Control Systems CONTROL SYSTEMS (Common to EC/TC/EE/IT/BM/ML) Sub Code: 10ES43 Hrs/ Week: 04 Total Hrs: 52

10ES43

IA Marks : 25 Exam Hours : 03 Marks : 100

UNIT 1: Modeling of Systems: Introduction to Control Systems, Types of Control Systems, Effect of Feedback Systems, Differential equation of Physical Systems -Mechanical systems, Friction, Translational systems (Mechanical accelerometer, systems excluded), Rotational systems, Gear trains, Electrical systems, Analogous systems. 7 Hrs UNIT 2: Block diagrams and signal flow graphs: Transfer functions, Block diagram algebra, Signal Flow graphs (State variable formulation excluded), 6 Hrs UNIT 3: Time Response of feedback control systems: Standard test signals, Unit step response of First and second order systems, Time response specifications, Time response specifications of second order systems, steady123 state errors and error constants. Introduction to PID Controllers (excluding design) 7 Hrs UNIT 4: Stability analysis: Concepts of stability, Necessary conditions for Stability, Routh- stabilit y criterion, Relative stability analysis; more on the Routh stability criterion. 6 Hrs

Experimental determination of transfer functions, Assessment of relative stability using Bode Plots. Introduction to lead, lag and lead-lag compensating networks (excluding design). 7 Hrs

UNIT 7: Stability in the frequency domain: Introduction to Polar Plots, (Inverse Polar Plots excluded) Mathematical preliminaries, Nyquist Stability criterion, Assessment of relative stability using Nyquist criterion, (Systems with transportation lag excluded). 7 Hrs UNIT 8: Introduction to State variable analysis: Concepts of state, state variable and state models for electrical systems, Solution of state equations. 6 Hrs

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UNIT 6: Frequency domain analysis: Correlation between time and frequency response, Bode plots,

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UNIT 5: RootLocus Techniques: Introduction, The root locus concepts,Construction of root loci 6 Hrs

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TEXT BOOK : 1. J. Nagarath and M.Gopal, Control Systems Engineering, New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, Fourth edition 2005 REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. Modern Control Engineering , K. Ogata, Pearson Education Asia/ PHI, 4th Edition, 2002. 2. Automatic Control Systems, Benjamin C. Kuo, John Wiley India Pvt. Ltd., 8th Edition, 2008. 3. Feedback and Control System, Joseph J Distefano III et al., Schaums Outlines, TMH, 2nd Edition 2007.

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Control Systems INDEX SHEET SL.NO TOPIC I 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 II 2.1 2.2 2.3 III 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 IV 4.1 4.2 4.3 V 5.1 5.2 VI 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 VII 7.1 7.2 UNIT 1:Modeling of Systems Introduction to Control Systems, Types of Control Systems

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PAGE NO. 1-22

UNIT2 : Block diagrams and signal flow graphs

Transfer functions Block diagram algebra Signal Flow graphs (State variable formulation excluded) Standard test signals Unit step response of first order systems Unit step response of second order systems Time response specifications Time response specifications of second order systems steady23 state errors and error constants) Introduction to PID Controllers (excluding design)

UNIT 3 :Time Response of feedback control systems

Concepts of stability, Necessary conditions for Stability Routh- stability criterion Relative stability analysis; More on the Routh stability criterion. UNIT 5 : RootLocus Techniques

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UNIT 4 : Stability analysis

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Introduction, The root locus concepts Construction of root loci (problems) 134-169 UNIT 6 : Frequency domain analysis Correlation between time and frequency response Bode plots Experimental determination of transfer functions Assessment of relative stability using Bode Plots Introduction to lead, lag and lead-lag compensating networks (excluding design) 170-182 UNIT 7 : Stability in the frequency domain Introduction to Polar Plots,(Inverse Polar Plots excluded) Mathematical preliminaries

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Effect of Feedback Systems Differential equation of Physical Systems -Mechanical systems, Friction Translational systems (Mechanical accelerometer, systems excluded) Rotational systems , Gear trains Electrical systems, Analogous systems

23-42

43-84

85-110

111-133

Control Systems 7.3 7.4 VIII 8.1 8.2 8.3

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Nyquist Stability criterion Assessment of relative stability using Nyquist criterion, (Systems with transportation lag excluded) 183-201 UNIT 8 : Introduction to State variable analysis Concepts of state, state variable Concepts of state models for electrical systems Solution of state equations

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Control Systems UNIT-1

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A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system, or is that means by which any quantity of interest in a system is maintained or altered in accordance with a desired manner. Any control system consists of three essential components namely input, system and out put. The input is the stimulus or excitation applied to a system from an external energy source. A system is the arrangement of physical components and output is the actual response obtained from the system. The control system may be one of the following type. 1) man made 2) natural and / or biological and 3) hybrid consisting of man made and natural or biological. Examples: 1) An electric switch is man made control system, controlling flow of electricity. input : flipping the switch on/off system : electric switch : flow or no flow of current output 2) Pointing a finger at an object is a biological control system. input : direction of the object with respect to some direction system : consists of eyes, arm, hand, finger and brain of a man output : actual pointed direction with respect to same direction 3) Man driving an automobile is a hybrid system. input : direction or lane system : drivers hand, eyes, brain and vehicle output : heading of the automobile. Classification of Control Systems

Open Loop System is a system in which control action is independent of output. To each reference input there is a corresponding output which depends upon the system and its operating conditions. The accuracy of the system depends on the calibration of the system. In the presence of noise or disturbances open loop control will not perform satisfactorily.

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2) Closed loop control system in which the control action is some how dependent upon the output and are generally called as feedback control systems.

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Control systems are classified into two general categories based upon the control action which is responsible to activate the system to produce the output viz. 1) Open loop control system in which the control action is independent of the out put.

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input Controller

Actuating signal System

output

EXAMPLE - 1 Rotational Generator The input to rotational generator is the speed of the prime mover ( e.g steam turbine) in r.p.m. Assuming the generator is on no load the output may be induced voltage at the output terminals. Induced Voltage Speed of the Prime mover Rotational Generator Inputs Output Fig 1-2 Rotational Generator EXAMPLE 2 Washing machine

EXAMPLE 3 WATER TANK LEVEL CONTROL To understand the concept further it is useful to consider an example let it be desired to maintain the actual water level 'c ' in the tank as close as possible to a desired level ' r '. The desired level will be called the system input, and the actual level the controlled variable or system output. Water flows from the tank via a valve V o , and enters the tank from a supply via a control valve Vc. The control valve is adjustable manually. Valve VC Actual Water level c Desired Water WATER Water in level r TANK Valve VO

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C

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Water out

Fig 1.4 a) Water level control

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Fig 1-3 Washing Machine

Most ( but not all ) washing machines are operated in the following manner. After the clothes to be washed have been put into the machine, the soap or detergent, bleach and water are entered in proper amounts as specified by the manufacturer. The washing time is then set on a timer and the washer is energized. When the cycle is completed, the machine shuts itself off. In this example washing time forms input and cleanliness of the clothes is identified as output. Cleanliness of clothes Time Washing Machine

Fig 1-4 b) Open loop control

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A closed loop control system is one in which the control action depends on the output. In closed loop control system the actuating error signal, which is the difference between the input signal and the feed back signal (out put signal or its function) is fed to the controller.

Reference input

Error detector Actuating / error Control elements controller

Forward path System / Plant

Controlled output

Feed back signal Fig 1.5: Closed loop control system EXAMPLE 1 THERMAL SYSTEM

Human operator

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Thermometer

To illustrate the concept of closed loop control system, consider the thermal system shown in fig6 Here human being acts as a controller. He wants to maintain the temperature of the hot water at a given value ro C. the thermometer installed in the hot water outlet measures the actual temperature C0 C. This temperature is the output of the system. If the operator watches the thermometer and finds that the temperature is higher than the desired value, then he reduc e the amount of steam supply in order to lower the temperature. It is quite possible that that if the temperature becomes lower than the desired value it becomes necessary to increase the amount of steam supply. This control action is based on closed loop operation which involves human being, hand muscle, eyes, thermometer such a system may be called manual feed back system.

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Desired hot water. temp + ro c

Steam Steam Cold water

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Hot water

Drain Fig 1-6 a) Manual feedback thermal system EXAMPLE 2 HOME HEATING SYSTEM The thermostatic temperature control in hour homes and public buildings is a familiar example. An electronic thermostat or temperature sensor is placed in a central location usually on inside CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 3 b) Block diagram

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Feed back elements Brain of operator (r-c)

Muscles and Valve Thermometer

Actual Water temp Co C C

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wall about 5 feet from the floor. A person selects and adjusts the desired room temperature ( r ) say 250 C and adjusts the temperature setting on the thermostat. A bimetallic coil in the thermostat is affected by the actual room temperature ( c ). If the room temperature is lower than the desired temperature the coil strip alters the shape and causes a mercury switch to operate a relay, which in turn activates the furnace fire when the temperature in the furnace air duct system reaches reference level ' r ' a blower fan is activated by another relay to force the warm air throughout the building. When the room temperature ' C ' reaches the desired temperature ' r ' the shape of the coil strip in the thermostat alters so that Mercury switch opens. This deactivates the relay and in turn turns off furnace fire, which in turn the blower. Outdoor temp change (disturbance) House

Desired temp. r c

Relay switch

Furnace

Blower

A change in out door temperature is a disturbance to the home heating system. If the out side temperature falls, the room temperature will likewise tend to decrease. CLOSED- LOOP VERSUS OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS An advantage of the closed loop control system is the fact that the use of feedback makes the system response relatively insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations in systems parameters. It is thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to obtain the accurate control of the given plant, whereas doing so is impossible in the open-loop case.

It should be emphasized that for systems in which the inputs are known ahead of time and in which there are no disturbances it is advisable to use open-loop control. closed loop control systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances it is advisable to use open-loop control. Closed loop control systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances and / or unpredictable variations in system components used in a closed loop control system is more than that for a corresponding open loop control system. Thus the closed loop control system is generally higher in cost.

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From the point of view of stability, the open loop control system is easier to build because system stability is not a major problem. On the other hand, stability is a major problem in the closed loop control system, which may tend to overcorrect errors that can cause oscillations of constant or changing amplitude.

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Fig 1-7 Block diagram of Home Heating system.

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Actual Temp. Co C

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Definitions: Systems: A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain objective. The system may be physical, biological, economical, etc. Control system: It is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in a manner to command, direct or regulate itself or another system. Open loop: An open loop system control system is one in which the control action is independent of the output. Closed loop: A closed loop control system is one in which the control action is somehow dependent on the output. Plants: A plant is equipment the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation. Any physical object to be controlled is called a plant. Processes: Processes is a natural or artificial or voluntary operation that consists of a series of controlled actions, directed towards a result. Input: The input is the excitation applied to a control system from an external energy source. The inputs are also known as actuating signals. Output: The output is the response obtained from a control system or known as controlled variable. Block diagram: A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial representation of cause and effect relationship between the input and the output of a physical system. It characterizes the functional relationship amongst the components of a control system. Control elements: These are also called controller which are the components required to generate the appropriate control signal applied to the plant. Plant: Plant is the control system body process or machine of which a particular quantity or condition is to be controlled. Feedback control: feedback control is an operation in which the difference between the output of the system and the reference input by comparing these using the difference as a means of control. Feedback elements: These are the components required to establish the functional relationship between primary feedback signal and the controlled output. Actuating signal: also called the error or control action. It is the algebraic sum consisting of reference input and primary feedback. Manipulated variable: it that quantity or condition which the control elements apply to the controlled system. Feedback signal: it is a signal which is function of controlled output Disturbance: It is an undesired input signal which affects the output. Forward path: It is a transmission path from the actuating signal to controlled output Feedback path: The feed back path is the transmission path from the controlled output to the primary feedback signal. Servomechanism: Servomechanism is a feedback control system in which output is some mechanical position, velocity or acceleration. Regulator: Regulator is a feedback system in which the input is constant for long time. Transducer: Transducer is a device which converts one energy form into other Tachometer: Tachometer is a device whose output is directly proportional to time rate of change of input. Synchros: Synchros is an AC machine used for transmission of angular position synchro motorreceiver, synchro generator- transmitter. CITSTUDENTS.IN

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Block diagram: A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial representation of cause and effect relationship between the input and the output of a physical system. It characterizes the functiona l relationship amongst the components of a control system. Summing point: It represents an operation of addition and / or subtraction. Negative feedback: Summing point is a subtractor. Positive feedback: Summing point is an adder. Stimulus: It is an externally introduced input signal affecting the controlled output. Take off point: In order to employ the same signal or variable as an input to more than block or summing point, take off point is used. This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several different paths to several destinations. Time response: It is the output of a system as a function of time following the application of a prescribed input under specified operating conditions.

Control Systems DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

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The term mechanical translation is used to describe motion with a single degree of freedom or motion in a straight line. The basis for all translational motion analysis is Newtons second law of motion which states that the Net force F acting on a body is related to its mass M and acceleration a by the equation F = Ma Ma is called reactive force and it acts in a direction opposite to that of acceleration. The summation of the forces must of course be algebraic and thus considerable care must be taken in writing the equation so that proper signs prefix the forces. The three basic elements used in linear mechanical translational systems are ( i ) Masses (ii) springs iii) dashpot or viscous friction units. The graphical and symbolic notations for all three are shown in fig 1-8

M Fig 1-8 a) Mass Fig 1-8 b) Spring

The spring provides a restoring a force when a force F is applied to deform a coiled spring a reaction force is produced, which to bring it back to its freelength. As long as deformation is small, the spring behaves as a linear element. The reaction force is equal to the product of the stiffness k and the amount of deformation. Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two elements, frictional forces exist. The frictional forces encountered in physical systems are usually of nonlinear nature. The characteristics of the frictional forces between two contacting surfaces often depend on the composition of the surfaces. The pressure between surfaces, their relative velocity and others. The friction encountered in physical systems may be of many types ( coulomb friction, static friction, viscous friction ) but in control problems viscous friction, predominates. Viscous friction represents a retarding force i.e. it acts in a direction opposite to the velocity and it is linear relationship between applied force and velocity. The mathematical expression of viscous friction F=BV where B is viscous frictional co-efficient. It should be realized that friction is not always undesirable in physical systems. Sometimes it may be necessary to introduce friction intentionally to improve dynamic response of the system. Friction may be introduced intentionally in a system by use of dashpot as shown in fig 1-9. In automobiles shock absorber is nothing but dashpot.

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Fig 1-8 c) Dashpot

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a Applied force F

b Piston

Outline of the procedure For writing differential equations

2. Assume then that the system is given some arbitrary displacement if no distributing force is present. 3. Draw a freebody diagram of the forces exerted on each mass in the system. There should be a separate diagram for each mass.

5. Rearrange the equation in suitable form to solve by any convenient mathematical means. Lever Lever is a device which consists of rigid bar which tends to rotate about a fixed point called fulcrum the two arms are called effort arm and Load arm respectively. The lever bears analogy with transformer

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L1

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Fulcrum

4. Apply Newtons law of motion to each diagram using the convention that any force acting in the direction of the assumed displacement is positive is positive.

effort F1 CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 8

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L2

1. Assume that the system originally is in equilibrium in this way the often-troublesome effect of gravity is eliminated.

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F2 Load

The basic operation of a dashpot, in which the housing is filled with oil. If a force f is applied to the shaft, the piston presses against oil increasing the pressure on side b and decreasing pressure side a As a result the oil flows from side b to side a through the wall clearance. The friction coefficient B depends on the dimensions and the type of oil used.

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It is also called mechanical transformer Equating the moments of the force F1 L1 = F2 L 2 F2 = F1 L1 L2 Rotational mechanical system The rotational motion of a body may be defined as motion about a fixed axis. The variables generally used to describe the motion of rotation are torque, angular displacement , angular velocity ( ) and angular acceleration( ) The three basic rotational mechanical components are 1) Moment of inertia J 2 ) Torsional spring 3) Viscous friction.

of inertia (J) and angular acceleration and is given by T= J = J d2 d t2 A well known example of a torsional spring is a shaft which gets twist ed when a torque is applied to it. Ts = K , is angle of twist and K is torsional stiffness. There is viscous friction whenever a body rotates in viscous contact with another body. This torque acts in opposite direction so that angular velocity is given by T=f = f d2

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d t2 d t2

Newtons II law of motion states T = J d2 .

Gear wheel In almost every control system which involves rotational motion gears are necessary. It is often necessary to match the motor to the load it is driving. A motor which usually runs at high speed and low torque output may be required to drive a load at low speed and high torque. CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 9

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Where

f = co efficient of viscous friction.

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Moment of inertia J is considered as an indication of the property of an element, which stores the kinetic energy of rotational motion. The moment of inertia of a given element depends on geometric composition about the axis of rotation and its density. When a body is rotating a reactive torque is produced which is equal to the product of its moment

= relative angular velocity between two bodies.

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Driving wheel N1

N2

Analogous Systems Consider the mechanical system shown in fig A and the electrical system shown in fig B

d 2x M + dt 2 + B

dx dt

+ K X = f (t) ---------- 1

The differential equation for electrical system is d2q L + +R

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The analogy is here is called force voltage analogy Table for conversion for force voltage analogy Mechanical System Force (torque) Mass (Moment of inertia) Viscous friction coefficient Spring constant CITSTUDENTS.IN Electrical System Voltage Inductance Resistance Capacitance Page 10

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= e ---------- 2 c dt 2 Comp aring equations (1) and ( 2) we see tha t for the two systems the differential equations are of identical form such systems are called analogous systems and the terms which occupy the corresponding positions in differential equations are analogous quantities

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d2q + dt 2 q

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The differential equation for mechanical system is

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Driven wheel

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Displacement Velocity

Charge Current.

Force Current Analogy Another useful analogy between electrical systems and mechanical systems is based on force current analogy. Consider electrical and mechanical systems shown in fig. For mechanical system the differential equation is given by

d2x
M +

dx
+B

dt

+ K X = f (t) ---------- 1

dt

For electrical system C

dt

dt2

Comparing equations (1) and (2) we find that the two systems are analogous systems. The analogy here is called force current analogy. The analogous quantities are listed. Table of conversion for force current analogy Mechanical System Electrical System

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Force( torque)

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Mass( Moment of inertia) Viscous friction coefficient

Spring constant Displacement ( angular)

Velocity (angular) Voltage Illustration 1:For a two DOF spring mass damper system obtain the mathematical model where F is the input x1 and x2 are responses.

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+ = I(t)

d2x

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Current Capacitance Conductance Inductance Flux Page 11

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k2 m2 k1 m1 F
Figure 1.10 (a) k2 x2

b2 (Damper)
Draw the free body diagram for mass m1 and m2 separately as shown in figure 1.10 (b) Apply NSL for both the masses separately and get equations as given in (a) and (b)

x2 (Response)

b1
x1 (Response)

m2 k1 x2 k1 x2 k1 x1 k1 x1 b1 x1

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b1 x2

b1 x1

. .

b1 x2

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x2 x1 .

b2 x2

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From NSL

For mass m1 m1 x1 = F - b1 (x1-x2) - k1 (x1-x2) For mass m2 m2 x2 = b1 (x2-x1 ) + k1 (x2 -x1 ) - b2 x2 - k2 x2 CITSTUDENTS.IN

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Figure 1.10 (b)

F= ma

..

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..

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k2 x2 b2 x2

m2

k1 (x1-x2) b 1 (x1-x2)

..

m1

--- (a)

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Illustration 2: For the system shown in figure 2.16 (a) obtain the mathematical model if x1 and x2 are initial displacements.

Let an initial displacement x1 be given to mass m1 and x2 to mass m2.

K1 m1 K2 m2 K3 X1

Figure 1.11 (a)

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K1 X1 m1 X1 K2 X2 K2 X2 m2 m2 X2 K3 X2 K2 X1 K2 X1

K1 X1 m1 X1 K2 (X2 X1 )

Figure 2.16 (b) Based on Newtons second law of motion: For mass m1 m1 x1 = - K1x1 + K2 (x2-x1)

.. ..

m1 x1 + K1 x1 K2 x2 + K2 x1 = 0 m1 x1 + x1 (K1 + K2 ) = K2x2 For mass m2

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m2x2 = - K3 x2 K2 (x2 x1 ) m2x2 + K3 x2 + K2 x2 K2 x1 m2 x2 + x2 (K2 + K3 ) = K2 x1

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Mathematical models are: CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 14

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----- (1) ----- (2)

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F = ma

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K2 (X2 X1) X2 K3 X2

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.1 + x1 (K1 + K2) = K2 x2 m1. x

m2 x2 + x2 (K2 + K3) = K2 x1

----- (1) ----- (2)

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1.Write the differential equation relating to motion X of the mass M to the force input u(t)

K1

K2

2. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure

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B2 M B1 X1 f12 f1

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3. Write the differential equations for the mechanical system shown in figure.

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X (output)

U(t) (input)

(output)

F(t) (input)

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X2 M2 f2
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K1

M1 f(t)
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4. Write the modeling equations for the mechanical systems shown in figure.

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Xi

K M

M
Xo

force f(t)

5. For the systems shown in figure write the differential equations and obtain the transfer functions indicated.

Xi

Xo

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Xi Xo

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6. Write the differential equation describing the system. Assume the bar through which force is applied is not flexible, has no mass or moment of inertia, and all displacements are small.

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f(t)

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Yk F
C

K M B

7. Write the equations of motion in terms of given mechanical quantities.

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M1

8. Write the force equations for the mechanical systems shown in figure.

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J1
1 1

T(t) 9. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure.

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B1 K
2

T(t)

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10. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure.

K1 J B2

Torque T

11. Torque T(t) is applied to a small cylinder wit h moment of inertia J1 which rotates with in a 1 2 3 larger cylinder with moment of inertia J2. The two c ylinders are coupled by viscous friction B1. SJBIT/ Dept of ECE

B1

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J2
2

B1

K2 J B3

K3
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The outer cylinder has viscous friction B2 between it and the reference frame and is restrained by a torsion spring k. write the describing differential equations.

