Publications,
New Jersey, 1986.
[5]. Joshi M.V. and Mahajani V.V. Process Equipment Design, McMillan
Publishers India Ltd., 3
rd
ed., 1996, New Delhi.

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