J2

Torque T1,

B1

12. The polarized relay shown exerts a force f(t) = Ki. i(t) upon the pivoted bar. Assume the relay coil has constant inductance L. The left end of the pivot bar is connected to the reference frame through a viscous damper B1 to retard rapid motion of the bar. Assume the bar has negligible mass and moment of inertia and also that all displacements are small. Write the describing differential equations. Note that the relay coil is not free to move.

13. Figure shows a control scheme for controlling the azimuth angle of an armature controlled dc. Motion with dc generator used as an amplifier. Determine transfer function
L (s)

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J1

B2

Control Systems . The parameters of the plant are given below. u Motor torque constant Motor back emf constant Generator gain constant Motor to load gear ratio = = = = KT in N.M /amp KB in V/ rad / Sec KG in v/ amp N2

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(s)

N1 Resistance of the circuit = R in ohms. Inductance of the circuit = L in Henry Moment of inertia of motor = J Viscous friction coefficient = B Field resistance = Rf

Field inductance = Lf

14. The schematic diagram of a dc motor control system is shown in figure where K s is error detector gain in volt/rad, k is the amplifier gain, Kb back emf constant, Kt is torque constant, n is the gear train ratio =
2 1 =

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Tm T2 Page 19 Bm = motion friction constant

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Control Systems Jm = motor inertia, KL = Torsional spring constant JL = load inertia.

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15. Obtain a transfer function C(s) /R(s) for the positional servomechanism shown in figure. Assume that the input to the system is the reference shaft position (R) and the system output is the output shaft position ( C ). Assume the following constants. Gain of the potentiometer (error detector ) K1 in V/rad Amplifier gain Kp in V / V Gear ratio N1 N2 Motor torque constant KT in V/ rad Moment of inertia of load J

Viscous friction coefficient f

SJBIT/ Dept of ECE

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16. Find the transfer function E0 (s) / I(s) C1 I C2 input E0 R Output

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Control Systems Recommended Questions : 1. Name three applications of control systems.

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2. Name three reasons for using feedback control systems and at least one reason for not using them. 3. Give three examples of open- loop systems. 4. Functionally, how do closed loop systems differ from open loop systems. 5. State one condition under which the error signal of a feedback control system would not be the difference between the input and output. 6. Name two advantages of having a computer in the loop. 8. Name the two parts of a systems response. 7. Name the three major design criteria for control systems. 9. Physically, what happens to a system that is unstable?

10. Instability is attributable to what part of the total response.

11. What mathematical model permits easy interconnection of physical systems? 12. To what classification of systems can the transfer function be best applied?

13. What transformation turns the solution of differential equations into algebraic manipulations ? 14. Define the transfer function. 15. What assumption is made concerning initial conditions when dealing with transfer functions? 16. What do we call the mechanical equations written in order to evaluate the transfer function ?

18. What function do gears and levers perform.

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19. What are the component parts of the mechanical constants of a motors transfer function?

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17. Why do transfer functions for mechanical networks look identical to transfer functions for electrical networks?

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Control Systems UNIT-2 Block Diagram:

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A control system may consist of a number of components. In order to show the functions performed by each component in control engineering, we commonly use a diagram called the Block Diagram. A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the function performed by each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the inter-relationships which exists between the various components. A block diagram has the advantage of indicating more realistically the signal flows of the actual system.

In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks. The Functional Block or simply Block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input signal to the block which produces the output. The transfer functions of the components

direction of flow of signals. Note that signal can pass only in the direction of arrows. Thus a block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a unilateral property. Fig 2.1 shows an element of the block diagram. The arrow head pointing towards the block indicates the input and the arrow head away from the block represents the output. Such arrows are entered as signals.

G(s Y(s) Fig 2.1 The advantages of the block diagram representation of a system lie in the fact that it is easy to form the over all block diagram for the entire system by merely connecting the blocks of the components according to the signal flow and thus it is possible to evaluate the contribution of each component to the overall performance of the system. A block diagram contains information concerning dynamic behavior but does not contain any information concerning the physical construction of the system. Thus many dissimilar and unrelated system can be represented by the same block diagram.

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X(s)

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are usually entered in the corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the

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It should be noted that in a block diagram the main source of energy is not explicitly shown and also that a block diagram of a given system is not unique. A number of a different block diagram may be drawn for a system depending upon the view point of analysis. Error detector : The error detector produces a signal which is the difference between the reference input and the feed back signal of the control system. Choice of the error detector is quite important and must be carefully decided. This is because any imperfections in the error detector will affect the performance of the entire system. The block diagram representation of

R(s)

C(s)

C(s) Fig2.2

Note that a circle with a cross is the symbol which indicates a summing operation. The plus or minus sign at each arrow head indicates whether the signal is to be added or subtracted. Note that the quantities to be added or subtracted should have the same dimensions and the same units. Block diagram of a closed loop system .

Fig2.3 shows an example of a block diagram of a closed system Summing point

R(s)

CI
summing points. CITSTUDENTS.IN

The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with reference input R(s). The closed loop nature is indicated in fig1.3. Any linear system may be represented by a block diagram consisting of blocks, summing points and branch points. A branch is the point from which the output signal from a block diagram goes concurrently to other blocks or

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Fig. 2.3

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the error detector is shown in fig2.2

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When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is necessary to convert the form of output signal to that of he input signal. This conversion is followed by the feed back element whose transfer function is H(s) as shown in fig 1.4. Another important role of the feed back element is to modify the output before it is compared with the input. B(s) R(s)
+

B(s)

C(s) G(s H(s Fig 2.4

C(s)

The ratio of the feed back signal B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the open loop transfer function. open loop transfer function = B(s)/E(s) = G(s)H(s)

The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the feed forward transfer function .

Feed forward transfer function = C(s)/E(s) = G(s)

function are the same. For the system shown in Fig1.4, the output C(s) and input R(s) are related as follows.

TS CI
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If the feed back transfer function is unity, then the open loop and feed forward transfer

C(s) = G(s) E(s) E(s) = R(s) - B(s) = R(s) - H(s)C(s) but B(s) = H(s)C(s)

Eliminating E(s) from these equations C(s) = G(s)[R(s) - H(s)C(s)] C(s) + G(s)[H(s)C(s)] = G(s)R(s) C(s)[1 + G(s)H(s)] = G(s)R(s)

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Control Systems C(s) = R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s) C(s)/R(s) is called the closed loop transfer function. G(s)

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The output of the closed loop system clearly depends on both the closed loop transfer function and the nature of the input. If the feed back signal is positive, then C(s) = R(s) 1 - G(s)H(s) G(s)

Closed loop system subjected to a disturbance

Fig2.5 shows a closed loop system subjected to a disturbance. When two inputs are present in a linear system, each input can be treated independently of the other and the outputs corresponding to each input alone can be added to give the complete output. The way in which each input is introduced into the system is shown at the summing point by either a plus or minus sign.

Disturbance N(s) R(s)

+

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+ G1(s) +

DE N
G (s)

Fig2.5 Fig2.5 closed loop system subjected to a disturbance.

zero error. Calculate the response CN(s) to the disturbance only. Response is CN(s) = R(s) 1 + G1(s)G2(s)H(s) On the other hand, in considering the response to the reference input R(s), we may assume that the disturbance is zero. Then the response CR(s) to the reference input R(s)is G2 (s)

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Consider the system shown in fig 2.5. We assume that the system is at rest initially with

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Control Systems CR(s) = R(s) 1 + G1(s)G2(s)H(s). G1(s)G2(s)

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The response C(s) due to the simultaneous application of the reference input R(s) and the disturbance N(s) is given by C(s) = CR(s) + CN(s) G2(s) C(s) = 1 + G1(s)G2(s)H(s) Procedure for drawing block diagram : [G1(s)R(s) + N(s)]

To draw the block diagram for a system, first write the equation which describes the dynamic behaviour of each components. Take the laplace transform of these equations, assuming zero initial conditions and represent each laplace transformed equation individually in the form o f block. Finally assemble the elements into a complete block diagram.

As an example consider the Rc circuit shown in fig2.6 (a). The equations for the circuit shown are

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Fig. 2.6a And ei - eo R

ei

ei = iR + 1/c idt eo = 1/c idt

Equation (1) becomes ei = iR + eo =i --------------(3)

Laplace transforms of equations (2) & (3) are Page 27

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R i eo C

-----------(1)

---------(2)

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Control Systems Eo(s) = 1/CsI(s) Ei(s) - Eo(s) = I(s) R -------- (5) -----------(4)

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Equation (5) represents a summing operation and the corresponding diagram is shown in fig1.6 (b). Equation (4) represents the block as shown in fig2.6(c). Assembling these two elements, the overall block diagram for the system shown in fig2.6(d) is obtained.

Ei(s)

+ _ Eo(s) Fig2.6(b)

1/R

I(s)

Eo(s) + _

SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

Node: A node is a point representing a variable or signal. Branch: A branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes. Transmittance: It is the gain between two nodes. Input node: A node that has only outgoing branche(s). It is also, called as source and corresponds to independent variable. Output node: A node that has only incoming branches. This is also called as sink and corresponds to dependent variable. CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 28

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Definitions:

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An alternate to block diagram is the signal flow graph due to S. J. Mason. A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. Each signal flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by directed branches. Each node represents a system variable, and each branch acts as a signal multiplier. The signal flows in the direction indicated by the arrow.

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I(s) 1/C Fig2.6(c) 1/C
1/R

Eo(S)

I(s)

Eo(s)

Fig2.6(d)

Control Systems Mixed node: A node that has incoming and out going branches.

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Path: A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch arrow. Loop: A loop is a closed path. Self loop: It is a feedback loop consisting of single branch. Loop gain: The loop gain is the product of branch transmittances of the loop. Nontouching loops: Loops that do not posses a common node. Forward path: A path from source to sink without traversing an node more than once. Feedback path: A path which originates and terminates at the same node. Forward path gain: Product of branch transmittances of a forward path.

Guidelines to Construct the Signal Flow Graphs: The signal flow graph of a system is constructed from its describing equations, or by direct reference to block diagram of the system. Each variable of the block diagram becomes a node and each block becomes a branch. The general procedure is 1) Arrange the input to output nodes from left to right. 2) Connect the nodes by appropriate branches. 3) If the desired output node has outgoing branches, add a dummy node and a unity gain branch. 4) Rearrange the nodes and/or loops in the graph to achieve pictorial clarity.

Signal Flow Graph Algebra Addtion rule CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 29

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Properties of Signal Flow Graphs: 1) Signal flow applies only to linear systems. 2) The equations based on which a signal flow graph is drawn must be algebraic equations in the form of effects as a function of causes. Nodes are used to represent variables. Normally the nodes are arranged left to right, following a succession of causes and effects through the system. 3) Signals travel along the branches only in the direction described by the arrows of the branches. 4) The branch directing from node Xk to Xj represents dependence of the variable Xj on Xk but not the reverse. 5) The signal traveling along the branch Xk and Xj is multiplied by branch gain akj and signal akjXk is delivered at node Xj.

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The value of the variable designated by a node is equal to the sum of all signals entering the node. Transmission rule The value of the variable designated by a node is transmitted on every branch leaving the node. Multiplication rule A cascaded connection of n-1 branches with transmission functions can be replaced by a single branch with new transmission function equal to the product of the old ones. Masons Gain Formula The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow graph is given by the net gain between input and output nodes and is known as overall gain of the system. Masons gain formula is used to obtain the over all gain (transfer function) of signal flow graphs. Gain P is given by 1 P Pk k
k

Where, Pk is gain of kth forward path, is determinant of graph

=1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible combinations of two nontouching loops sum of gain products of all possible combination of three nontouching loops) + k is cofactor of kth forward path determinant of graph with loops touching kth forward path. It is obtained from by removing the loops touching the path P k.

Example1 Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig.2.7

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X4 G2 X5 H1

Figure 2.7 Multiple loop system Choose the nodes to represent the variables say X1 .. X6 as shown in the block diagram. . Connect the nodes with appropriate gain along the branch. The signal flow graph is shown in Fig. 2.7 CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 30

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-H2 R X1 X2 X3 C

G1

1 X4 H1

G2

G3 X5

1 X6

-1

Figure 1.8 Signal flow graph of the system shown in Fig. 2.7

Example 2.9

Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig.2.9. G1

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G2 G3 G4

X1

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Figure 2.9 Block diagram feedback system The nodal variables are X1, X2, X3. The signal flow graph is shown in Fig. 2.10.

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G2 X1 -G3

X2

X3

G4 Figure 2.10 Signal flow graph of example 2

Example 3 Draw the signal flow graph of the system of equations. X1 X2 X3 a11 X 1 a12 X a 21 X 1 a 22 X a31 X 1 a32 X 2
2 2

a33 X 3

The variables are X1, X2, X3, u1 and u2 choose five nodes representing the variables. Connect the various nodes choosing appropriate branch gain in accordance with the equations. The signal flow graph is shown in Fig. 2.11.

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u2 b2 a11 a21 X2 a12 a31

a13 X a 23 X

b1u1 b2 u 2

u1

b1

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X1

Figure 2.11 Signal flow graph of example 2

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Example 4 LRC net work is shown in Fig. 2.12. Draw its signal flow graph.

R e(t) i(t)

L ec(t) C

Figure 2.12 LRC network The governing differential equations are 1 di idt e t 1 L Ri C dt or di Ri ec e t 2 dt de C c it 3 dt L

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i(0+) s 1 R
L

1 I s5 C Eqn.4 and Eqn.5 are used to draw the signal flow graph shown in Fig.7. sEc s ec 0

TU
L

Taking Laplace transform of Eqn.1 and Eqn.2 and dividing Eqn.2 by L and Eqn.3 by C 1 1 R sI s i 0 Es4 Ec s I S L L L

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1 Ls R

I(s) E(s)
-1 L s RL

Figure 2.12 Signal flow graph of LRC system

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Control Systems SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

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The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow graph is given by the net gain between input and output nodes and is known as overall gain of the system. Masons gain formula is used to obtain the over all gain (transfer function) of signal flow graphs. Masons Gain Formula Gain P is given by 1 P Pk k
k

=1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible combinations of two nontouching loops sum of gain products of all possible combination of three nontouching loops) + k is cofactor of kth forward path determinant of graph with loops touching kth forward path. It is obtained from by removing the loops touching the path P k. Example 1 Obtain the transfer function of C/R of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in Fig. 2.13

G1 R

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1

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-G3 G4

Figure 2.13 Signal flow graph of example 1 There are two forward paths: Gain of path 1 : P1=G1 Gain of path 2 : P2=G2 There are four loops with loop gains: L1=-G1G3, L2=G1G4, L3= -G2G3, L4= G2G4 CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 34

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1 C

Where, Pk is gain of kth forward path, is determinant of graph

Control Systems There are no non-touching loops. = 1+G1G3-G1G4+G2G3-G2G4 Forward paths 1 and 2 touch all the loops. Therefore, 1= 1, 2= 1 The transfer function T = Cs Rs P1
1

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P2

1 G1G3

G1 G2 G1G4 G2G3

G2 G4

Example 2 Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in Fig.2.14.

R(s)

G1

G2

Figure 2.14 Signal flow graph of example 2

Example 3 Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose sig nal flow graph is shown in Fig.2.15.

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There is one forward path, whose gain is: P1=G1G2G3 There are three loops with loop gains: L1=-G1G2H1, L2=G2G3H2, L3= -G1G2G3 There are no non-touching loops. = 1-G1G2H1+G2G3H2+G1G2G3 Forward path 1 touches all the loops. Therefore, 1= 1. G1G 2 G3 C s P1 1 The transfer function T = Rs 1 G1G2 H 1 G1G3 H 2

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G6 R(s)

G7 C(s)

G1 X1

G2 X2

G3 X3

G4 -H1

G5 X4

1 X5

-H2

Figure 2.15 Signal flow graph of example 3

The

transfer

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function

There are three forward paths. The gain of the forward path are: P1=G1G2G3 G4G5 P2=G1G6G4G5 P3= G1G2G7 There are four loops with loop gains: L1=-G4H1, L2=-G2 G7H2, L3= -G6G4G5H2 , L4 =-G2G3G4G5H2 There is one combination of Loops L1 and L2 which are nontouching with loop gain product L1L2=G2G7H2G4H1 = 1+G4H1+G2G7 H2+G6G4G5H2+G2G3G4G5H2+ G2G7H2G4H1 Forward path 1 and 2 touch all the four loops. Therefore 1 = 1, 2= 1. Forward path 3 is not in touch with loop1. Hence, 3= 1+G4H1. T =

Cs Rs

P 1

P2

P3

G1G2 G3G4 G5 G1G4 G5 G6 G1G2 G7 1 G4 H1 1 G4 H1 G2 G7 H 2 G6 G4 G5 H 2 G2 G3G4 G5 H 2 G2 G4 G7 H 1 H 2

Example 4

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Control Systems X6 X5 X3 , , for the signal flow graph shown in Fig.2.16. X1 X 2 X1

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Find the gains

b X1 a X2 c X3 d X4

-h

X5 f

X6

-g

Figure 2.16 Signal flow graph of MIMO system

Case 1:

X6 X1

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X6 X1

There are two forward paths. The gain of the forward path are: P1=acdef P2=abef There are four loops with loop gains: L1=-cg, L2=-eh, L3= -cdei, L4=-bei There is one combination of Loops L1 and L2 which are nontouching with loop gain product L1L2=cgeh = 1+cg+eh+cdei+bei+cgeh Forward path 1 and 2 touch all the four loops. Therefore 1 = 1, 2= 1.

TU
P 1
1

The transfer function T =

X5 X2 The modified signal flow graph for case 2 is shown in Fig.2.17. Case 2:

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cdef abef 1 cg eh cdei bei cgeh

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b X2 1 X2

-h d X3 -g X4 X5 e 1 X5

Figure 2.17 Signal flow graph of example 4 case 2

The transfer function can directly manipulated from case 1 as branches a and f are removed which do not form the loops. Hence,

The transfer function T=

X5 X2

P1

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b e

X3 X1 The signal flow graph is redrawn to obtain the clarity of the funct ional relation as shown in -h Fig.2.18. Case 3:

X1

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1

P2

cde be 1 cg eh cdei bei cgeh

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X4

-i

-g Figure 2.18 Signal flow graph of example 4 case 3

There are two forward paths. The gain of the forward path are: P1=abcd P2=ac CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 38

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c X5 f 1 X3 d X3

-i

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There are five loops with loop gains: L1=-eh, L2=-cg, L3= -bei, L4=edf, L5=-befg There is one combination of Loops L1 and L2 which are nontouching with loop gain product L1L2=ehcg = 1+eh+cg+bei+efd+befg+ehcg Forward path 1 touches all the five loops. Therefore 1= 1. Forward path 2 does not touch loop L1. Hence, 2= 1+ eh

The transfer function T =

X3 X1

P 1

P2

abef ac 1 eh 1 eh cg bei efd befg ehcg

Example 5

For the system represented by the following equations find the transfer function X(s)/U(s) using signal flow graph technique. X X1 3u X1 X2 a1 X 1 a2 X 1 X2
1 2

Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions X s X1 s 3U s sX 1 s a1 X 1 s X 2 s 2U s sX 2 s a2 X 1 s

Rearrange the above equation X s X1 s 3U s X1 s X2 s a1 X1 s s a2 X1 s s 1 X2 s s

1

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s s U s

The signal flow graph is shown in Fig.2.19.

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1 s
2 s
U X1

a1 s

a2 s
X2 1

1 s
3

Figure 2.19 Signal flow grapgh of example 5 There are three forward paths. The gain of the forward path are: P1= 3 2 P2 = 1 / s P3 = 2 / s

There are no combination two Loops which are nontouching. a a2 1 1 s s2

Forward path 1 does not touch loops L1 and L2. Therefore a a2 1 1 1 s s2 Forward path 2 path 3 touch the two loops. Hence, 2= 1, 2= 1.

CI

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P 1
1

There are two loops with loop gains: a1 L1 s a2 L2 s2 L1=-eh, L2=-cg, L3= -bei, L4=edf, L5=-befg

X3 The transfer function T = X1

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s 2 a1 s a2 2s 2 s a1 s a2

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Control Systems Recommended Questions: 1. Define block diagram & depict the block diagram of closed loop system. 2. Write the procedure to draw the block diagram. 3. Define signal flow graph and its parameters 4. Explain briefly Masons Gain formula 5. Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig below.

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X1

X2 G1

X3

X4

6. Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig below

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H1 G1 G2 G3 G4

X1

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7.

For the LRC net work is shown in Fig Draw its signal flow graph. Page 41

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H2 X5 X6 C G2 G3 X2 C X3

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R e(t) i(t)

L ec(t) C

8. Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in
Fig. G6 R(s) G1 X G2 X

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G3 G4 X3 -H1 u

-H2

Q.9 For the system represented by the following equations find the transfer function X(s)/U(s) using signal flow graph technique. X X1 3u

TS

X1

a1 X 1

X2

a2 X 1

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G7 G5 X4 1 X5 C(s)

Figur

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Control Systems UNIT- 3 Time response analysis of control systems: Introduction:

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Time is used as an independent variable in most of the control systems. It is important to analyse the response given by the system for the applied excitation, which is function of time. Analysis of response means to see the variation of out put with respect to time. The output behavior with respect to time should be within these specified limits to have satisfactory performance of the systems. The stability analysis lies in the time response analysis that is when the system is stable out put is finite The system stability, system accuracy and complete evaluation is based on the time response analysis on corresponding results.

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TIME RESPONSE

Practically, output of the system takes some finite time to reach to its final value. This time varies from system to system and is dependent on different factors. The factors like friction mass or inertia of moving elements some nonlinearities present etc. Example: Measuring instruments like Voltmeter, Ammeter. Classification:

Transient Response: It is defined as the part of the response that goes to zero as time becomes very large. i,e, Lim ct(t)=0
t

A system in which the transient response do not decay as time progresses is an Unstable system.

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The time response of a control system is divided into two parts. 1 Transient response ct(t) 2 Steady state response css(t) . . . c(t)=ct(t) +cSS(t) Where c(t)= Time Response Total Response=Zero State Response +Zero Input Response

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Time Response: The response given by the system which is function of the time, to the applied excitation is called time response of a control system.

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Control Systems C(t) Ct(t)

Step

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Css(t) ess
= study state error

Transient time

Time Study state Time

The transient response may be experimental or oscillatory in nature.

2. Steady State Response:

It is defined the part of the response which remains after complete transient response vanishes from the system output. . i,e, Lim ct(t)=css(t)
t

Standard Test Input Signals

For the analysis point of view, the signals, which are most commonly used as refere nce inputs, are defined as standard test inputs. The performance of a system can be evaluated with respect to these test signals. Based on the information obtained the design of control system is carried out. The commonly used test signals are 1. Step Input signals. 2. Ramp Input Signals. 3. Parabolic Input Signals. 4. Impulse input signal. Details of standard test signals 1. Step input signal (position function) It is the sudden application of the input at a specified time as usual in the figure or instant any us change in the reference input Example :a. If the input is an angular position of a mechanical shaft a step input represent the sudden rotation of a shaft. b. Switching on a constant voltage in an electrical circuit. CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 44

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The time domain analysis essentially involves the evaluation of the transient and Steady state response of the control system.

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Control Systems c. Sudden opening or closing a valve.

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r(t) A

t When, A = 1, r(t) = u(t) = 1

The step is a signal who s value changes from 1 value (usually 0) to another level A in Zero time. In the Laplace Transform form R(s) = A / S Mathematically r(t) = u(t) = 1 for t > 0 = 0 for t < 0

2. Ramp Input Signal (Velocity Functions):

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It is constant rate of change in input that is gradual application of input as shown r(t) in fig (2 b). Ex:- Altitude Control of a Missile Slope = A t

time.

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Mathematically r(t) = t u(t) { In LT form R(S) A = 1 t for = t 0 2 2 = S 0 for t 0 S Page 45

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The ramp is a signal, which starts at a value of zero and increases linearly with Mathematically r (t) = At for t 0 = 0 for t 0. In LT form R(S) = A S2 If A=1, it is called Unit Ramp Input

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3. Parabolic Input Signal (Acceleration function): The input which is one degree faster than a ramp type of input as shown in fig (2 c) or it is an integral of a ramp . Mathematically a parabolic signal of magnitude A is given by r(t) = A t 2 u(t) 2 2 r(t) At for t 0 = 2 0 for t 0

Slope = At

CI

It is the input applied instantaneously (for short duration of time ) of very high amplitude as shown in fig 2(d) Eg: Sudden shocks i e, HV due lightening or short circuit. It is the pulse whose magnitude is infinite while its width tends to zero. r(t) ie., t 0 (zero) applied momentarily

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In LT form R(S) = A S3 If A = 1, a unit parabolic function is defined as r(t) = t 2 u(t) 2 ie., r(t) { t 2 for t 0 In LT for R(S) = 1 = 2 S3 0 for t 0 4. Impulse Input Signal :

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A O
t

Area of impulse = Its magnitude If area is unity, it is called Unit Impulse Input denoted as (t) Mathematically it can be expressed as r(t) = A for t = 0 CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 46

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t t 0

Control Systems = 0 for t 0 In LT form R(S) = 1 if A = 1

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Standard test Input Signals and its Laplace Transforms. r(t) Unit Unit Unit Unit R(S) 1/S 1/S2 1/S3 1

Step ramp Parabolic Impulse

First order system:-

The 1st order system is represent by the differential Eq:- a1dc(t )+aoc (t) = bor(t)------ (1) dt

Dividing Eq:- (1) by a0, then a1. d c(t ) + c(t) = bo.r (t) a0 dt ao

T . d c(t ) + c(t) = Kr (t) ---------------------- (2) dt

Where, T=time const, has the dimensions of time = a1 & K= static sensitivity = b0 a0 a0 Taking for L.T. for the above Eq:-

TS
1 TS

If K=1, Then G(S) =

This system represent RC ckt. A simplified bloc diagram is as shown.; R(S)+ C(S)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

T.F. of a 1st order system is ; G(S) = C(S ) = R(S)

TU

1 . [ It s a dimensionless T.F.] 1+TS I

DE N
[ TS+1] C(S) = K.R(S) K . 1+TS

Where, e (t) = out put , r(t) = input, a0, a1 & b0 are constants.

TS .IN

Page 47

Control Systems Unit step response of 1st order system:-

10ES43

Let a unit step i\p u(t) be applied to a 1st order system, Then, r (t)=u (t) & R(S) = 1 . ---------------(1) S W.K.T. = G(S). R(S) C(S) = 1 . 1 . = 1 . T . ----------------- (2) 1+TS S S TS+1

C(S)

At t=T, then the value of c(t)= 1- e 1 = 0.632. The smaller the time const. T. the faster the system response. The slope of the tangent line at at t= 0 is 1/T. Since dc = 1 .e t/T

dt

DE N

= 1 . at t .=0. ------------- (4) T

TS .IN
c (t) 0.632 1 e t/T T K . where, S(1+ST)

Taking inverse L.T. for the above Eq:then, C(t)=u (t) e t/T ; t.>0.------------- (3)

slope = 1 . T

Second order system:-

a2 d2 c(t) + a1 . dc (t) + c(t) = b0 . r(t). a0 dt2 a0 dt a0 a2 d2 c(t) + 2a1 . 2 a0 dt 2 a0 a0 . a2 . a2 dc (t) + c(t) = b0 . r(t). dt a0

3) The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system is given by G(S) =

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

Where c(t) = o/p & r(t) = I/p -- ing (1) by a0,

TS

The 2nd order system is defined as, a2 d2 c(t) + a1 dc(t) + a0 c(t) = b0 .r(t)-----------------(1) dt 2 dt

TU

From Eq:- (4) , We see that the slope of the response curve c(t) decreases monotonically from 1 . at t=0 to zero. At t= T

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Control Systems

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T&K are constants having + Ve values.By what factor (1) the amplitude gain be reduced so that (a) The peak overshoot of unity step response of the system is reduced from 75% to 25% (b) The damping ratio increases from 0.1 to 0.6. Solution: G(S) = K . S(1+ST)

Let the value of damping ratio is, when peak overshoot is 75% & when peak overshoot is 25%

e ln 0. 75 =

1-

. 12

0.0916 =

0.091 2 = 0.4037

1=

w.k.t. T.F. =

G(S) 1+ G(S) . H(S)

2

DE N
= k . S+S T . 1+ K . = S + S 2T
2

(0.0084) (1- 2) = 2 (1.0084 2) = 0.0084 = 0.091

T.F. =

TS
Wn = K . T

Comparing with std Eq :-

CI

Let the value of K = K1 When = Since 2 Wn = 1 . , = 1 . T 2TWn 1 . = 2 K T = K2 . 1 . 1 K1 2 2 K2T 0.091 = 0.4037 K2 . K1

TU
K/T . S + S+ K. T T , 2 Wn = 1 . T
1&

K2 . = 0.0508 K1 Page 49

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
. 12

Mp =

K . S + S2T+K

K = K2 When 1 . 2 KT

2.

Control Systems

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K2 = 0.0508 K1 a) The amplitude K has to be reduced by a factor = b) Let = 0.1 Where gain is K1 and = 0.6 Where gain is K2 0.1 = K2 . K2 . = 0.027 0.6 K1 K1 1 . = 20 0.0508

K2 = 0.027 K1 1 . = 36 0.027

The amplitude gain should be reduced by

4) Find all the time domain specification for a unit y feed back control system whose open loop T.F. is given by G(S) = 25 . S(S+6)

Solution: G(S) = 25 . S(S+6)

2

G(S) . = 1 + G(S) .H(S)

= W2 n = 25 ,

Wn = 5,

TU
2 Wn = 6 = e 1- 0.6
2

25 . S + ( 6S+25 )

MP = e ts = 4 . Wn 1-

CI
tp = . = Wd .
2

= tan-1 ( 4/3 ) = 0.927 rad.

TS
for 2% =

Wd = Wn 1- 2 tr = - , Wd

= 5 1- (0.6)2 = 4 = tan-1 Wd = Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3

3.14 = 0.785 sec. 4 0.6 . x3.4 = 9.5%

4 . = 1.3 3sec. 0.6 x 5

CITSTUDENTS.IN

DE N
= 6 . = 0.6 2x5

25 . S(S+6) . 1 + 25 . S(S+6)

TS .IN

Page 50

Control Systems 5) The closed loop T.F. of a unity feed back control system is given by C(S) = 5 . R(S) S2 + 4S +5 Determine (1) Damping ratio (2) Natural undamped response frequency Wn. (3) Percent peak over shoot Mp (4) Expression for error resoponse.

10ES43

Solution: C(S) = 5 . , Wn2 = 5 2 R(S) S + 4S +5 2 Wn = 4 = Wn = 5 = 2.236

4 . = 0.894. Wd = 1.0018 2 x 2.236 . = 1-(0.894)2

MP = e 1-

= e-0.894x2.236t

6) A servo mechanism is represent by the Eq:d2 + 10 d = 150E , E = R- is the actuating signal calculate the dt 2 dt value of damping ratio, undamped and damped frequency of ascillation. = 150r 150 .

Soutions:-

CI

TS
Wn2 = 150

d2 + 10 d = 15 ( r - ) , dt 2 dt

Taking L.T., [S2 + 10S + 150] (S) = 150 R (S). (S) = 150 . R(S) S2 + 10S + 15O Wn = 12.25. = .rad sec .1

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU
2 Wn = 10

DE N
12

W. K.T. C(t) = e- Wnt

Cos Wdt r +

. sin wdt r

Cos 1.0018t + 0.894 . sin 1.0018t 1-(0.894)2

10 . = 0.408. 2 x 12.25 Page 51

TS .IN
0.894 . X 3.14 = 0.19%

Control Systems

10ES43

Wd = Wn

1-

2 = 12.25

1- (0.408)2 = 11.18. rad 1sec.

7) Fig shows a mechanical system and the response when 10N of force is applied to the system. Determine the values of M, F, K,. K
x(t)inmt f(t) 0.02 0.00193

M
F x 1 2 3 4 5

lt. SX(S) =

TU
10 S O

The steady state value of X is By applying final value theorem,

DE N
. = 10 = 0.02 ( Given from Fig.) M(0) + F (0) + K K. ( K = 500.) . 1 . ln 2

Given :- F(S) = 10 S. X(S) = 10 . S(MS2 + FS + K) SX (S) = 10 . MS2 + FS + K

TS
MP = e

MP = 0.00193 = 0.0965 = 9.62% 0.02 0.0965 = 12

CI

0.744

=
2

1-

0.5539 = 1- 2

0.5539 0.5539 2 = = 0.597 = 0.6 tp = = Wd 3 = CITSTUDENTS.IN

Wn 1 .

Wn = 1.31 rad / Sec. Page 52

TS .IN
.
2

The T.F. of the mechanical system is , X(S) = 1 . 2 F(S) MS + FS = K f(t) = Md2X + F dX + KX dt2 dt F(S) = (MS2 + FS + K) x (S)

.
2

Control Systems Wn 1 (0.6)2

10ES43

Sx(S) =

10/ M . (S2 + F S + K ) M M

Comparing with the std. 2nd order Eq :-, then, Wn2 = K M F = 2 Wn M Wn = K M (1.31)2 = 500 . M M = 291.36 kg.

F = 2 x 0.6 x 291 x 1.31 F = 458.7 N/M/ Sec.

Solution:

C(t) = 1+0.2e-60t 1.2e-10t Taking L.T., C(S) = 1 . + 0.2 . 1.2 . S S+60 S+10 C(S) . =

C(S) . = 600 / S . R(S) S2 + 70S + + 600

CI

Comparing, Wn2 = 600,

TS

Given that :- Unit step i/p r(t) = 1

TU

600 / S . S2 + 70S + + 600 R(S) = 1 .

DE N
24.4 ..rad / Sec 2 x 24.4

8) Measurements conducted on sever me mechanism show the system response to be c(t) = 1+0.2e-60t 1.2e-10t , When subjected to a unit step i/p. Obtain the expression for closed loop T.F the damping ratio and undamped natural frequency of oscillation .

TS .IN
2

Wn

70,

70 . = 1.428

10) A feed back system employing o/p damping is as shown in fig. 1) Find the value of K1 & K2 so that closed loop system resembles a 2 nd order system with = 0.5 & frequency of damped oscillation 9.5 rad / Sec. CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 53

Control Systems

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2) With the above value of K1 & K2 find the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p 3) What is the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p, the settling time for 2% tolerance?

K1

1 . S(1+S) K2S

+ C

C . = K1 . R S2 + ( 1 + K2 ) S + K1 Wn2 = K1 Wn = 2 Wn = 1 + K2 Wd = Wn

DE N
12

K1 1 + K2 2 K1

MP = e ts =

Steady state Error :Steady state errors constitute an extremely important aspect of system performance. The state error is a measure of system accuracy. These errors arise from the nature of i/p s type of system and from non-linearties of the system components. The steady state performance of a stable control system is generally judged by its steady state error to step, ramp and parabolic i/p.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

4 . = 4 . = 0.729 sec Wn 0.5 x 10.97

TU
. = 16.3%
2

K1 = (10.96)2 = 120.34 2 Wn = 1 + K2 , K2 = 9.97

1-

TS .IN
Wn = 9.5 . 10.96 rad/Sec 1 0.52 Page 54

Control Systems

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Consider the system shown in the fig.

G(S)
R(S) E(S) H(S) C(S)

C(S) = G(S) . (1) R(S) 1+G(S) . H(S)

The closed loop T.F is given by (1). The T.F. b/w the actuating error signal e(t) and the i/p signal r(t) is, E(S) = R(S) C(S) H(S) = 1 C(S) . H(S) R(S) R(S) R(S)

= 1

G(S) . H(S) . 1 + G(S) . H(S) 1 1 + G(S) . H(S)

Substituting (1),

Eq :- (2) Shows that the steady state error depends upon the i/p R(S) and the forward G(S) and loop T.F G(S) . H(S). CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI
ess = lt t

1 . .R(S) .(1) 1 + G(S) . H(S) The steady state error ess may be found by the use of final value theorem and is as follows; E(S) = e(t) = lt SE(S) S O ess = lt S.R(S) . .(2) S O 1+G(S) . H(S) T.F.

TS

Where e(t) = Difference b/w the i/p signal and the feed back signal

TU
.

DE N

= 1 + G(S) . H(S) G(S)H(S) 1+G(S) . H(S)

TS .IN

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The expression for steady state errors for various types of standard test signals are derived below; 1) Steady state error due to step i/p or position error constant (Kp):The steady state error for the step i/p is I/P r(t) = u(t). Taking L.T., R(S) = 1/S. From Eq:- (2), ess = lt S. R(s) . = S O 1 +G(S). H.S

1 . 1 + lt G(S). H(S) S O

Note :- ess

. for non-unit step i/p 1 + Kp

2) Steady state error due to ramp i/p or static velocity error co-efficient (Kv) :The ess of the system with a unit ramp i/p or unit velocity i/p is given by, r ( t) = t. u(t) , Taking L -T, R(S) = 1/S2 Substituting this to ess Eq:ess = lt S O lt

TU
ess =
1 .

DE N
S . . 1 . = lt 1 + G(S) . H(s) S2 S Kv

3) Steady state error due to parabolic i/p or static acceleration co-efficient (Ka) :The steady state actuating error of the system with a unit parabolic i/p (acceleration i/p) which is defined by r(t) + 1 . t 2 Taking L.T. R(S)= 1 . 2 S3 CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 56

CI

ess = lt S

Velocity error is not an error in velocity , but it is an error in position error due to a ramp i/p

TS
S O O 1 . S + Kv

= SG(S) . H(S) = Kv = velocity co-efficient then

TS .IN
1 . O S +S G(S) H(s)S

lt G(S) . H(S) = Kp (S O ) Where Kp = proportional error constant or position error const. ess = 1 . 1 + Kp (1 + Kp) ess = 1 Kp = 1 - ess ess

Control Systems ess

= lt

10ES43 S O . 1 . lt 3 1 + G(S) . H(S) S . H(S) = Ka. 1 S . O S + S2 G(S) . H(S)

2

S
lt

2 S G(S)

S ess = lt

O
1 . =

S Note :-

1 . S + Ka
2

Ka

ess = R . for non unit parabolic. Ka

Types of feed back control system :-

The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system can be written in two std, forms; 1) Time constant form and 2) Pole Zero form,

G(S) = K(TaS+1)(TbS+1) .. Sn(T1 S+1) (T2S + 1).

TS

1) Type O system :- If, n = 0, the system is called type 0, system. The steady state error are as follows; Let, G(S) = K . S+1 ess (Position) =
. . .

TU
[ Kp = lt

Where K = open loop gain. Above Eq:- involves the term S n in denominator which corresponds to no, of integrations in the system. A system is called Type O, Type1, Type2,.. if n = 0, 1, 2, .. Respectively. The Type no., determines the value of error co-efficients. As the type no., is increased, accuracy is improved; however increasing the type no., aggregates the stability error. A term in the denominator represents the poles at the origin in complex S plane. Hence Index n denotes the multiplicity of the poles at the origin. The steady state errors co-efficient for a given type have definite values. This is illustration as follows.

CI

DE N
. . .

H(s) = 1]

1 . = 1 .= 1 + G(O) . H(O) 1+K

G(S) . H(S) = lt S O

ess (Velocity) = 1 . = Kv CITSTUDENTS.IN

1 .= O Page 57

TS .IN
1 . 1 + Kp K . = K S O S+1

Control Systems

10ES43

Kv = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt S O S ess (acceleration) = 1 . = Ka Ka = lt S2 G(S) . H(S) = lt S O S

S O

K . = O. S+1

1 .= O S2 O K . = O. S+1

2) Type 1 System :-

If, n = 1, the ess to various std, i/p, G(S) =

ess (Position) =

1 . = O 1+ G(S) . H(S) = lt O

Kv = lt S K . = K S O S(S+1) ess (Velocity) = 1 . K ess (acceleration) = 1 . = 1 . = O O

CI

3) Type 2 System :- If, n = 2, the ess to various std, i/p, are , G(S) = Kp = lt
. . .

TS

TU
O

Ka = lt S2 K . = O. S O S (S + 1)

DE N
S K.= S S2 (S + 1)

Kp = lt S

ess (Position) = 1 . = O

Kv = lt S K .= 2 S O S (S + 1) . ess (Velocity) = 1 . = O . .

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
K . S (S + 1) K . O = S( S + 1) K . S (S + 1)
2

Page 58

Control Systems Ka = lt S2 K . = K. S O S2 (S + 1) . ess (acceleration) = 1 . . . K 3) Type 3 System :- Gives Kp = Kv = Ka = (Onwards)

10ES43

& ess = O.

PROBLEMS; 1. The unit step response of a system is given by C (t) = 5/2 +5t 5/2 e-2t. Find the T. F of the system. T/P = r(t) = U (t). Taking L.T, R(s) = 1/S. Response C(t) = 5/2+5t-5/2 e-2t

DE N
= 2 5 S2+2S+2S+4 S(S+2)

=5

5 1 5 1 2 S S2

TS

TU

2 (S+2)

S2

TS .IN
1 + 2 - 1 S S2 S+2 C(s) = 5 2 10 (S+1) G(s) = S (S+10) 100

The error co-efficient Kp, Kv, & Ka describes the ability of the system to eliminate the steady state error therefore they are indicative of steady state performance. It is generally described to increase the error co-efficient while maintaining the transient response within an acceptable limit.

Taking L.T, C(s)

S(S+2)+2(S+2)S2(S+2)

CI
2 = S2 (S+2) R (S)
2

10 (S+1)

T.F = C (S) = 10 (S+1) S = S (S+2)

2. The open loop T F of a unity food back system is

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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Control Systems

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Find the static error constant and the steady state error of the system when subjected to an i/p given by the polynomial R(t) G(s) = = Po + 2 100 S (S+10) KP = lt S 0 S 0 S (S+10) 100 x s 0 G(s) = lt 100 = position error co-efficient p1t + P2 t 2

Similarly KV = lt S 0

SG(s) = lt S

= 100

S (S+10)

S (S+10)

TU
2 R1 + 1+Kp + =

Given :-

r(t)

Po+P1t +P2 t2

Therefore steady state error ess

ess

CI

R1 R3+

TS
R2 =

DE N
R2 + Kv Ka R3 P0 P2 +

lt

100 x s2

Ess = 0+0.1 P1 +

3. Determine the error co-efficeint and static error for G(s) = And H(s) = (S+2) S(S+1) (S+10)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
= 10 Ka = lt S2 G(S) P1 + 1 Page 60

Control Systems The error constants for a non unity feed back system is as follows Kp = lt G(S) H(S) = (0+2) lt (S +2) 0(0+1) (0+10) G(S).H(S) = S(S+1) (S+10)

10ES43

Kv = lt lt

G(S) H(S) =

(0+2) = 1/5 = 0.2 0(0+1) (0+10)

Ka = 0 Static Error:Steady state error for unit step i/p = 0 Unit ramp i/p 1 = Kv Unit parabolic i/p = 1/0 = 1 =5 0.2

TU

4. A feed back C.S is described as G(S) = H(S)=1/s.For unit step i/p,cal steady state constant and errors.

DE N
50 S (S+2) (S+5) error 50 = S (S+2) (S+5)
2

Kp = lt lt

CI
Kv = lt lt

TS
G(S) H(S) = G(S) H(S) = G(S) H(S) = lt 0 S

50 x S = S2 (S+2) (S+5)

Ka = lt S 0

S2 (S+2) (S+5)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
S2 x 50 = 50 = 5 10 Page 61

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The steady state error

Ess = lt S 0

S. 1/S 1+50

Lt S 0

S2 (S+2) (S+5) S2 (S+2) (S+5) + 50

= 0/50 = 0 K 5. A certain feed back C.S is described by following C.S G(S) = H(S) = 1 S2 (S+20) (S+30)

Determine steady state error co-efficient and also determine the value of K to limit the steady to 10 units due to i/p r(t) = 1 + 10 + t 20/2 t2. Kp = lt lt G(S) H(S) =
2

50

Steady state error:-

TS
1

Ka = lt S

K S2 K 2 S (S+20) (S+3 0) 600

TU
1 + 1+ =0 1+Kp 10 10 + Kv =0

Kv = lt S 0

S K 2 S (S+20) (S+30)

Error due to unit step i/p

Error due o r(t) ramp i/p

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

DE N
S (S+20) (S+30) = Page 62

TS .IN
=

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20 Error due to para i/p, , r (t) = = Ka

40 = 2Ka

20 x 600 K

12000 = K

0+0 12000 = 10 = K = 1200 K

First order system:The 1st order system is represent by the differential Eq:- a1dc(t )+aoc (t) = bor(t)------ (1) dt Where, e (t) = out put , r(t) = input, a0, a1 & b0 are constants. Dividing Eq:- (1) by a0, then a1. d c(t ) + c(t) = bo.r (t) a0 dt ao

T . d c(t ) + c(t) = Kr (t) ---------------------- (2) dt

Where, T=time const, has the dimensions of time = a1 & K= static sensitivity = b0 a0 a0 Taking for L.T. for the above Eq:[ TS+1] C(S) = K.R(S) K . 1+TS

T.F. of a 1st order system is ; G(S) = C(S ) = R(S)

This system represent RC ckt. A simplified bloc diagram is as shown.; R(S)+

CI
1 TS -

TS

If K=1, Then G(S) =

Unit step response of 1st order system:Let a unit step i\p u(t) be applied to a 1st order system, Then, r (t)=u (t) & R(S) = 1 . ---------------(1) S W.K.T. = G(S). R(S) CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU
C(S)

1 . [ It s a dimensionless T.F.] 1+TS I

DE N

TS .IN

C(S)

Page 63

Control Systems C(S) = 1 . 1 . = 1+TS S 1 . S T . ----------------- (2) TS+1

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Taking inverse L.T. for the above Eq:then, C(t)=u (t) e t/T ; t.>0.------------- (3) At t=T, then the value of c(t)= 1- e 1 = 0.632. The smaller the time const. T. the faster the system response. The slope of the tangent line at at t= 0 is 1/T. Since dc = 1 .e t/T

slope = 1 . T c (t) 0.632 1 e t/T

dt

= 1 . at t .=0. ------------- (4) T

TS .IN
T dc (t) + dt

Second order system:-

a2 d2 c(t) + a1 . dc (t) + c(t) = b0 . r(t). a0 dt2 dt a0 a0 a2 d2 c(t) + 2a1 . 2 c(t) = b0 . r(t). a0 dt 2 a0 a0 . a0

CI

TS

Where c(t) = o/p & r(t) = I/p -- ing (1) by a0,

Step response of 2nd order system: The T.F. = C(s) = Wn2 Based on value 2 2 R(s) 3 +2 WnS+ Wn The system may be, CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 64

TU
a2 . a2

The 2nd order system is defined as, a2 d2 c(t) + a1 dc(t) + a0 c(t) = b0 .r(t)-----------------(1) dt 2 dt

DE N

From Eq:- (4) , We see that the slope of the response curve c(t) decreases monotonically from 1 . at t=0 to zero. At t= T

Control Systems 2) Under damped system (0< <1) 3) Critically damped system ( =1) 4) Over damped system ( >1) 1) Under damped system :- (0< <1) In this case C(s) can be written as R(s) C(s) = R(s) Wn2 (S+ wn + jwd ) (S+ wn - jw d )
1-

10ES43

For a unit step i/p :- [ R(t)= 1

R(S) = 1/S]

C(S) =

Wn 2 . X R (S) = Wn2 . = 2 2 2 (S +2 Wn S+ Wn ) (S +2 WnS+ Wn 2) S+2 Wn . S2+2 WnS+ Wn2

DE N
. 12

C(S) = 1 . S = 1 . S

TU
(S+ S+ Wn . Wn)2 + Wd2 S+ Wn . (S+ Wn) 2 + W d2 COS Wdt + 12

Wn . --------------- (5) (S+ Wn2 + Wd2)

C(S) = 1 . S

TS

CI

Taking ILT, C(t) = 1-e- Wnt

. Sin Wdt ------------ (6)

The error signal for this system is the difference b/w the I/p & o/p. e(t) = r(t) c(t) . = 1 c(t) = e- Wnt COS Wdt + . Sin Wdt --------------------- (7) Page 65

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
1 . S Wd . (S+ Wn) 2 + Wd2

Where wd = wn

The Freq. wd is called damped natural frequency

Control Systems 1- 2 At t = , error exists b/w the i/p & o/p. t > o.

10ES43

If the damping ratio = O, the response becomes undamped & oscillations continues indefinitely. The response C(t) for the zero damping case is , c(t) =1-1(COS wnt) =1- COS wnt ; t > O --------------------- (8) From Eq:- (8) , we see that the Wn represents the undamped natural frequency of the system. If the linear system has any amount of damping the undamped natural frequency cannot be The frequency, which may be observed, is the damped natural observed experimentally. frequency. Wd =w n 1 2 This frequency is always lower than the undamped natural frequency. An increase in would reduce the damped natural frequency Wd . If is increased beyond unity, the response over damped & will not oscillate. Critically damped case:( =1).

If the two poles of C(S) are nearly equal, the system may be approximated by a R(S) Critically damped one. For a step I/p R(S) = 1/S C(S) =

TU
S +2 1 .
2

Wn2 . Wn S+ Wn 2 1

TS
S =

(S + Wn) Wn2 . ( S + Wn )2S

CI

1 . S

Taking I.L.T.,

C(t) = 1 e -Wnt (1+wnt)

Over damped system :- ( > 1) If this case, the two poles of C(S) are negative, real and unequal. R(S) For a unit step I/p R(S) = 1/S , then, C(S) = CITSTUDENTS.IN Wn 2
.

DE N
1 . S Wn ( S+ Wn)2 .

TS .IN
.

Page 66

Control Systems (S+ Wn + Wn Taking ILT, C(t) = 1+ S

2 2 2

10ES43 -1 ) ( S+ Wn - Wn 1 1 ( + 1
2 2

1)
2

. 1) .

e ( +

1) Wn t. 1) Wn t.

e ( +

1 ( +

1) e-S 1 t . - e-S2 t . S1 S2

C(t) = 1+ S Where S1 = ( + S2 = ( 2 2

Wn 2 1

;t >O

1) Wn

1) Wn

Time response (Transient ) Specification (Time domain) Performance :-

The performance characteristics of a controlled system are specified in terms of the transient response to a unit step i/p since it is easy to generate & is sufficiently drastic. The transient response of a practical C.S often exhibits damped oscillations before reaching steady state. In specifying the transient response characteristic of a C.S to unit step i/p, it is common to specify the following terms. 1) Delay time (td)
MP

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU

DE N

TS .IN
Page 67

Control Systems 2) Rise time (tr)

10ES43

Response curve 3) Peak time (tp) 4) Max over shoot (Mp) 5) Settling time (ts)

1) Delay time :- (t d) It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of its final value time.

TU

DE N
for the 1 st Page 68

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

3) Peak time :- (t p) It is the time required for the response to reach the 1 st of peak of the overshoot. 4) Maximum over shoot :- (MP) It is the maximum peak value of the response curve measured from unity. The amount of max over shoot directly indicates the relative stability of the system.

5) Settling time :- (t s)

TS

2) Rise time :- (t r) It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% and 90% or 0% to 100% of its final value. For under damped system, second order system the 0 to 100% rise time is commonly used. For over damped system, the 10 to 90% rise time is commonly used.

TS .IN

Control Systems

10ES43

It is the time required for the response curve to reach & stay with in a range about the final value of size specified by absolute percentage of the final value (usually 5% to 2%). The settling time is related to the largest time const., of C.S. Transient response specifications of second order system :W. K.T. for the second order system, Wn2 . ------------------------------(1) 2 WnS+ Wn

T.F. = C(S) = R(S) S2+2

Let C(t r) = 1, i.e., substituting t r for t in the above Eq: Then, C(t r) = 1 = 1- e- Wntr Cos wdt r +
2

DE N
12

Cos wdt r + 1-

. sin wdt r = tan wdt r = 2

TS .IN
. sin wdt r 1= wd . jW jWd 12

Assuming the system is to be underdamped ( < 1) Rise time tr W. K.T. C(t r) = 1- e- Wnt Cos Wdt r + . sin wdt r 2 1-

Thus, the rise time t r is , tr =

TS

1 . tan-1 - w d = - secs Wd wd When must be in radians.

TU

Wn

Wn

Wn S- Plane

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI
Peak time :- (tp)

Peak time can be obtained by differentiating C(t) W.r.t. t and equating that derivative to zero. dc = O = Sin Wdtp Wn . e- Wntp dt t = t p 1- 2 Since the peak time corresponds to the 1st peak over shoot. Wdtp = = tp = . Wd The peak time tp corresponds to one half cycle of the frequency of damped oscillation. Page 69

Control Systems

10ES43

Maximum overshoot :- (MP) The max over shoot occurs at the peak time. i.e. At t = tp = . Wd Mp = e ( / Wd) or e ( / 1- 2)

1 . Wn Setting time ts = 4x Time constant. = 4x 1 . for a tolerance band of +/- 2% steady state. Wn

Time constant of a system = T =

PROBLEMS:

Given :- = 0.6, Wn = 5rad /sec, tr = ?, tp = ?, Mp = ?, ts = ?

CI

TS

(1) Consider the 2 nd order control system, where = 0.6 & Wn = 5 rad / sec, obtain the rise time tr, peak time tp, max overshoot Mp and settling time ts When the system is subject to a unit step i/p.,

Wd = Wn =

Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3. - , = tan-1 Wd Wd = tan-1 4 = 0.927 rad 3

tr =

tr = 3.14 0.927 = 0.55sec. 4

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU
12

Delay time :- (td) The easier way to find the delay time is to plot Wn td VS the curve for the range O< < 1 , then the Eq. becomes, Wn td = 1+0.7 td = 1+0.7 Wn

DE N
1-(0.6) 2 = 4

= 5

TS .IN
. Then approximate Page 70

Settling time :- (ts) An approximate value of ts can be obtained for the system O < envelope of the damped sinusoidal waveform.

<1 by using the

Control Systems tp = Wd = 3.14 = 0.785 sec. 4 . MP = e 12

10ES43

= e

/ Wd

MP = e

(3/4) x 3.14

= 0.094 x 100 = 9.4%

For the 5% criteria., ts = 3 = 3 = 1 sec 3

EXERCISE:

(2) A unity feed back system has on open loop T.F. G(S) =

LCS

PROBLEMS;

2. The unit step response of a system is given by C (t) = 5/2 +5t 5/2 e-2t. Find the T. F of the system. T/P = r(t) = U (t). Taking L.T, R(s) = 1/S. Response C(t) = 5/2+5t-5/2 e-2t 1 + 2 - 1 2 S S S+2 CITSTUDENTS.IN Taking Page 71

CI

TS

The error co-efficient Kp, Kv, & Ka describes the ability of the system to eliminate the steady state error therefore they are indicative of steady state performance. It is generally described to increase the error co-efficient while maintaining the transient response within an acceptable limit.

TU

DE N

K . S ( S+10) Determine the value of K so that the system has a damping factors of 0.5 For this value of K determine settling time, peak over shoot & time for peak over shoot for unit step i/p

TS .IN

ts :- For the 2% criteria., ts = 4 . = 4 . = 1.33 sec. Wn 0.6x5

Control Systems L.T, C(s) = 5 1 + 2 S 5 1 S2 - 5 2 (S+2) 1 2 = 5

10ES43

= 2 = S2 (S+2)
2

S2+2S+2S+4

C(s) = 5

S(S+2)+2(S+2)3 S2(S+2)

10 (S+1)

T.F = C (S) = 10 (S+1) S = R (S) S (S+2) S(S+2)

Find the static error constant and the steady state error of the system when subjected to an i/p given by the polynomial R(t) G(s) = = Po + 2 100 S (S+10) p1t + P2 t 2

position error co-efficient

TS

TU

DE N
KP = lt 100 x s 0 = 100 = 10 S (S+10) = 0

2. The open loop T F of a unity food back system is

S (S+10)

Similarly KV = lt S

CI

SG(s) = lt S

lt S 0 S 0

100 x s2 S (S+10)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
10 (S+1) G(s) = 100 S (S+10) G(s) = lt 100 = Ka = lt S2 G(S) Page 72

Control Systems

10ES43

Given :-

r(t)

= 2

Po+P1t +P2 t2 R1 R2 + 1+Kp Kv + Ka R3

Therefore steady state error ess

R1 + 1+

R2 + 10

R3 ess 0

P0 + 1+

P1 = + 10

P2 0

Ess = 0+0.1 P1 +

3. Determine the error co-efficeint and static error for G(s) = And H(s) = (S+2) S(S+1) (S+10) The error constants for a non unity feed back system is as follows (S+2) G(S).H(S) =

S(S+1) (S+10)

TS

Kp = lt S 0

G(S) H(S) = lt 0 S

TU

DE N
(0+2) 0(0+1) (0+10) (0+2) 0(0+1) (0+10)

CI

Kv = lt lt

G(S) H(S) =

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
1 = = 1/5 = 0.2 Page 73

Control Systems

10ES43

Ka = 0 Static Error:Steady state error for unit step i/p = 0 Unit ramp i/p 1 = Kv 0.2 1 =5

Unit parabolic i/p = 1/0 =

50 4. A feed back C.S is described as G(S) = H(S)=1/s.For unit step i/p,cal steady state constant and errors.

S (S+2) (S+5)

TS .IN
= = = 50 = 5 10 Lt S 0 S2 (S+2) (S+5) K
2

error

Kp = lt lt

G(S) H(S) =

TU
lt S Ess = lt S 0

Kv = lt lt

G(S) H(S) =

TS
G(S) H(S) = 0

Ka = lt S

CI
The steady state error

DE N
50 S (S+2) (S+5)
2

50 x S S2 (S+2) (S+5) S2 x 50 S2 (S+2) (S+5)

S. 1/S 1+50

S2 (S+2) (S+5) + 50

= 0/50 = 0 H(S) = 1 S (S+20) (S+30) CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 74

Control Systems 5. A certain feed back C.S is described by following C.S G(S) =

10ES43

Determine steady state error co-efficient and also determine the value of K to limit the steady to 10 units due to i/p r(t) = 1 + 10 + t 20/2 t2. Kp = lt S 0 G(S) H(S) = lt S 50 = S2 (S+20) (S+30)

Ka = lt S

S2 K 2 S (S+20) (S+30)

K 600

Steady state error:Error due to unit step i/p

1+Kp

TU
+ Kv 20 40 = 2Ka Ka

Error due o r(t) ramp i/p

10

TS

Error due to para i/p, , r (t) =

3) The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system is given by G(S) =

CI

0+0 12000 = 10 = K = 1200 K

DE N
+ =0 1+ 10 =0 20 x 600 = K 12000 = K K . where, S(1+ST) Page 75

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN

Kv = lt S

S K 2 S (S+20) (S+30)

Control Systems

10ES43

T&K are constants having + Ve values.By what factor (1) the amplitude gain be reduced so that (a) The peak overshoot of unity step response of the system is reduced from 75% to 25% (b) The damping ratio increases from 0.1 to 0.6. Solution: G(S) = K . S(1+ST)

Let the value of damping ratio is, when peak overshoot is 75% & when peak overshoot is 25%

e ln 0. 75 =

1-

. 12

0.0916 =

0.091 2 = 0.4037

1=

w.k.t. T.F. =

G(S) 1+ G(S) . H(S)

DE N
= k . S + S2T . 1+ K . = 2 S+S T K2 . = 0.0508

(0.0084) (1- 2) = 2 (1.0084 2) = 0.0084 = 0.091

T.F. =

Comparing with std Eq :-

CI

TS
Wn =

K . , 2 Wn = 1 . T T Let the value of K = K1 When = 1 & K = K2 When Since 2 Wn = 1 . , = 1 . = 1 . T 2TWn 2 KT 1 . K1T = K2 . . = 2 1 K1 2 2 K2T 0.091 = K2 .

TU
K/T . S2 + S + K . T T =
2.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
. 12

Mp =

K . 2 S + S T+K

Page 76

Control Systems 0.4037 K1 K1

10ES43

K2 = 0.0508 K1 a) The amplitude K has to be reduced by a factor = b) Let = 0.1 Where gain is K1 and = 0.6 Where gain is K2 0.1 = K2 . K2 . = 0.027 0.6 K1 K1 1 . = 20 0.0508

K2 = 0.027 K1

4) Find all the time domain specification for a unity feed back control system whose open lo op T.F. is given by G(S) = 25 . S(S+6)

Solution: G(S) = 25 . S(S+6)

G(S) . = 1 + G(S) .H(S)

W2 n = 25 ,

Wn = 5,

TU
2 Wn = 6 = e 1- 0.6
2

25 . S2 + ( 6S+25 )

Wd = Wn 1- 2 tr = - , Wd

MP = e ts = 4 . Wn 1-

CI
tp = . = Wd .
2

= tan-1 ( 4/3 ) = 0.927 rad. 3.14 = 0.785 sec. 4 0.6 . x3.4 = 9.5%

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS
for 2% =

= 5 1- (0.6)2 = 4 = tan-1 Wd = Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3

4 . = 1.3 3sec. 0.6 x 5 Page 77

DE N
= 6 . = 0.6 2x5

25 . S(S+6) . 1 + 25 . S(S+6)

TS .IN

The amplitude gain should be reduced by

1 . = 36 0.027

Control Systems

10ES43

5) The closed loop T.F. of a unity feed back control system is given by C(S) = 5 . 2 R(S) S + 4S +5 Determine (1) Damping ratio (2) Natural undamped response frequency Wn. (3) Percent peak over shoot Mp (4) Expression for error resoponse.

Solution: C(S) = 5 . , Wn2 = 5 R(S) S2 + 4S +5 2 Wn = 4 = Wn = 5 = 2.236

4 . = 0.894. Wd = 1.0018 2 x 2.236 . = 1-(0.894)2

MP = e 1-

W. K.T. C(t) = e- Wnt

Cos Wdt r +

= e-0.894x2.236t

6) A servo mechanism is represent by the Eq:-

TS
Wn2 = 150

d2 + 10 d = 150E , E = R- is the actuating signal calculate the dt 2 dt value of damping ratio, undamped and damped frequency of ascillation. = 150r 150 .

CI

Soutions:-

d2 + 10 d = 15 ( r - ) , dt 2 dt

Taking L.T., [S2 + 10S + 150] (S) = 150 R (S). (S) = 150 . 2 R(S) S + 10S + 15O Wn = 12.25. = 10 .rad sec .1 . = 0.408. Page 78

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU
2 Wn = 10

DE N
. sin wdt r 12

Cos 1.0018t + 0.894 . sin 1.0018t 1-(0.894)2

TS .IN
0.894 . X 3.14 = 0.19%

Control Systems 2 x 12.25 Wd = Wn 12 = 12.25 1- (0.408)2 = 11.18. rad 1sec.

10ES43

7) Fig shows a mechanical system and the response when 10N of force is applied to the system. Determine the values of M, F, K,. K
f(t) 0.02 x(t)inmt 0.00193

F x 1 2 3 4 5

The steady state value of X is By applying final value theorem, lt. SX(S) = 10 . = 10 = 0.02 ( Given from Fig.) M(0) + F (0) + K K.

TU
S O

DE N
( K = 500.) . 1 ln 2

Given :- F(S) = 10 S. X(S) = 10 . 2 S(MS + FS + K) SX (S) = 10 . 2 MS + FS + K

CI
MP = e

TS

MP = 0.00193 = 0.0965 = 9.62% 0.02 0.0965 = 12

0.744 12

0.5539 = 1- 2

0.5539 0.5539 2 = = 0.597 = 0.6 tp = = Wd CITSTUDENTS.IN

Wn 1

TS .IN
.
2

The T.F. of the mechanical system is , X(S) = 1 . F(S) MS2 + FS = K f(t) = Md2X + F dX + KX dt2 dt 2 F(S) = (MS + FS + K) x (S)

.
2

Page 79

Control Systems 3 = . Wn = 1.31 rad / Sec. Wn 1 (0.6)2

10ES43

Sx(S) =

10/ M . (S + F S + K ) M M
2

Comparing with the std. 2nd order Eq :-, then, Wn2 = K M F = 2 Wn M Wn = K M (1.31)2 = 500 . M M = 291.36 kg.

F = 2 x 0.6 x 291 x 1.31 F = 458.7 N/M/ Sec.

Solution:

C(S) . =

Given that :- Unit step i/p r(t) = 1

TS
2 Wn = 70,

TU
2

C(t) = 1+0.2e-60t 1.2e-10t Taking L.T., C(S) = 1 . + 0.2 . 1.2 . S S+60 S+10 600 / S . S + 70S + + 600

CI
CITSTUDENTS.IN

C(S) . = 600 / S . 2 R(S) S + 70S + + 600 24.4 ..rad / Sec = 70 . = 1.428 2 x 24.4

Comparing, Wn2 = 600,

9) The C.S. shown in the fig employs proportional plus error rate control. Determine the value of error rate const. Ke, so the damping ratio is 0.6 . Determine the value of settling time, max Page 80

DE N
R(S) = 1 . S

9) Measurements conducted on sever me mechanism show the system response to be c(t) = 1+0.2e-60t 1.2e-10t , When subjected to a unit step i/p. Obtain the expression for closed loop T.F the damping ratio and undamped natural frequency of oscillation .

TS .IN

Control Systems

10ES43

overshoot and steady state error, if the i/p is unit ramp, what will be the value of steady state error without error rate control.

+ (S)1+SKe

10 . S

10) A feed back system employing o/p damping is as shown in fig. 4) Find the value of K1 & K2 so that closed loop system resembles a 2 nd order system with = 0.5 & frequency of damped oscillation 9.5 rad / Sec. 5) With the above value of K1 & K2 find the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p 6) What is the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p, the settling time for 2% tolerance?

DE N
K2S = 12

TS .IN
1 . S(1+S) Wn =

K1

+ C

TS CI
Wd = MP = e CITSTUDENTS.IN .

C . = K1 . 2 R S + ( 1 + K2 ) S + K1 K1 1 + K2 2 K1 9.5 . 10.96 rad/Sec 1 0.52

Wn2 = K1 Wn = 2 Wn = 1 + K2 Wn

K1 = (10.96)2 = 120.34 2 Wn = 1 + K2 , K2 = 9.97 = 16.3% 12

TU

Page 81

Control Systems ts = 4 . = 4 . = 0.729 sec Wn 0.5 x 10.97

10ES43

Types of feed back control system :The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system can be written in two std, forms; 1) Time constant form and 2) Pole Zero form,

G(S) = K(TaS+1)(TbS+1) .. Sn(T1 S+1) (T2S + 1).

2) Type O system :- If, n = 0, the system is called type 0, system. The steady state error are as follows; Let, G(S) = K . S+1 ess (Position) =
. . .

TU TS
Kp = lt

DE N
[
. . .

Where K = open loop gain. Above Eq:- involves the term S n in denominator which corresponds to no, of integrations in the system. A system is called Type O, Type1, Type2,.. if n = 0, 1, 2, .. Respectively. The Type no., determines the value of error co-efficients. As the type no., is increased, accuracy is improved; however increasing the type no., aggregates the stability error. A term in the denominator represents the poles at the origin in complex S plane. Hence Index n denotes the multiplicity of the poles at the origin. The steady state errors co-efficient for a given type have definite values. This is illustration as follows.

H(s) = 1]

1 . = 1 .= 1 + G(O) . H(O) 1+K

G(S) . H(S) = lt S O

CI

ess (Velocity) = 1 . = Kv G(S) . H(S) = lt O S

1 .= O S O K . = O. S+1

Kv = lt S

ess (acceleration) = 1 . = Ka Ka = lt S2 G(S) . H(S) = lt S O S

1 .= O S2 O K . = O. S+1

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
1 . 1 + Kp K . = K S O S+1

Page 82

Control Systems

10ES43

2) Type 1 System :-

If, n = 1, the ess to various std, i/p, G(S) =

K . S (S + 1)

ess (Position) =

1 . = O 1+ G(S) . H(S) = lt O K . S O = S( S + 1)

Kp = lt S

Kv = lt S K . = K S O S(S+1) ess (Velocity) = 1 . K ess (acceleration) = 1 . = 1 . = O O Ka = lt S2 K . = O. S O S (S + 1)

3) Type 2 System :- If, n = 2, the ess to various std, i/p, are , G(S) = Kp = lt
. . .

DE N
K.= S 2 S (S + 1)

ess (Position) = 1 . = O

3) Type 3 System :- Gives Kp = Kv = Ka = (Onwards)

CI

TS

Kv = lt S K .= 2 S O S (S + 1) . e . . ss (Velocity) = 1 . = O Ka = lt S2 K . = K. S O S2 (S + 1) . ess (acceleration) = 1 . . . K

TU
O

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
K . S (S + 1)
2

& ess = O.

Page 83

Control Systems Recommended Questions 1. Define and classify time response of a system.

10ES43

2. Mention the Standard Test Input Signals and its Laplace transform 3. The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system is given by G(S) = K . Where, S(1+ST) T&K are constants having + Ve values.By what factor (1) the amplitude gain be reduced so that (a) The peak overshoot of unity step response of the system is reduced from 75% to 25% (b) The damping ratio increases from 0.1 to 0.6. 4. Find all the time domain specification for a unity feed back control system whose open loop T.F. is given by 25 . S(S+6) 5. The closed loop T.F. of a unity feed back control system is given by C(S) = 5 . R(S) S2 + 4S +5 G(S) =

6. A servo mechanism is represent by the Eq:-

7. Measurements conducted on sever me mechanism show the system response to be c (t) = 1+0.2e-60t 1.2e-10t , When subjected to a unit step i/p. Obtain the expression for closed loop T.F the damping ratio and undamped natural frequency of oscillation . 8. A feed back system employing o/p damping is as shown in fig. 1) Find the value of K1 & K2 so that closed loop system resembles a 2 nd order system with 0.5 & frequency of damped oscillation 9.5 rad / Sec. 2) With the above value of K1 & K2 find the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p 3) What is the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p, the settling time for 2% tolerance? R

TS

TU

d2 + 10 d = 150E , E = R- is the actuating signal calculate the dt 2 dt value of damping ratio, undamped and damped frequency of ascillation.

DE N
K2S

Determine (1) Damping ratio (2) Natural undamped response frequency Wn. (3) Percent peak over shoot Mp (4) Expression for error resoponse.

TS .IN
1 . S(1+S)

CI

K1

CITSTUDENTS.IN

Page 84

Control Systems UNIT-4

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Stability Analysis Every System, for small amount of time has to pass through a transient period. Whether system will reach its steady state after passing through transients or not. The answer to this question is whether the system is stable or unstable. This is stability analysis. For example, we want to go from one station to other. The station we want to reach is our final steady state. The traveling period is the transient period. Now any thing may happen during the traveling period due to bad weather, road accident etc, there is a chance that we may not reach the next station in time. The analysis of wheather the given system can reach steady state after passing through the transients successfully is called the stability analysis of the system. In this chapter, we will steady The stability & the factor on which system stability depends. Stability analysis & location of closed loop poles. Stability analysis using Hurwitz method. Stability analysis using Routh-Hurwitz method. Special cases of Rouths array. Applications of Routh-Hurwitz method.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Concept of stability: Consider a system i.e a deep container with an object placed inside it as shown in fig(1) force F

(a)

TS
fig(1)

Assume that force required to take out the object tends to infinity i.e always object will oscillate when force is applied & will settle down but will not come out such a system is called absolutely stable system. No change in parameters, disturbances, changes the output.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

Now, if we apply a force to take out the object, as the depth of container is more, it will oscillate & settle down again at original position.

TU
(b)

DE N

TS .IN

Page 85

Control Systems

10ES43

Now consider a container which is pointed one, on which we try to keep a circular object. In this object will fall down without any external application of force. Such system is called Unstable system.

(a) fig(2) (b) While in certain cases the container is shallow then there exsists a critical value of force for which the object will come out of the container. F F F

Fig(3)

Pendulum where system keeps on oscillating when certain force is applied. Such systems are neither stable nor unstable & hence called critically stable or marginally stable systems

Stability of control systems:

If the system has closed loop T.F. C(s) 10 R(s) (S+2) (S+4) Output response for unit step input R(s) = C(s) S(S+2) (S+4) Find out partial fractions CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

The stability of a linear closed loop system can be determined from the locations of closed loop poles in the S-plane.

TS

TU

As long as F<Fcritical object regains its original position but if F>F critical object will come out. Stability depends on certain conditions of the system, hence system is called conditionally stable system.

DE N
F<Fcritical 1 S 10 S S+2

TS .IN
F>Fcritical A S+4 B C

Page 86

Control Systems

10ES43

1 C(s) = 8 S = C(s) =

1 4 S+2

1 8 S+4

10

1.25 2.5 1.25 S S+2 S+4 1.25 2.5e-2t+1.25e-4t

C(t) = - 1.25 + 0.833e 2t + 0.416e 4 t Here there is one exponential term with positive in transient output Therefore Css = - 1.25

TS
CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU
t 0 1 2 4

From the above table, it is clear that output response instead of approaching t o steady state value as t due to exponential term with positive index, transients go on increasing in amplitude. So such system is said to be unstable. In such system output is uncontrollable & unbounded one. Output response of such system is as shown in fig(4).

CI

DE N
A S + B S-2 + C(t) 0 + 4.91 + 44.23 +2481.88

Now let us have a system with one closed loop pole located in right half of s- plane C(s) 10 R(s) S(S-2)(s+4)

TS .IN
C 10 S+4

=Css + Ct(t) If the closed loop poles are located in left half of s-plane, Output response contains exponential terms with negative indices will approach zero & output will be the steady state output. i.e. Ct (t) = 0 t Transient output = 0 Such system are called absolutely stable systems.

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Control Systems C(t) C(t)

10ES43

OR Steady state output t (a) fig(4) t (b) For such unstable systems, if input is removed output may not return to zero. And if the input power is turned on, output tends to . If no saturation takes place in system & no mechanical stop is provided then system may get damaged. If all the closed loop poles or roots of the characteristic equation lies in left of s-plane, then in the output response contains steady state terms & transient terms. Such transient terms approach to zero as time advances eventually output reaches to equilibrium & attains steady state value. Transient terms in such system may give oscillation but the amplitude of such oscillation will be decreasing with time & finally will vanish. So output response of such system is shown in fig5 (a) & (b). C(t) Steady state ----------------------OR

DE N
C(t)

--------------------------Steady state output t (b)

t (a)

BIBO Stability : This is bounded input bounded output stability. Definition of stable system: A linear time invariant system is said to be stable if following conditions are satisfied. 1. When system is excited by a bounded input, output is also bounded & controllable. 2. In the absence of input, output must tend to zero irrespective of the initial conditions. Unstable system: A linear time invariant system is said to be unstable if, 1. for a bounded input it produces unbounded output. 2. In the absence of input, output may not be returning to zero. It shows certain output without input.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

Besides these two cases, if one or more pairs simple non repeated roots are located on the imaginary axis of the s-plane, but there are no roots in the right half of s-plane, the output Page 88

TS

TU
fig 5

TS .IN
Damped oscillations

Control Systems

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response will be undamped sinusoidal oscillations of constant frequency & amplitude. Such systems are said to be critically or marginally stable systems. Critically or Marginally stable systems: A linear time invariant system is said to be critically or marginally stable if for a bounded input its output oscillates with constant frequency & Amplitude. Such oscillation of output are called Undamped or Sustained oscillations. For such system one or more pairs of non repeated roots are located on the imaginary axis as shown in fig6(a). Output response of such systems is as shown in fig6(b). C(t) Constant Amplitude & frequency oscillations X J 2 ---------------------------------------------------------------- steady state output X J 1 -----------------------------------X -J 1 X -J 2 non repeated poles on J Fig 6(a) axis.

DE N

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU

TS .IN
t

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If there are repeated poles located purely on imaginary axis system is said to be unstable. C(t) J 1 x x ----------------------------------------steady state output J 1 s-plane x x t Conditionally Stable:

A linear time invariant system is said to be conditionally stable, if for a certain condition if a particular parameter of the system, its output is bounded one. Otherwise if that condition is violated output becomes unbounded system becomes unstable. i.e. Stability of the system depends the on condition of the parameter of the system. Such system is called conditionally stable system.

Left half of s-plane

TS CI
Stable (repeated) unstable Marginally stable CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU
Real Unstable S-Plane (non repeated roots)

DE N
J axis

S-plane can be divided into three zones from stability point of view.

Right half of s-plane

TS .IN

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Control Systems

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Sl. No 1.

Nature of closed Location of closed loop Step response loop poles. poles in s-plane Real negative i.e in LHS of splane C(t) J --------------------x x -02 -01 t Real positive in RHS of s-plane J

Stability condition

Absolutely stable

2. x a1

C(t)

------------------------

DE N
C(t)
2

increasing towards

3.

TU
-J J
1

Complex conjugate with negative real part

J x -a1 J
1

4.

CI

Complex conjugate with positive real part

TS

Damped oscillation

Ct

x Unstable.

-J

-x oscillations increasing amplitude t with

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
Unstable t Absolutely stable. t Page 91

Control Systems

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5.

Non repeated pair on imaginary axis

C(t) J x J
1

Marginally or critically stable

x -J OR J X J x J x J xJ
2

t C(t)

Sustained oscillations with two frequencies 1 &

1

TU
x x J
1

6.

Repeated pair on imaginary axis

Two non repeated pairs on imaginary axis. J

TS

DE N
2

C(t)

-----------------------Unstable t

x x -J

CI

oscillation of increasing amplitude

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
t

Marginally or critically stable

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Relative Stability: The system is said to be relatively more stable or unstable on the basis of settling time. System is said to be more stable if settling time for that system is less than that of other system. The settling time of the root or pair of complex conjugate roots is inversely proportional to the real part of the roots. Sofar the roots located near the J axis, settling time will be large. As the roots move away from J axis i.e towards left half of the s-plane settling time becomes lesser or smaller & system becomes more & more stable. So the relative stability improves.

C(t)

Relatively more stable for P2

DE N
C(t)

x x P2 P1

----------------------------------

TU
J axis s-plane

2 x x

TS

--------------------------------------------------------------

CI

Relative stability improves Routh Hurwitz Criterion : CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
Stable for P1 t stable for 1 more stable for 2 t

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This represents a method of determining the location of poles of a characteristics equation with the respect to the left half & right half of the s-plane without actually solving the equation. The T.F.of any linear closed loop system can be represented as, C(s) = b0 sm + b1 s m-1 +.+ bm

Necessary Condition to have all closed loop poles in L.H.S. of s-plane.

Hurwitzs Criterion :

The sufficient condition for having all roots of characteristics equation in left half of s-plane is given by Hurwitz. It is referred as Hurwitz criterion. It states that:

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

The necessary & sufficient condition to have all roots of characteristic equation in left half of s-plane is that the sub-determinants D K, K = 1, 2,n obtained from Hurwitz determinant H must all be positive.

TU

DE N

In order that the above characteristic equation has no root in right of s-plane, it is necessary but not sufficient that, 1. All the coefficients off the polynomial have the same sign. 2. Non of the coefficient vanishes i.e. all powers of s must be present in descending order from n to zero. These conditions are not sufficient.

TS .IN

R(s) a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + . + an Where a & b are constants. To find the closed loop poles we equate F(s) =0. This equation is called as Characteristic Equation of the system. F(s) = a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + a2 sn-2 + .. + an = 0. Thus the roots of the characteristic equation are the closed loop poles of the system which decide the stability of the system.

Page 94

Control Systems Method of forming Hurwitz determinant: a1 a0 0 0 H= 0 0 0 a1 ... a2n-5 ... ... . an a3 a2 a1 a0 a5 a4 a3 a2 .. a2n-1 .. a2n-2 .. a2n-3 .. a2n-4

10ES43

D1 =

a1

D2 =

a1 a0

a3 a2

DE N
a1 D3 = a0 0 a3 a2 a1 a5 a4 a3 = 1 4 0 1 1 0 0 1 4

The order is n*n where n = order of characteristic equation. In Hurwitz determinant all coefficients with suffices greater than n or negative suffices must all be replaced by zeros. From Hurwitz determinant subdeterminants, DK, K= 1, 2, .n must be formed as follows:

For the system to be stable, all above determinants must be positive.

Ex 1: F(s)= s3 + s2 + s1 + 4 = 0 is characteristic equation. a0 = 1, a1 = 1, a2 = 1, a3 = 4, n = 3

CI

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS

Determine the stability of the given characteristics equation by Hurwitz,s method.

H=

a1 a0 0

D1 = 1

D2 =

1 4 1 1

TU
a3 a2 a1 a5 a4 a3 =1 = -3

TS .IN
DK = H

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Control Systems 1 4 0 1 1 0 0 1 4

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D3 =

= 4 16 = -12.

As D2 & D3 are negative, given system is unstable. Disadvantages of Hurwitzs method : 1. For higher order system, to solve the determinants of higher order is very complicated & time consuming. 2. Number of roots located in right half of s-plane for unstable system cannot be judged by this method. 3. Difficult to predict marginal stability of the system. Due to these limitations, a new method is suggested by the scientist Routh called Rouths method. It is also called Routh-Hurwitz method. Rouths Stability Criterion:

Method of forming an array : Sn Sn-1 Sn-2 Sn-3 a0 a1 b1 a2

TU
a3 b2 c2 -

DE N
a4 a5 b3 c3 a6 a7

It is also called Rouths array method or Routh-Hurwitzs method Routh suggested a method of tabulating the coefficients of characteristic equation in a particular way. Tabulation of coefficients gives an array called Rouths array. Consider the general characteristic equation as, F(s) = a0 sn + a1 sn-1 + a2 sn-2 + .. + an = 0.

Coefficients of first two rows are written directly from characteristics equation. From these two rows next rows can be obtained as follows.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

S0

TS

c1 -

an

TS .IN
.

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Control Systems a1 a2 a0 a3 b1 = a1 , b2 = a1 a1 a4 a0 a5 , b3 = a1 a1 a6 a0 a7

10ES43

From 2nd & 3rd row , 4th row can be obtained as b1 a3 a1 b2 C1 = b1 , C2 = b1 b1 a5 a1 b3

Rouths criterion :

The necessary & sufficient condition for system to be stable is All the terms in the first column of Rouths array must have same sign. There should not be any sign change in first column of Rouths array.

Examine the stability of given equation using Rouths method : Ex.2: Sol: S3 S2 S1 S0 s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0 a0 = 1, a1 = 6, a2 =11,

TS
1 6 11 * 6 6 6 6 =10

CI

As there is no sign change in the first column, system is stable.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU

DE N
a3 = 6, n = 3 11 6 0

If there are sign changes existing then, 1. System is unstable. 2. The number of sign changes equals the number of roots lying in the right half of the s-plane.

TS .IN

This process is to be continued till the coefficient for s0 is obtained which will be a n. From this array stability of system can be predicted.

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Control Systems Ex. 3 Sol: S3 S2 S1 S0 s3 + 4s2 + s + 16 = 0 a0 =1, a1 = 4, a2 = 1, 1 +4 4 - 16 = 4 +16 -3 1 16 0

10ES43

a3 = 16

As there are two sign changes, system is unstable. Number of roots located in the right half of s-plane = number of sign changes = 2. Special Cases of Rouths criterion : Special case 1 :

Effect : The terms in the new row become infinite & Rouths test fails. e.g. : s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0 S5 S4 S3 S2 1 2 0 3 2 1

TS
. lim

1.5

First method :

Sign change by taking

CI

Following two methods are used to remove above said difficulty. Substitute a small positive number in place of a zero occurred as a first element in the row. Complete the array with this number . Then examine

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU
6 0

. Consider above Example. 0

DE N

First element of any of the rows of Rouths array is zero & same remaining rows contains at least one non-zero element.

Special case 1 Rouths array failed

TS .IN

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Control Systems S5 S4 S3 S2 S1 6 -3 1 2 3 6 1.5 1 2 1 0 0

10ES43

1.5(6 - 3) -

(6 - 3) S0

To examine sign change, Lim 0

= 6 -3

Lim 0

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU
= + 1.5

1.5(6 3) 6 -3

=6= - sign is negative. = Lim 9 - 4.5 0 6 -3 = 0 4.5 0 0 -3

DE N
Lim = 63 0
2

sign is positive

TS .IN
Page 99

Control Systems Rouths array is, S5 S4 S3 S2 S1 S0 1 2 +

-

10ES43

3 6 1.5 1

2 1 0 0

As there are two sign changes, system is unstable.

Consider Put

F(s) = s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0 s=1/Z

Z5 Z4 Z3 Z2 Z1

TS
1 2 6 3 4.5 2.33 - 0.429 1 1 0 Z0

Z5 + 2Z4+ 6Z3+3Z2+2Z+ 1 = 0

CI
CITSTUDENTS.IN

As there are two sign changes, system is unstable. Special case 2 : Page 100

TU
2 1 0 0 1.5

1 + 2 + 3 +6 +2 + 1=0 Z5 Z4 Z3 Z2 Z

DE N

Second method : To solve the above difficulty one more method can be used. In this, replace s by 1/Z in original equation. Taking L.C.M. rearrange characteristic equation in descending powers of Z. Then complete the Rouths array with this new equation in Z & examine the stability with this array.

TS .IN

+1.5

Control Systems

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All the elements of a row in a Rouths array are zero. Effect : The terms of the next row can not be determined & Rouths test fails. S5 S4 S3 a d 0 b e 0 c f 0 Row of zeros, special case 2

This indicates no availability of coefficient in that row. Procedure to eliminate this difficulty : 1. Form an equation by using the coefficients of row which is just above the row of zeros. Such an equation is called an Auxillary equation denoted as A(s). For above case such an equation is, A(s) = ds4 + es2 + f Note that the coefficients of any row are corresponding to alternate powers of s starting from the power indicated against it.

So d is coefficient corresponding to s4 so first term is ds4 of A(s). Next coefficient e is corresponding to alternate power of s from 4 i.e. s2 Hence the term es 2 & so on.

Importance of auxillary equation :

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI
S5 a b c S4 S3 d 4d e 2e f 0

3. Replace row of zeros by the coefficients of dA(s) ds

4. Complete the array of zeros by the coefficients.

TS

TU

2. Take the derivative of an auxillary equation with respect to s. i.e. dA(s) = 4d s3 + 2e s ds

DE N

TS .IN

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Auxillary equation is always the part of original characteristic equation. This means the roots of the auxillary equation are some of the roots of original characteristics equation. Not only this but roots of auxillary equation are the most dominant roots of the original characteristic equation, from the stability point of view. The stability can be predicted from the roots of A(s)=0 rather than the roots of characteristic equation as the roots of A(s) = 0 are the most dominant from the stability point of view. The remaining roots of the characteristic equation are always in the left half & they do not play any significant role in the stability analysis. e.g. Let F(s) = 0 is the original characteristic equation of say order n = 5. Let A(s) = 0 be the auxillary equation for the system due to occurrence of special case 2 of the order m = 2. Then out of 5 roots of F(s) = 0, the 2 roots which are most dominant (dominant means very close to imaginary axis or on the imaginary axis or in the right half of s-plane) from the stabilit y point of view are the 2roots of A(s) = 0. The remaining 5 2 = 3 roots are not significant from stability point of view as they will be far away from the imaginary axis in the left half of s-plane. The roots of auxillary equation may be, 1. A pair of real roots of opposite sign i.e.as shown in the fig. 8.10 (a). j

DE N
j x x

TS
x x x x

2. A pair of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the fig. 8.10(b). 3. The non-repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the fig.8.10 (c). j j

TU

Fig 8. 10(a)

CI

Fig. 8.10(c)

Fig. 8.10(d).

4. The repeated pairs of roots located on the imaginary axis as shown in the Fig.8.10 (d).

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
Fig. 8. 10 (b) xx xx

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Hence total stability can be determined from the roots of A(s) = 0, which can be out of four types shown above. Change in criterion of stability in special case 2 : After replacing a row of zeros by the coefficients of dA(s) , complete the Rouths array. ds But now, the criterion that, no sign in 1 st column of array for stability, no longer remains sufficient but becomes a necessary. This is because though A(s) is a part of original is not, which is in fact used to complete the array. characteristic equation, dA(s) ds So if sign change occurs in first column, system is unstable with number of sign changes equal to number of roots of characteristics equation located in right half of s-plane. But there is no sign changes, system cannot be predicted as stable . And in such case stability is to be determined by actually solving A(s) = 0 for its roots. And from the location of roots of A(s) = 0 in the s-plane the system stability must be determined. Because roots A(s) = 0 are always dominant roots of characteristic equation. Application of Rouths of criterion : Relative stability analysis : If it is required to find relative stability of system about a line s = - . i.e. how many roots are located in right half of this line s = - , the Rouths method can be used effectively. To determine this from Rouths array, shift the axis of s plane & then apply Rouths array i.e. substitute s = s 1 - , ( = constant) in characteristic equation. Write polynomial in terms of s1. Complete array from this new equation. The number of sign changes in first column is equal to number of roots those are located to right of the vertical line s=- .

CI
C(s) CITSTUDENTS.IN

Determining range of values of K : In practical system, an amplifier of variable gain K is introduced . The closed loop transfer function is KG(s) Page 103

TS
0

Imaginary j

TU

DE N

TS .IN

Control Systems = R(s) 1+ KG(s) H(s)

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Advantages of Rouths criterion : Advantages of rouths array method are :

Limitation of Rouths criterion :

Ex.1. s6 + 4s5 +3s4 16s2- 64s 48 = 0 Find the number of roots of this equation with positive real part, zero real part & negative real part Sol: S6 S5 S4 S3 CITSTUDENTS.IN 1 4 3 0 3 0 0 0 -16 -64 -48 0 Page 104 -48 0 0

CI

TS

1. 2. 3. 4.

It is valid only for real coefficients of the characteristic equation. It does not provide exact locations of the closed loop poles in left or right half of s-plane. It does not suggest methods of stabilizing an unstable system. Applicable only to linear system.

TU

5. By using the criterion, critical value of system gain can be determined hence frequency of sustained oscillations can be determined. 6. It helps in finding out range of values of K for system stability. 7. It helps in finding out intersection points of roots locus with imaginary axis.

DE N

1. Stability of the system can be judged without actually solving the characteristic equation. 2. No evaluation of determinants, which saves calculation time. 3. For unstable system it gives number of roots of characteristic equation having positive real part. 4. Relative stability of the system can be easily judged.

TS .IN

Hence the characteristic equation is F(s) = 1+ KG(s) H(s) = 0 So the roots of above equation are dependent on the proper selection of value of K. So unknown K appears in the characteristic equation. In such case Rouths array is to be constructed in terms of K & then the range of values of K can be obtained in such away that it will not produce any sign change in first column of the Rouths array. Hence it is possible to obtain the range of values of K for absolute stability of the system using Rouths criterion. Such a system where stability depends on the condition of parameter K, is called conditionally stable system.

Control Systems

10ES43

dA A(s) = 3S 48 = 0 ds S6 S5 S4 S3 S2 S1 S0
4

= 12s3

1 4 3 12 ( )0 576 -48

3 0 0 0 -48 0

-16 -64 -48 0 0 0

-48 0 0 0 0 0

Lim 0

576 +

A(s) = 3s4 48 =0 S2 = Y

Put

3Y2 = 48

TS
Y2 =16, S2 = -4 S= 2j = 2

TU

Therefore One sign change & system is unstable. Thus there is one root in R.H.S of the s plane i.e. with positive real part. Now solve A(s) = 0 for the dominant roots

So S = 2j are the two parts on imaginary axis i.e. with zero real part. Root in R.H.S. indicated by a sign change is S = 2 as obtained by solving A(s) = 0. Total there are 6 roots as n = 6.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

S2 = + 4 S

Roots with Positive real part = 1 Roots with zero real part =2 Roots with negative real part = 6 2 1 = 3 Page 105

DE N
Y= 16 = 4

TS .IN

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Ex.2 :

For unity feed back system, k G(s) = S(1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25 s) , Find range of values of K, marginal value of K & frequency of sustained oscillations.

Sol : Characteristic equation, K 1+ s(1 + 0.4s) ( 1 + 0.25s) s [ 1 + 0.65s + 0.1s2} + K = 0 0.1s3 + 0.65s2 +s + K = 0 S3 S2 S1 S0 =0

1 + G (s) H (s) = 0 & H(s) = 1

0.1 0.65 0.65 0.1K 0.65 K

Range of values of K, 0 < K < 6.5

Hence marginal value of K is a value which makes any row other than s0 as row of zeros. 0.65 0.1 K mar = 0 K mar = 6.5 To find frequency, find out roots of auxiliary equation at marginal value of K A(s) = 0.65 s2 + K = 0 ; 0.65 s2 + 6.5 = 0 Because K = 6.5 2 s = -10 s = j 3.162 CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 106

CI

Now marginal value of K is that value of K for which system becomes marginally stable. For a marginal stable system there must be row of zeros occurring in Rout hs array. So value of K which makes any row of Routh array as row of zeros is called marginal value of K. Now K = 0 makes row of s0 as row of zeros but K = 0 can not be marginal value because for K = 0, constant term in characteristic equation becomes zeros ie one coefficient for s0 vanishes which makes system unstable instead of marginally stable.

TS

TU

DE N
1 K 0

TS .IN
From s0, K > 0 from s1, 0.65 0.1K > 0 0.65 > 0.1 K 6.5 > K

Control Systems comparing with s = j = frequency of oscillations = 3.162 rad/ sec. Ex : 3 For a system with characteristic equation F(s) = s5 + s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + 3s +15 = , examine the stability Solution : S5 1 2 3 S4 S3 S2 S1 S0 S5 S4 S3 S2 S1 (2 (2 + 12) 1 0 2 -12 15

10ES43

1 1

TU
15 + 12)( -12 ) 15 2 + 12 15 + 12 12 =2+ =2 +

S0 Lim 0

CI

TS
2

DE N
3 2 15 0 -12 0 0 = + Lim = -24 - 144 15 0 2 + 12
2

Lim 0

(2

+ 12)( -12 ) 15 2 + 12

= 0 + 12 CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
0 144 - 0 = - 12 Page 107

Control Systems S5 S4 S3 S2 S1 S0 1 1 2 2 -12 3 15 0

10ES43

There are two sign changes, so system is unstable.

+ - 12 15

15 0

Sol :

The characteristic equation is 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0 e -sT 1 +

s( s+1)

Now e sT can be Expressed in the series form as

CI
e
sT

TS
esT = 1 sT

s2 + s + e sT = 0

TU
= 0 s2 T2 + 2! = 1 sT +

Trancating the series & considering only first two terms we get

s2 + s + 1 sT = 0 s2 + s ( 1- T ) + 1 = 0 CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 108

DE N

Ex : 4 Using Routh Criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback system whose open loop transfer function is e -sT G(s) = s( s+1)

TS .IN

Control Systems So rouths array is S2 S S0 1 1-T 1 1 0

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1 T > 0 for stability T<1 This is the required condition for stability of the system. Ex : 5 Determine the location of roots with respect to s = -2 given that F(s) = s4 + 10 s3 + 36s2 + 70s + 75 shift the origin with respect to s = -2 s = s1 2

Sol :

(s 2 ) 4 + 10 (s 2)3 + 36(s 2 )2 + 70 ( s 2) + 75 = 0 s 4 + 2s 3 + 0s 2 + 14s + 15 = 0 S4 1 0 S3 S2 S1 S

0

2 -7 18.28 15

14 15

Two sign change, there are two roots to the right of s = -2 & remaining 2 are to the left of the line s = -2. Hence the system is unstable.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU
0

DE N
15 0 0 0 Page 109

TS .IN

Control Systems Recommended Questions: 1. Explain briefly how system depends on poles and zeros.

10ES43

2. Mention the necessary condition to have all closed loop poles in LHS of S-Plane 3. Explain briefly the Hurwitzs Criterion. 4. Explain briefly the Rouths Stability Criterion.

s3+6s2 + 11s + 6 =0

6. Examine the stability of given equation using Rouths method s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 1 = 0

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU

DE N

7. Using Routh Criterion, investigate the stability of a unity feedback system whose open loop transfer function is e -sT G(s) = s(s+1)

TS .IN

5..Examine the stability of given equation using Rouths method

Page 110

Control Systems UNIT-5 RootLocus Techniques

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ROOT LOCUS CONCEPT

R(s)

E(s)

CI
G(s) 1 G(s)H(s)

C(s) R(s)

TS
s
2

The open loop transfer function of this system is K G(s) (1) s(s a) Where, K and a are constants. The open loop transfer function has two poles one at origin s = 0 and the other at s = -a. The closed loop transfer function of the system shown in Fig.1 is K as K (2)

The characteristic equation for the closed loop system is obtained by setting the denominator of the right hand side of Eqn.(2) equal to zero. That is,
1 G(s)H(s) s2 as K 0 (3)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU

Fig. 3 Second order control system

DE N
K s(s a) C(s)

To understand the concepts underlying the root locus technique, consider the second order system shown in Fig. 1.

TS .IN

The characteristics of the transient response of a closed loop control system are related to location of the closed loop poles. If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of the closed loop poles depends on the value of the loop gain chosen. It is important, that the designer knows how the closed loop poles move in the s-plane as the loop gain is varied. W. R. Evans introduced a graphical method for finding the roots of the characteristic equation known as root locus method. The root locus is used to study the location of the poles of the closed loop transfer function of a given linear system as a function of its parameters, usually a loop gain, given its open loop transfer function. The roots corresponding to a particular value of the system parameter can then be located on the locus or the value of the parameter for a desired root location can be determined from the locus. It is a powerful technique, as an approximate root locus sketch can be made quickly and the designer can visualize the effects of varying system parameters on root locations or vice versa. It is applicable for single loop as well as multiple loop system.

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The second order system under consideration is always stable for positive values of a and K but its dynamic behavior is controlled by the roots of Eqn.(3) and hence, in turn by the magnitudes of a and K, since the roots are given by a 2 (a 2 4K) 2a a 2 a 2
2

s1 , s 2

(4)

From Eqn.(4), it is seen that as the system parameters a or K varies, the roots change. Consider a to be constant and gain K to be variable. As K is varied from zero to infinity, the two roots s1 and s2 describe loci in the s-plane. Root locations for various ranges of K are: 1) K= 0, the two roots are real and coincide with open loop poles of the system s 1 = 0, s2 = -a. 2) 0 K < a2/4, the roots are real and distinct. 3) K= a2/4, roots are real and equal. 4) a2/4 < K < , the rots are complex conjugates. The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2

Figure 2 has been drawn by the direct solution of the characteristic equation. This procedure becomes tedious. Evans graphical procedure helps in sketching the root locus quickly. The characteristic equation of any system is given by (s) 0 (5) Where, (s) is the determinant of the signal flow graph of the system given by Eqn.(5). =1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible combinations of two nontouching loops sum of gain products of all possible combination of three nontouching loops) + Or CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 112

CI

TS

Fig. 4 Root loci of s2+as+K as a function of K

TU

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Control Systems (s) 1

m

10ES43 Pm2 Pm3 (6)

Pm1

Where, Pmr is gain product of mth possible combination of r nontouching loops of the graph. The characteristic equation can be written in the form 1 P(s) 1 KA(s) B(s) 0 0 (7)

For single loop system shown in Fig.3 P(s) G(s)H(s)

Where, G(s)H(s) is open loop transfer function in block diagram terminology or transmittance in signal flow graph terminology. R(s) E(s) G(s) H(s) C(s)

Fig. 5 Single loop feedback system

From Eqn.(7) it can be seen that the roots of the characteristic equation (closed loop poles)occur only for those values of s where P(s) 1 (9)

Since, s is a complex variable, Eqn.(9) can be converted into the two Evans conditions given below.

CI

P( s)

TS
180 (2 q 1); q

TU
0,1,2

P( s )

Roots of 1+P(s) = 0 are those values of s at which the magnitude and angle condition given by Eqn.(10) and Eqn.(11). A plot of points in the complex plane satisfying the angle criterion is the root locus. The value of gain corresponding to a root can be determined from the magnitude criterion. To make the root locus sketching certain rules have been developed which helps in visualizing the effects of variation of system gain K ( K > 0 corresponds to the negative feed

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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(10)
(11)

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(8)

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back and K < 0 corresponds to positive feedback control system) and the effects of shifting pole-zero locations and adding in anew set of poles and zeros.

GENERAL RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING ROOT LOCUS 1) The root locus is symmetrical about real axis. The roots of the characteristic equation are either real or complex conjugate or combination of both. Therefore their locus must be symmetrical about the real axis. 2) As K increases from zero to infinity, each branch of the root locus originates from an open loop pole (n nos.) with K= 0 and terminates either on an open loop zero (m nos.) with K = along the asymptotes or on infinity (zero at ). The number of branches terminating on infinity is equal to (n m).

CI
4) Determine the asymptotes of root loci. The root loci for very large values of s must be asymptotic to straight lines whose angles are given by Angle of asymptotes 180 (2q 1) ; q n m 0,1,2,n m -1 (12)
A

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS

TU

3) Determine the root locus on the real axis. Root loci on the real axis are determined by open loop poles and zeros lying on it. In constructing the root loci on the real axis choose a test point on it. If the total number of real poles and real zeros to the right of this point is odd, then the point lies on root locus. The complex conjugate poles and zeros of the open loop transfer function have no effect on the location of the root loci on the real axis.

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5) All the asymptotes intersect on the real axis. It is denoted by a sum of poles sum of zeros n m (p1 p 2 p n ) (z1 z 2 z m ) n m

a , given

by

(13)

B(s) KA(s) 0 where, B(s) (s p 1 )(s p 2 ) (s p n ) and A(s) K(s z 1 )(s z 2 ) (s z m )

The breakaway and breakin points are given by dK ds d d A B A B ds ds 0

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7) Determine the angle of departure of the root locus from a complex pole

CI

Angle of departure from a complex p 180 (sum of angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles) (sum of angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other zeros) (16)

8) Determine the angle of arrival of the root locus at a complex zero Angle of arrival at complex zero 180 (sum of angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from other zeros) (sum of angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from other poles) CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS

Note that the breakaway points and breakin points must be the roots of Eqn.(15), but not all roots of Eqn.(15) are breakaway or breakin points. If the root is not on the root locus portion of the real axis, then this root neither corresponds to breakaway or breakin point. If the roots of Eqn.(15) are complex conjugate pair, to ascertain that they lie on root loci, check the corresponding K value. If K is positive, then root is a breakaway or breakin point.

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(14) (15)

6) Find breakaway and breakin points. The breakaway and breakin points either lie on the real axis or occur in complex conjugate pairs. On real axis, breakaway points exist between two adjacent poles and breakin in points exist between two adjacent zeros. To dK calculate these polynomial 0 must be solved. The resulting roots are the breakaway ds / breakin points. The characteristic equation given by Eqn.(7), can be rearranged as

(17) Page 115

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9) Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis. The points where the root loci intersect the j axis can be found by a) use of Rouths stability criterion or b) letting s = j in the characteristic equation , equating both the real part and imaginary part to zero, and solving for and K. The values of thus found give the frequencies at which root loci cross the imaginary axis. The corresponding K value is the gain at each crossing frequency.

10) The value of K corresponding to any point s on a root locus can be obtained using the magnitude condition, or K product of lengths between points to poles product of length between points to zeros (18)

PHASE MARGIN AND GAIN MARGIN OF ROOT LOCUS Gain Margin

It is a factor by which the design value of the gain can be multiplied before the closed loop system becomes unstable.

CI

Value of K at imaginary cross over Design value of K The Phase Margin Gain Margin Find the point j of K i.e. B j /A j
1

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K design .

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on the imaginary axis for which G j H j

The phase margin is 180 argG j1 H(j 1)

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(19) 1 for the design value (20) Page 116

Control Systems Problem No 1

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Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer function K is G(s) . s Solution: 1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis. 2) There are no open loop zeros(m = 0). Open loop pole is at s = 0 (n = 1). One branch of root locus starts from the open loop pole when K = 0 and goes to asymptotically when K . 3) Root locus lies on the entire negative real axis as there is one pole towards right of any point on the negative real axis. 4) The asymptote angle is Angle of asymptote is = = 180 (2q 1) , q n m 180 . n m 1 0.

A A

5) Centroid of the asymptote is A

7) The root locus departs at an angle of -180 from the open loop pole at s = 0.

8) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary axis cross over.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

The root locus plot is shown in Fig.1

TS

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6) The root locus does not branch. Hence, there is no need to calculate the break points.

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(sum of poles) (sum of zeros) n m 0 0.0 1

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Figure 6 Root locus plot of K/s Comments on stability:

Problem No 2

The open loop transfer function is G(s) Solution:

1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis. 2) There is one open loop zero at s=-2.0(m=1). There are two open loop poles at s=-1, -1(n=2). Two branches of root loci start from the open loop pole when K= 0. One branch goes to open loop zero at s =-2.0 when K and other goes to (open loop zero ) asymptotically when K .

CI
CITSTUDENTS.IN

3) Root locus lies on negative real axis for s -2.0 as the number of open loop poles plus number of open loop zeros to the right of s=-0.2 are odd in number. 4) The asymptote angle is Angle of asymptote is = 180 (2q 1) , q n m 180 . n m 1 0.

TS
A

5) Centroid of the asymptote is A

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A

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The system is stable for all the values of K > 0. Th system is over damped.

K(s 2) . Sketch the root locus plot (s 1) 2

(sum of poles) (sum of zeros) n m ( 1 1) ( 2) 0.0 1 Page 118

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6) The root locus has break points. K

2 (s 1) (s 2)

Break point is given by

dK ds

2(s 1)(s 2) (s 1) 2 0 (s 2) 2 3, K 4 s1 1, K 0; s 2 The root loci brakesout at the open loop poles at s=-1, when K =0 and breaks in onto the real axis at s=-3, when K=4. One branch goes to open loop zero at s=-2 and other goes to along the asymptotically. 7) The branches of the root locus at s=-1, -1 break at K=0 and are tangential to a line s=1+j0 hence depart at 90 .

9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no need to find the imaginary axis cross over. The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2.

Figure 7 Root locus plot of K(s+2)/(s+1)2 Comments on stability: System is stable for all values of K > 0. The system is over damped for K > 4. It is critically damped at K = 0, 4. CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 119

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8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at 180 .

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Problem No 3 The open loop transfer function is G(s) Solution: 1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis. 2) There are is one open loop zero at s=-4(m=1). There are two open loop poles at s=0, 2(n=2). Two branches of root loci start from the open loop poles when K= 0. One branch goes to open loop zero when K and other goes to infinity asymptotically when K . K(s 4) . Sketch the root locus. s(s 2)

5) Centroid of the asymptote is A

6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0.

TS
dK ds

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s(s 2) (s 4) 6.828, K 11.7

The root locus plot is shown in fig.3. CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 120

CI
s1 s2

(2s 2)(s 4) (s 2 (s 4) 2 1.172, K 0.343;

7) Angle of departure from open loop pole at s =0 is 180 . Angle of departure from pole at s=-2.0 is 0 . 8) The angle of arrival at open loop zero at s=-4 is 180 9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary cross over.

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2s) 0

3) Entire negative real axis except the segment between s=-4 to s=-2 lies on the root locus. 180 (2q 1) 4) The asymptote angle is A = , q 0,1,n m 1 0. n m Angle of asymptote are A = 180 .

(sum of poles) (sum of zeros) n m ( 2) ( 4) 2.0 1

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Control Systems

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Figure 3 Root locus plot of K(s+4)/s(s+2) Comments on stability: System is stable for all values of K. : > 1 over damped 0 > K > 0.343 K = 0.343 : = 1 critically damped 0.343 > K > 11.7 : < 1 under damped K = 11.7 : = 1 critically damped K > 11.7 : >1 over damped. Problem No 4

The open loop transfer function is G(s) Solution:

1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

CI

2) There is one open loop zero at s = -0.2(m=1). There are three open loop poles at s = 0, 0, -3.6(n=3). Three branches of root loci start from the three open loop poles when K= 0 and one branch goes to open loop zero at s = -0.2 when K and other two go to asymptotically when K . 3) Root locus lies on negative real axis between -3.6 to -0.2 as the number of open loop poles plus open zeros to the right of any point on the real axis in this range is odd. 4) The asymptote angle is = 180 (2q 1) , q n m n m 1 0,1

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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A

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K(s 0.2) . Sketch the root locus. s 2 (s 3.6) Page 121

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Control Systems Angle of asymptote are

A

10ES43 = 90 , 270 .

5) Centroid of the asymptote is A

(sum of poles) (sum of zeros) n m ( 3.6) ( 0.2) 1.7 2

6) The root locus does branch out, which are given by dK/ds =0. K dK ds s (s3 3.6s 2 ) s 0.2 (3s2 7.2s)(s 0.2) (s 3 (s 0.2) 2 1.44s 0

2s 3 4.8s 2

0, 0.432, 1.67 and K

0, 2.55,

7) The branches of the root locus at s=0,0 break at K=0 and are tangential to imaginary axis or depart at 90 . The locus departs from open loop pole at s=-3.6 at 0 . 8) The locus arrives at open loop zero at s=-0.2 at 180 . 9) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, hence there is no imaginary axis cross over. The root locus plot is shown in Fig.4.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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The root loci brakeout at the open loop poles at s = 0, when K =0 and breakin onto the real axis at s=-0.432, when K=2.55 One branch goes to open loop zero at s=-0.2 and other goes breaksout with the another locus starting from open loop ploe at s= -3.6. The break point is at s=-1.67 with K=3.66. The loci go to infinity in the complex plane with constant real part s= -1.67.

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3.6s 2 ) 3.66 respectively.

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Figure 4 Root locus plot of K(s+0.2)/s2(s+3.6)

Problem No 5

The open loop transfer function is G(s) Solution:

1) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis. 2) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are three open loop poles at s=-0, -3 j4(n=3). Three branches of root loci start from the open loop poles when K= 0 and all the three branches go asymptotically when K . 3) Entire negative real axis lies on the root locus as there is a single pole at s=0 on the real axis. 180 (2q 1) , q 0,1,n n m Angle of asymptote are A = 60 , 180 , 300 .
A=

CI

4) The asymptote angle is

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Comments on stability: System is stable for all values of K. System is critically damped at K= 2.55, 3.66. It is under damped for 2.55 > K > 0 and K >3.66. It is over damped for 3.66 > K >2.55.

K . Sketch the root locus. s(s 6s 25)

5) Centroid of the asymptote is A

(sum of poles) (sum of zeros) n m ( 3 3) 2.0 3

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
m 1 0, 1, 2.

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Control Systems 6) The brake points are given by dK/ds =0. K s(s 2 6s 25) (s 3 6s 2 25s) dK ds s1,2 3s 2 2 12s 25 0

10ES43

j2.0817and

K 1,2 34 j18.04 For a point to be break point, the corresponding value of K is a real number greater than or equal to zero. Hence, S1,2 are not break points.

(sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles) (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole inquestion from zeros) 4 90 ) 36.87 3 Similarly, Angle of departure from complex pole s= -3-j4 is p 180 (233.13 270 ) 323.13 or 36.87
p

180 (180 tan

8) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis. The cross over point and the gain at the cross over can be obtained by

TU
6s 2 K 6 j
2 2

Rouths criterion The characteristic equation is s 3 s3 1 25

For the system to be stable K < 150. At K=150 the auxillary equation is 6s2+150=0. s = j5. or substitute s= j in the characteristic equation. Equate real and imaginary parts to zero. Solve for and K. s 3 6s2 25s K 0 j
3

CI
( 6 CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS
K) 0, j5 K

s2 6 150 K s1 6 s0 6

25 j j
2

0, 150

The plot of root locus is shown in Fig.5. Page 124

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25s K K 0 0 25

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0 . The Rouths array is

7) Angle of departure from the open loop pole at s=0 is 180 . Angle of departure from complex pole s= -3+j4 is 180 p

Control Systems

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Figure 5 Root locus plot of K/s(s2+6s+25)

Problem No 1

9) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis. 10) There is one open loop zero at s = -2 (m = 1). There are three open loop poles at s = -1, -3 j (n=3). All the three branches of root locus start from the open loop poles when K = 0. One locus starting from s = -1 goes to zero at s = -2 when K , and other two branches go to asymptotically (zeros at ) when K . 11) Root locus lies on the negative real axis in the range s=-1 to s= -2 as there is one pole to the right of any point s on the real axis in this range.
A= A

CI

TS

Solution:

12) The asymptote angle is Angle of asymptote is

TU
=

Sketch the root locus of a unity negative feedback system whose forward path transfer function K(s 2) is G(s)H(s) . Comment on the stability of the system. (s 1)(s 3 j)(s 3 j)

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180 (2q 1) , q n m 90 , 270 .

Comments on stability: System is stable for all values of 150 > K > 0. At K=150, it has sustained oscillation of 5rad/sec. The system is unstable for K >150.

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n m 1 0,1.

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Control Systems 13) Centroid of the asymptote is A (sum of poles) (sum of zeros) n m ( 1 3 3) ( 2) 2.5 1

10ES43

14) The root locus does not branch. Hence, there is no need to calculate break points. 15) The angle of departure at real pole at s=-1 is 180 . The angle of departure at the complex pole at s=-3+j is 71.57 .

(sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles) (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole inquestion from zeros)

1 1

tan
p

1 2 90 -45 or 135 , 3 tan 1 -1 0 180 (153.43 90 ) 135 71.57

1

The angle of departure at the complex pole at s=-3-j is -71.57 .

p

TU

180 (206.57 270 ) 225

16) The root locus does not cross the imaginary axis. Hence there is no imaginary axis cross over. The root locus plot is shown in Fig.1

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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1 26.57 or 153.43 -2 atan2(-2,1) 153.43 tan

1

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71.57 Page 126

180

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Figure 1 Root locus plot of K(s+2)/(s+1)(s+3+j)(s+3-j) Comments on stability:

Problem No 2

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K s(s 0.5)(s
2

The system is stable for all the values of K > 0.

The open loop transfer function is G(s)H(s) plot. Comment on the stability of the system.

Solution:

10) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis. 11) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are four open loop poles (n=4) at s=0, -0.5, -0.3 j3.1480. Four branches of root loci start from the four open loop poles when K= 0 and go to (open loop zero at infinity) asymptotically when K . 12) Root locus lies on negative real axis between s = 0 to s = -0.5 as there is one pole to the right of any point s on the real axis in this range.
A= A

CI

TS

13) The asymptote angle is Angle of asymptote is

14) Centroid of the asymptote is A CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU
=

180 (2q 1) , q n m 1 0,1,2,3. n m 45 , 135 , 225 , 315 . (sum of poles) (sum of zeros) n m Page 127

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0.6s 10) . Sketch the root locus

Control Systems ( 0.5 0.3 0.3) 4 The value of K at s=-0.275 is 0.6137. 15) The root locus has break points. K = -s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10) = -(s4+1.1s3 +10.3s2+5s) Break points are given by dK/ds = 0 dK ds 4s 3 3.3s 2 20.6s 5 0

10ES43

0.275

s= -0.2497, -0.2877 j 2.2189

There is only one break point at -0.2497. Value of K at s = -0.2497 is 0.6195.

TS
p

(sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles) (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole inquestion from zeros) 3.148 84.6 or 95.4 1 tan 1 - 0.3 3.148 1 1 6.296 90 86.4 , tan tan 3 2 0.2 0 91.8 180 (95.4 86.4 90 ) p The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -0.3 - j3.148 is 91.8 180 (264.6 273.6 270 )

TU

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

17) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis, The cross over frequency and gain is obtained from Rouths criterion. The characteristic equation is s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10)+K =0 or s4+1.1s3+10.3s2+5s+K=0

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91.8

16) The angle of departure at real pole at s=0 is 180 and at s=-0.5 is 0 . The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -0.3 + j3.148 is -91.8 180 p

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The Rouths array is 10.3 K s4 1 3 5 s 1.1 2 s 5.75 K 28.75-1.1K s1 5.75 0 s K

The auxiliary equation at K 26.13 is 5.75s2+26.13 = 0 which gives s = j2.13 at imaginary axis crossover. The root locus plot is shown in Fig.2.

Figure 8 Root locus plot of K/s(s+0.5)(s2+0.6s+10)

Problem No 3 The open loop transfer function is G(s) K s(s 4)(s

2

CI

Comments on stability: System is stable for all values of 26.13 >K > 0. The system has sustained oscillat ion at = 2.13 rad/sec at K=26.13. The system is unstable for K > 26.13.

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4s 20) . Sketch the root locus. CITSTUDENTS.IN

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The system is stable if 0 < K < 26.13

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Solution: 10) Root locus is symmetrical about real axis. 11) There are no open loop zeros (m=0). There are three open loop poles (n=3) at s = -0, -4, 2 j4. Three branches of root loci start from the three open loop poles when K= 0 and to infinity asymptotically when K . 12) Root locus lies on negative real axis between s = 0 to s = -4.0 as there is one pole to the right of any point s on the real axis in this range. 13) The asymptote angle is 180 (2q 1) , q n m 1 0, 1, 2, 3 n m Angle of asymptote are A = 45 , 135 , 225 , 315 .
A=

14) Centroid of the asymptote is A

15) The root locus does branch out, which are given by dK/ds =0. K s(s 4)(s2 (s
4

Break point is given by

TU
dK ds 2.0 j2.45, K 100

8s

36s2 80s)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI
s2

The root loci brakeout at the open loop poles at s = -2.0, when K = 64 and breakin and breakout at s=-2+j2.45, when K=100 16) The angle of departure at real pole at s=0 is 180 and at s=-4 is 0 . The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -2 + j4 is -90 .

TS

4s3 24s2 72s 80 0

4s3 8s2 16s2 32s 40s 80 0

(s 2)(4s2 16s 40) s1 2.0, K 64;

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4s 20) 0

(sum of poles) (sum of zeros) n m ( 2.0 2.0 4.0) 2.0 4

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(sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles) (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole inquestion from zeros)

1 1 2
p

4 63.4 or 116.6 -2 atan2(4,-2) 116.6 tan

1

The angle of departure at the complex pole at s = -2 j4 is 90

p

180 - (243.4 296.6 270 )

Rouths array

CI

For the system to be stable K > 0 and 2080-8K > 0. The imaginary crossover is given by 2080-8K=0 or K = 260. At K = 260, the auxiliary equation is 26s2+260 = 0. The imaginary cross over occurs at s= j 10. or s4 j 8s3 36s2 80s K j 8 j
3 4

TS
put s

TU
The Rouths array is s4 1 s3 8 s 2 26 2080 8K s1 26 s0 K

The characteristic equation is s 4

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8s3 36s2 80s K 36 K 80 K 0 80 j K 0 36 j
2

270 90 17) The root locus does cross the imaginary axis, The cross over point and gain at cross over is obtained by either Rouths array or substitute s= j in the characteristic equation and solve for and gain K by equating the real and imaginary parts to zero.

4 36 2

j 83 80 0, j 10; s

Equate real and imaginary parts to zero 8 3 80 0 j 10

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0 0

4 8 90 63.4 , 3 tan 1 2 0 90 180 - (116.6 63.4 90 ) tan

1

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The root locus plot is shown in Fig.3.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

Comments on stability: For 260 > K > 0 system is stable K = 260 system has stained oscillations of 10 rad/sec. K > 260 system is unstable.

TU

Figure 9 Root locus plot of K/s(s+4)(s2+4s+20)

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Recommended Questions: 1. Give the general rules for constructing root locus.

6. The open loop transfer function is G(s) 7. The open loop transfer function is G(s)

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K s(s 4)(s
2

3. Sketch the root locus of a unity negative K function is G(s) . s K(s 4. The open loop transfer function is G(s) (s K(s 5. The open loop transfer function is G(s) s(s

feedback system whose forward path transfer

2) . Sketch the root locus plot. 1) 2 4) . Sketch the root locus. 2) K . Sketch the root locus. s(s 6s 25) 4s 20)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU

TS .IN
. Sketch the root

2. Define Phase margin and Gain margin of root locus.

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Control Systems UNIT- 6 Stability in the frequency domain Introduction

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Frequency response of a control system refers to the steady state response of a system subject to sinusoidal input of fixed (constant) amplitude but frequency varying over a specific range, usually from 0 to . For linear systems the frequency of input and output signal remains the

signals may change. Frequency response analysis is a complimentary method to time domain analysis (step and ramp input analysis). It deals with only steady state and measurements are taken when transients have disappeared. Hence frequency response tests are not generally carried out for systems with large time constants.

The frequency response information can be obtained either by analytical methods or by experimental methods, if the system exits. The concept and procedure is illustrated in Figure 6.1 (a) in which a linear system is subjected to a sinusoidal input. I(t) = a Sin corresponding output is O(t) = b Sin ( t + ) as shown in Figure 6.1 (b).

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TS

Figure 6.1 (a)

The following quantities are very important in frequency response analysis. M ( ) = b/a = ratio of amplitudes = Magnitude ratio or Magnification factor or gain. ( ) = = phase shift or phase angle

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
Figure 6.1 (b)

same, while the ratio of magnitude of output signal to the input signal and phase between two

t and the

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Control Systems

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These factors when plotted in polar co-ordinates give polar plot, or when plotted in rectangular co-ordinates give rectangular plot which depict the frequency response characteristics of a system over entire frequency range in a single plot. Frequency Response Data The following procedure can be adopted in obtaining data analytically for frequency response analysis.

O( S ) , Where F (S) is transfer function, O(S) and I(S) are the Laplace transforms I (S ) of the output and input respectively. F (S) 2. Replace S by (j ) (As S is a complex number) F( j ) O( j ) I( j )

O( j ) I( j )

A( ) B( j ) (another complex number)

3. For various values of , ranging from 0 to determine M ( ) and . M( ) O( j ) I( j ) A2 B2 A( ) B( j ) A jB

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI
O( j ) I( j )
1

tan

B A

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A jB

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TS .IN

1. Obtain the transfer function of the system

Control Systems

10ES43

4. Plot the results from step 3 in polar co-ordinates or rectangular co-ordinates. These plots are not only convenient means for presenting frequency response data but are also serve as a basis for analytical and design methods. Comparison between Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis An interesting and revealing comparison of frequency and time domain approaches is based on the relative stability studies of feedback systems. The Rouths criterion is a time domain approach which establishes with relative ease the stability of a system, but its adoption to determine the relative stability is involved and requires repeated application of the criterion. The Root Locus method is a very powerful time domain approach as it reveals not only stability but also the actual time response of the system. On the other hand, the Nyquist criterion (discussed later in this Chapter) is a powerful frequency domain method of extracting the information regarding stability as well as relative stability of a system without the need to evaluate roots of the characteristic equation.

Graphical Methods to Represent Frequency Response Data Two graphical techniques are used to represent the frequency response data. They are: 1) Polar plots 2) Rectangular plots.

The frequency response data namely magnitude ratio M( ) and phase angle

CI

Polar Plot

TS

TU

DE N

represented in polar co-ordinates polar plots are obtained. The plot is plotted in complex plane shown in Figure 6.2. It is also called Nyquist plot. As is varied the magnitude and phase angle

change and if the magnitude ratio M is plotted for varying phase angles, the locus obtained gives

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN

( ) when

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Control Systems

10ES43

the polar plot. It is easier to construct a polar plot and ready information of magnitude ratio and phase angle can be obtained. Img Positive angles M

+90, -270

+180, -180

Figure 6.2: Complex Plane Representation

A typical polar plot is shown in Figure 6.3 in which the magnitude ratio M and phase angle given value of can be readily obtained.

DE N

+270, -90

TS .IN
Real Negative angles at a Page 137

0, + 360, -360

Figure 6.3: A Typical Polar Plot CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU

Control Systems

10ES43

Rectangular Plot The frequency response data namely magnitude ratio M( ) and phase angle ( ) can also be presented in rectangular co-ordinates and then the plots are referred as Bode plots which will be discussed in Chapter 7.

Illustration 1: A first order mechanical system is subjected to a input x(t). Obtain the polar plot, if the time constant of the system is 0.1 sec. x (t) (input)

Governing Differential Equation: C. dy dt Ky Kx by K

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI
(S+1) Y(S) = X(S)

C dy . y x K dt dy . y x Take Laplace transform dt

SY(S) + Y(S) = X(S)

TS

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y (t) (output)

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Illustrations on Polar Plots: Following examples illustrate the procedure followed in obtaining the polar plots.

Control Systems Y (S ) X (S ) 1 S 1

10ES43

Transfer function F(S) = Given = 0.1 sec Y (S ) X (S ) 1 0.1S 1

1 1 0.1S

To obtain the polar plot (i.e., frequency response data) replace S by j .

0.1 j

Magnification Factor M =

Y( j ) X( j ) 1

1 j (0.1 )

1 1 (0.1 ) 2

Phase angle = 0 1

Y( j ) X( j ) tan 1 (0.1 )

Y( j )

DE N
Xj 1 j (0)
1 1 (0.1 ) 2

tan 1 (0.1 )

TS
0 2 4 5 6 10 20

TU
for different values of ranging from 0 to as given in Table
M tan 1 (0.1 )

tan

Now obtain the values of M and 6.1.

Table 6.1 Frequency Response Data

CI

1.00 0.98 0.928 0.89 0.86 0.707 0.45

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
1 1 j (0) j (0.1 ) (1 0.1 ) 0 -11.13 -21.8 -26.6 -30.9 -45 -63.4 Page 139

Y( j ) X(j )

1 j (0.1 )

Control Systems 40 50 100 0.24 0.196 0.099 0 -76 -78.69 -84.29 -90

10ES43

The data from Table 6.1 when plotted on the complex plane with obtained as given below.

as a parameter polar plot is

= 50 = 20

Illustration 2: A second order system has a natural frequency of 10 rad/sec and a damping ratio of 0.5. Sketch the polar plot for the system.

The transfer function of the system is given by

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS
K y (Response) C

x (Input)

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DE N

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=6 Page 140

Control Systems Y (S ) X (S ) Y (S) X (S )

2 n

10ES43

S2

2 n

Given

= 10 rad/sec and = 0.5

100 10S 100

Replace S by j Y( j ) X(j ) 100 10 j 100 (100 100 j (0) 10 j 100 1002 (100
100 (100
2 2 2 2

(j )

100 j (0) 2 ) j (10 )

as j

Y( j ) X( j )

Magnification Factor = M

(10 ) 2

Phase angle = tan

1

100 (100 10 tan 1 100

2

j (0) ) j (10 )

DE N
100 j (0) for various value of 0.0 -11.8 -33.7 -65.8 -90.0 -110.1 -129.8 -146.3 -165.1 -171.7 -180.0

0 100

Now obtain the values of M and following Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Frequency Response Data: Illustration 2

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU
0 2 5 8 10 12 15 20 40 70 M( ) 1.00 1.02 1.11 1.14 1.00 0.78 0.51 0.28 0.06 0.02 0.00

TS .IN
(10 ) 2 (100
2

j (10 )

ranging from 0 to as given in the

Page 141

Control Systems The data from Table 6.2 when plotted on the complex plane with obtained as given below.

10ES43 as a parameter polar plot is

Note: The polar plot intersects the imaginary axis at a frequency equal to the natural frequency of the system =
n

= 10 rad/sec.

Illustration 3: Obtain the polar plot for the transfer function F (S ) 10 (S 1) 10 j 1 Replace S by j

F( j )

M( )

F( j )

Table 6.3 Frequency Response Data: Illustration 3

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI
tan
1

( ) = F (j ) = 10 -

TS
10
2

TU
1 (j +1)

DE N
Page 142

TS .IN

Control Systems M( ) 1.00 9.8 9.3 8.6 7.8 4.5 3.2 2.5 1.9 0.99 0.00

10ES43

= M( ) = 0

Polar plot for Illustration 3

Polar plots for some typical transfer function can be sketched on the following guidelines. I (a jb)(c jd ) (e jf ) A jB F (S ) --- (Transfer function)

CI

Guidelines to Sketch Polar Plots

TS
a jb c e jf jd a2 b2 * c2 e2 f
2

TU
Magnitude Ratio = M d2 Phase angle: CITSTUDENTS.IN Page 143

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0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 10

0 -11 -21 -31 -39 -63 -72 -76 -79 -84 -90

Control Systems a jb c jd e jf

10ES43

(a

jb)

(c

jd )

(e

jf )

tan

b a

tan

d c

tan

f e

IQ: IIQ:

tan-1 (b/a) Positive: tan-1 (b/-a) Negative: 180 -

IIIQ: tan-1 (-b/-a) Positive: 180 + IVQ: tan-1 (-b/a) Negative: 360 -

TS .IN
IIQ (-a+jb) (-a-jb) IIIQ Applicable for both K>0 and K<0

II Values of tan functions

Img

IQ

(a+jb)

Real

DE N

(a-jb) IVQ

tan-1 (0) = 00 tan-1 (1) = 450 tan-1 () = 900 III

tan-1 (-0) =1800 tan-1 (-1) = 1350

Let K = Constant

Therefore K

CI
K2 CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS
= K + j(0) 02 K

tan-1 (-) = 2700

TU

Page 144

Control Systems K= (K+ j0)

10ES43

Img

= tan-1(0/K) = tan-1 (0) = 0, if K>0 if K<0

-K +j0

Real

K +j0

= tan-1 (-0) = 1800,

IV:

Sn = (j )n = (0+j )n

= (0+j ) (0+j ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . n times a. Magnitude

Sn ( j )n

(0

j ) (0

j ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . n times

(0

) (0 Sn =

. . . . . . . . . . . . . n times
n

Therefore

Sn

( j )n

TS
(0 j )

b. Angle

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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Sn = n * 900

= tan-1 ( /0) + tan-1 ( /0)+ . . . . . . . . . . . . n times = 900 + 900 + . . . . . . . . . . . . n times

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(0 j )

DE N
. . . . . . . . . . . . n times Page 145

TS .IN

Control Systems

10ES43

Illustration 4: Sketch the polar plot for the system represented by the following open loop transfer function. 10 S ( S 10)(S

G(S ) H (S )

2)

obtain M and

for different values of

i) As

0, S

G(S ) H (S )

10 S *10 * 2

0.5 S

0.5 0

0.5

90 0

ii) As

,S

G( S ) H ( S )

10 S ( S )(S )

10

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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0 3* 90 2700 M( ) ( )

TS
S3

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10 S3 0

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Page 146

0 900

TS .IN

Control Systems

10ES43

-900 -2700 -180

-270

Img

= , M = 0

0 Real

Illustration 5: Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open loop

G(S ) H (S )

K S ( S 5)
2

i) As

0, S

G (S )H (S ) S

CI

M( )

( )

K /5 S2 ,S

TS

0 0

K , S ( S 5)
2

K 5S 2

K /5 S
2

ii) As

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU
j K /5 S2
( K / 5)

DE N
S is far lesser than 5 and can be neglected
S 2 = 0 2*90 = 0 180 = - 1800

transfer function.

TS .IN
= 0, M = -90

Page 147

Control Systems K S ( S 5)
2

10ES43 K S3

G( S ) H ( S )

M( )

K S3

K
3

( )

S3

= 0 - 3*90

= - 2700

M( ) 0 0

( ) -1800 -2700

DE N
= 0, M = -180 j 1/ 4 S2

TU

Illustration 6: Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open loop transfer function.

G(S ) H (S )

i) As

G( S ) H ( S )

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

10 S ( S 5)(S 8)
2

0, S

0 0

10 S .5.8
2

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-270 Img = , M = 0 0 Real -90 Page 148

Control Systems 1/ 4 S2 1/ 4
2

10ES43 1/ 4 0

M( )

( )

1/ 4

S2

= 0 - 2*90 = - 2*900 = 1800 ii) As ,S

G( S ) H ( S )

10 S .S .S
2

10 S4

M( )

10 S4

10
4

as

M( )=0
S4

( )

10

= 0 4*90 = - 3600

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU

DE N
Page 149

TS .IN

Control Systems -270 M( ) 0 0 ( ) -1800 -3600 = 0, M = -180 Img

10ES43

= , M = 0 Real

0, -360

Illustration 7: Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open loop transfer function. G(S ) H (S ) i) As 10( S 2) S ( S 4)(S 5)
3

0, S

G( S ) H ( S )

10.2 S 3 .4.5 M( )
( ) 1

1 S3 1

ii) As

CI

G( S ) H ( S )

M( )

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS

1 S3

S3

= 0 3*90 = - 2700

,S

10.S S 3 .S .S ) 10
4

10 S4

TU
10 S4 0

0 0

10( S 2) S ( S 4)(S 5)
3

DE N
Page 150

TS .IN

-90

Control Systems
( ) 10 S4

10ES43 = 0 4*90 = -3600 -270 Img = 0, M =

M( ) 0 0

( ) -2700 -3600 -180 = , M = 0 0, -360 Real

Illustration 8: Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open loop transfer function. G(S ) H (S ) i) As G( S ) H ( S ) 10 S ( S 2)(S 0, S 0 S

4) j

0 0

10 S ( 2).4 10 / 8

M( ) ( )

CI

ii) As

G( S ) H ( S ) 10 S3

M( )

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS
10 / 8 S 10 / 8 ,S S = 1800 - 900 = 900
S

10 S3 10
3

TU
10 / 8 S 0

DE N
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-90

Control Systems
( ) 10 S3

10ES43 = 0 3*900 = - 2700 -270 +90

Img = 0, M =

M( ) 0 0

( ) 900 -270
0

+180 -180

= , M = 0

0, -360 Real

Illustration 9: Sketch the polar plot for the system represented by the following transfer function. Y (S ) X (S ) i) As M( )
( )

100 10S 100 0 S j

0, S 1 1,

for both K positive and negative

ii) As 100 S2

TS
,S 100 S2

1 1800

TU
S

DE N
( ) 100 S2 +180 -180

CI

M( )

0,

M( ) 0 1 0 CITSTUDENTS.IN

( ) 1800 -1800

TS .IN
+270 -90 = 0 2* = - 900*2 = -1800 -270 +90 Img Page 152 +270

Control Systems

10ES43

= , M = 0 = 0, M = 1

0, -360 Real

Experimental determination of Frequency Response

Many a times the transfer function of a physical system may not be available in such circumstances it is necessary to obtain frequency response information experiment ally. Such data may then be used to establish the transfer function. This method requires the actual system.

System Analysis using Polar Plots: Nyquist Criterion

Polar plots can be used to predict feed back control system stability by the application of Nyquist

analysis of dynamic behaviour of control systems in which the need for finding roots of characteristic equation of the system is eliminated. Consider a typical closed loop control system which may be represented by the simplified block diagram as shown in Figure 6.4

CI
R(S) + CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS

TU
G(S) H(S)

Criterion, and therefore are also referred as Nyquist Plots. It is a labor saving technique in the

Figure 6.4 Simplified System Block Diagram

DE N
C(S)

SYSTEM ANALYSIS USING POLAR PLOTS: NYQUIST CRITERION

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The closed-loop transfer function or the relationship between the output and input of the system is given by

C(S ) R( S )

G( S ) 1 G( S ) H ( S )

The open-loop transfer function is G(S) H(S) (the transfer function with the feedback loop broken at the summing point). 1+ G(S) H(S) is called Characteristic Function which when equated to zero gives the Characteristic Equation of the system. 1 + G(S) H(S) = 0

Characteristic Equation

The characteristic function F(S) = 1 + G(S) H(S) can be expressed as the ratio of two factored polynomials. Let F ( S ) 1 G ( S ) H ( S )

K ( S Z 1 )(S Z 2 )......... ....( S Z n ) S ( S P1 )(S P2 )(S P3 )......... .( S Z n )

k

F(S) = K (S+Z1) (S+Z2) (S+Z3) . (S+Zn) = 0

Z1, -Z2, -Z3 . Zn are the roots of the characteristic equation

These values of S are termed as Zeros of F(S) Similarly: at S= -P1, S= -P2, S= -P3 . Etc. 1+ G (S) H (S) becomes infinity. These values are called Poles of F (S).

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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at S= -Z1, S= -Z2, S= -Z3,

TS

Then:

TU

The Characteristic equation in general can be represented as

DE N

1+ G(S) H(S) becomes zero.

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Control Systems Condition for Stability

10ES43

For stable operation of control system all the roots of characteristic equation must be negative real numbers or complex numbers with negative real parts. Therefore, for a system to be stable all the Zeros of characteristic equation (function) should be either negative real numbers or complex numbers with negative real parts. These roots can be plotted on a complexplane or S-plane in which the imaginary axis divides the complex plane in to two parts: right half plane and left half plane. Negative real numbers or complex numbers with negative real parts lie on the left of S-plane as shown Figure 6.5. Left half of S Plane Img -3+j2

DE N

2+j1

-3-j2

Therefore the roots which are positive real numbers or complex numbers with positive real parts lie on the right-half of S-plane.

In view of this, the condition for stability can be stated as For a system to be stable all the zeros of characteristic equation should lie on the left half of S-plane. Therefore, the procedure for investigating system stability is to search for Zero s on the right half of S-plane, which would lead the system to instability, if present. However, it is impracticable to investigate every point on S-plane as to which half of S-plane it belongs to and

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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TS

Figure 6.5 Two halves of Complex Plane

TU

2-j1

TS .IN
Right half of S Plane Real

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Control Systems

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so it is necessary to have a short-cut method. Such a procedure for searching the right half of Splane for the presence of Zeros and interpretation of this procedure on the Polar plot is given by the Nyquist Criterion. Nyquist Criterion: Cauchys Principle of Argument: In order to investigate stability on the Polar plot, it is first necessary to correlate the region of instability on the S-plane with identification of instability on the polar plot, or 1+GH plane. The 1+GH plane is frequently the name given to the plane where 1+G(S) H(S) is plotted in complex coordinates with S replaced by j . Likewise, the plot of G(S) H(S) with S replaced by j termed as GH plane. This terminology is adopted in the remainder of this discussion. is often

The Nyquist Criterion is based on the Cauchys principle of argument o f complex variable theory. Consider [F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S)] be a single valued rational function which is analytic everywhere in a specified region except at a finite number of points in S-plane. (A function F(S)

and its derivatives does not exist are called singular points. The poles of a point are singular

Let CS be a closed path chosen in S-plane as shown Figure 6.6 (a) such that the function F(S) is

mapping point in F(S) plane. Thus when mapping is made on F(S) plane, the curve C G mapped by the function F(S) plane is also a closed path as shown in Figure 6.6 (b). The direction of traverse of CG in F(S) plane may be clockwise or counter clockwise, depending upon the particular function F(S).

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

analytic at all points on it. For each point on CS represented on S-plane there is a corresponding

TS

points.

TU

is said to be analytic if the function and all its derivatives exist). The points where the function

DE N

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Then the Cauchy principle of argument states that: The mapping made on F(S) plane will encircle its origin as many number of times as the difference between the number of Zeros and Poles of F(S) enclosed by the S-plane locus CS in the S-plane. S-plane GS5 S1 S5 - CS S4 S3 S2 GS4 - F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane +j

+j

TS .IN
GS3 (0+j ) CG GS2 -j Figure 6.6 (b)

GS1

Figure 6.6 (a)

Figure 6.6 Mapping on S-plane and F(S) plane Thus N=ZP N0+j0 = Z P

Where N0+j0 : Number of encirclements made by F(S) plane plot (CG) about its origin. Z and P: Number of Zeros and Poles of F(S) respectively enclosed by the locus C S in the Splane.

Illustration: Consider a function F(S) F( S ) K ( S 1)(S 2 j 2)(S 2 j 2) S ( S 3)(S 5)(S 5 j 2)(S 5 j 2)

Poles: 0, -3, -5, (-5 j2), (-5 +j2) indicated by X (Cross) in S-plane: As shown in Figure 6.6 (c)

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Zeros: -1, (-2-j2), (-2+j2) indicated by O (dots) in the S-plane

TS

TU

DE N

-j

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Control Systems +j S-plane +j CS2 CS1 CG2 - CS1 O: ZEROS X: POLES CS2 - CG2 (0+j0) CG1

10ES43 F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane

CG2

-j Figure 6.6 (c)

Now consider path CS1 (CCW) on S-plane for which: Z: 2, P =1

Consider another path CS2 (CCW) in the same S plane for which: Z = 1, P = 4

CG1 and CG2 are the corresponding paths on F(S) plane [Figure 6.6 (d)]. Considering CG1 [plot corresponding to CS1 on F (S) plane] N0+j0 = Z P = 2-1 = +1

CG1 will encircle the origin once in the same direction of CS1 (CCW) Similarly for the path CG2

N0+j0 = Z P = 1 4 = - 3 CG2 will encircle the origin 3 times in the opposite direction of C S2 (CCW)

Note: The mapping on F(S) plane will encircle its origin as many number of times as the difference between the number of Zeros and Poles of F(S) enclosed by the S-plane locus. From the above it can be observed that In the expression CITSTUDENTS.IN
Page 158

CI

TS

TU

DE N

TS .IN
-j Figure 6.6 (d)

Control Systems N= Z - P, N can be positive when: N = 0 when: Z=P Z<P Z>P

10ES43

N can be negative when:

When N is positive the map CG encircles the origin N times in the same direction as that of CS When N = 0, No encirclements

N is negative the map CG encircles the origin N times in the opposite direction as that of CS Nyquist Path and Nyquist Plot

The above Cauchys principle of argument can be used to investigate the stability of control systems. We have seen that if the Zeros of characteristic function lie on the right half of S -plane it will lead to system instability. Now, to encircle the entire right half of S-plane, select a closed path as shown in Figure 6.6 (e) such that all the Zeros lying on the right -half of S-plane will lie inside this path. This path in S-plane is known as Nyquist path. Nyquist path is generally taken in CCW direction. This path consists of the imaginary axis of the S-plane (S = 0+j , < < )

and a closing semicircle of infinite radius. If the system being tested has poles of F(S) on the imaginary axis, it is customary to modify the contour as shown Figure 6.6 (f) excluding these

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poles from the path.

TS

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Page 159

Control Systems +j +j r= - 0+j0 0-j0 S=+j0 - S= -j0 r= r0 S-plane +j

10ES43

-j -j Figure 6.6 (e): Nyquist Path

Corresponding to the Nyquist path a plot can be mapped on F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane as shown in Figure 6.6 (g) and the number of encirclements made by this F(S) plot about its origin can be counted. Img

1+ G(S) H(S) plane

0+j0 Real

Now from the principle of argument N0+j0 = Z-P N0+j0 = number of encirclements made by F(S) plane plot Z, P: Zeros and Poles lying on right half of S-plane For the system to be stable: Z = 0 CITSTUDENTS.IN
Page 160

CI

TS
Img Figure 6.6 (g)

TU
Real

DE N

TS .IN
S= -j -j Figure 6.6 (f)

Control Systems N0+j0 = - P Condition for Stability

10ES43

Apart from this, the Nyquist path can also be mapped on G(S) H(S) plane (Open-loop transfer function plane) as shown in Figure 6.6 (h). Now consider F(S) = 1+ G(S) H(S) for which the origin is (0+j0) as shown in Figure 6.6 (g). Therefore G(S) H(S) = F(S) 1 = (0+j0) 1 = (-1+j0) Coordinates for origin on G(S) H(S) plane as shown in Figure 6.6(h)

G(S) H(S) plane Img

0+j0 (-1+j0) Origin of the plot for G(S) H(S)

Thus a path on 1+ G(S) H(S) plane can be easily converted to a path on G(S) H(S) plane or open

the origin is now shifted to the left by one as shown in Figure 6.6 (h).

plane. The plot made on G(S) H(S) plane is termed as the Niquist Plot and its net encirclements about (-1+j0) (known as critical point) will be the same as the number of net encirclements made by F(S) plot in the F(S) = 1+G(S) H(S) plane about the origin. Now, the principle of argument now can be re-written as N-1+j0 = Z-P CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

This concept can be made use of by making the plot in G(S) H(S) plane instead of 1+ G(S) H(S)

TS

loop transfer function plane. This path will be identical to that of 1+G(S) H(S) path except that

TU
Figure 6.6 (h)

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TS .IN

Control Systems

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Where N -1+j0 = Number of net encirclements made by the G(S) H(S) plot (Nyquist Plot) in the G(S) H(S) plane about -1+j0 For a system to be stable Z = 0 N-1+j0 = -P

Thus the Nyquist Criterion for a stable system can be stated as The number of net encirclements made by the Nyquist plot in the G(S) H(S) plane about the critical point (-1+j0) is equal to the number of poles of F(S) lying in right half of S-plane. [Encirclements if any will be in the opposite direction. Poles of F(S) are the same as the poles of G(S) H(S)] . Thus the stability of closed-loop control system is determined from its open-loop transfer function.

System Analysis using Nyquist Criterion: Illustrations

function and comment on its stability. G (S ) H ( S )

TS
0, a 0

K K S (S a)

Step 1: Define Nyquist path. Let the Nyquist path be defined as given below.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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TU

Illustration 1: Sketch the Nyquist plot for the system represented by the open loop transfer

DE N

Poles: S = 0 (on imaginary axis) and S = -a

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Control Systems

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+j S= +j S=+j0 - S= -j0 r= r0 S= -j -j Section I: Section III: S = +j to S = +j0; S = -j0 to S = -j ; Section II: Section IV: S = +j0 to S = -j0 S = -j to S = +j Nyquist Path

2. Corresponding to different sections namely I, II, III, and IV Obtain polar plots on G(S) H(S) plane, which are nothing but Nyquist Plots.

Nyquist Plot for Section I: In S-plane section I runs from S= + j to S = +j0 To obtain polar plot in G(S) H(S) plane: G (S ) H ( S ) K K S (S a) 0, a 0

(i) G( S ) H ( S )

G( S ) H ( S )

CI
K S2 0 G( S ) H ( S ) K S2 K S2

= 0 2*900 = - 1 8 00-j S =

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS
S j

K , S2

TU

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Control Systems K S K1 S

10ES43

(ii) G ( S ) H ( S )

j0

K S .a

G(S) H(S) = K/a

S = 0 - 900 = - 900 Img G(S) H(S) Plane

S S S 0

M( ) 0

( )

-900 -180
0

TS .IN
S=j S=j0 -900

-1800

Real

Section I

In this region S

G( S ) H ( S )

But S = re+j equation of a circle in exponential form G(S ) H (S ) K1 re j Re R

j

CI

TS
K S(a) K1 S K1 r

In S-plane section II is a semicircle from S = + j0 to S = -j0 of radius r 00, covering an angle of 1800 in clockwise direction where K1 = K/a

TU
, where

Nyquist Plot for Section II: In S-plane section II runs from S= + j0 to S = -j0

G(S) H(S) = R.e-j

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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R K1 r (as r is very small)

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Control Systems

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This shows that G(S) H(S) plot of section II of Nyquist path is a circle of radius = starting 0 from S = +j0 and ending at a point S = -j0 covering an angle of 180 in opposite direction of section II of Nyquist path (CCW direction i.e., negative sign) In general if G (S) H (S) = K1 r n e jn K1 rn K1 Sn R.e
jn

G (S ) H (S )

Where R =

Img

S= -j0 R=

Nyquist Plot for Section III: In S-plane section III runs from S= -j0 to S = j

TS
S j0

G(S ) H (S )

K S( S a)

TU
K S .a K1 / S S, Kl is negative S
S j

S=j0 , starting at a point S = +j The G (S) H (S) plot will be a portion circle (part) of radius R and ending at a point S = -j covering an angle of (n*1800) in the opposite direction (CCW) (since sign is negative)

CI

G(S ) H (S )

K1 / S

G(S) H(S)

Kl

= G(S) H(S) G (S ) H ( S )

-Kl

= 1800 900 = 900 K S ( S a) = K/S2

CITSTUDENTS.IN

DE N

where Kl = (K/a)

TS .IN
G(S) H(S) Plane Section II Real
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Control Systems K 0 S2 G(S) H(S) = K - S2 = 0 2 (-900) = 1800 ; +900

10ES43

G( S ) H ( S )

(S is negative) Img S= -j0 G(S) H(S) Plane

Section III +1800 S= -j

This Section III is the mirror image of section of the Section I. Nyquist Plot for Section IV: In S-plane section IV runs from S= -j to S = j In this region S

TU
r.e
j2

In the S-plane it is a semicircle of radius R 1800 in the counter clockwise direction.

G( S ) H ( S )

CI

But S = R e+j G( S ) H ( S )

TS
K
S

In the G(S) H(S) plane

S2 Equation in circle in exponential form where r K R2 0

K R .e j 2
2

Thus G(S) H(S) plot for section IV is also a circle of radius r 0 starting at S = - j and 0 ending at S = + j covering an angle of 2* 180 (2 ) in the opposite direction (CW).

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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from S = - j to S = + j covering an angle of

TS .IN
Real
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Control Systems Img

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G(S) H(S) Plane

S= -j S= +j

r0 Section IV Real

TU
-j j

DE N
j0

Now assemble the Nyquist plots of all the sections as given below to get the overall Nyquist plot Img G(S) H(S) Plane -j0

From Nyquist Criterion: No. of encirclements made by Nyquist plot about ( 1 +j0) = N-1+j0 = Z P P = No. of poles lying in the right half of S plane

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS
(-1+j0)

TS .IN
Real

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Control Systems

10ES43 K , the Poles are: S = 0, S = - a = 0, which lie on the left half S ( S a)

For the function G( S ) H ( S ) of S-plane

Therefore P = 0: Number of poles on the right half of S-plane N-1+j=0 = 0 as counted from the Nyquist plot N-1+j0 = Z P 0=Z0 Therefore Z = 0

Number of zeros lying on the right half of S-plane is 0 and hence the system is stable

Illustration 2: Obtain the Nyquist diagram for the system represented by the block diagram given below and comment on its stability

R (S)

+ -

K 2 S ( S 1)

G( S ) H (S )

K S ( S 1)
2

TS
K

TU
*S K , S ( S 1) Poles are S = 0, -1/ P=0

Recommended Questions: CITSTUDENTS.IN

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CI
2

G( S ) H ( S )

S ( S 1)

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C (S) S

TS .IN

Control Systems

10ES43

1. Explain briefly the different Graphical Methods to Represent Frequency Response Data . 2. A second order system has a natural frequency of 10 rad/sec and a damping ratio of 0.5. Sketch the polar plot for the system. 3. Obtain the polar plot for the transfer function 4. Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open loop transfer function. G(S ) H (S ) K S ( S 5)
2

5. Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open loop transfer function. G(S ) H (S ) 10 S ( S 5)(S 8)
2

6. Sketch the polar plots for the system represented by the following open loop transfer function. G(S ) H (S ) 10 2)(S

S (S

4)

7. Draw Nyquist path for the function F(s)

F( S )

K ( S 1)(S 2 j 2)(S 2 j 2) S ( S 3)(S 5)(S 5 j 2)(S 5 j 2)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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TS

TU

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TS .IN

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Control Systems UNIT-7 Frequency domain analysis

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Frequency response of a control system refers to the steady state response of a system subject to sinusoidal input of fixed (constant) amplitude but frequency varying over a specific range, usually from 0 to . For linear systems the frequency of input and output signal remains the same, while the ratio of magnitude of output signal to the input signal and phase between two signals may change. Frequency response analysis is a complimentary method to time domain analysis (step and ramp input analysis). It deals with only steady state and measurements are taken when transients have disappeared. Hence frequency response tests are not generally carried out for systems with large time constants.

The frequency response information can be obtained either by analytical methods o r by experimental methods, if the system exits. The concept and procedure is illustrated in Figure 7.1 (a) in which a linear system is subjected to a sinusoidal input. I(t) = a Sin t and the

CI

TS
Figure 7.1 (a) Figure 7.1 (b) The following quantities are very important in frequency response analysis. M ( ) = b/a = ratio of amplitudes = Magnitude ratio or Magnification factor or gain. ( ) = = phase shift or phase angle CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU

corresponding output is O(t) = b Sin ( t + ) as shown in Figure 6.1 (b).

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Control Systems

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These factors when plotted in polar co-ordinates give polar plot, or when plotted in rectangular co-ordinates give rectangular plot which depict the frequency response characteristics of a system over entire frequency range in a single plot. Frequency Response Data The following procedure can be adopted in obtaining data analytically for frequency response analysis.

O( S ) , Where F (S) is transfer function, O(S) and I(S) are the Laplace transforms I (S ) of the output and input respectively. F (S) 6. Replace S by (j ) (As S is a complex number) F( j ) O( j ) I( j )

O( j ) I( j )

A( ) B( j ) (another complex number)

7. For various values of , ranging from 0 to determine M ( ) and . M( ) O( j ) I( j ) A2 B2 A( ) B( j ) A jB

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI
O( j ) I( j )
1

tan

B A

TS
A jB

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TS .IN

5. Obtain the transfer function of the system

Control Systems

10ES43

8. Plot the results from step 3 in polar co-ordinates or rectangular co-ordinates. These plots are not only convenient means for presenting frequency response data but are also serve as a basis for analytical and design methods. Comparison between Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis An interesting and revealing comparison of frequency and time domain approaches is based on the relative stability studies of feedback systems. The Rouths criterion is a time domain approach which establishes with relative ease the stability of a system, but its adoption to determine the relative stability is involved and requires repeated application of the criterion. The Root Locus method is a very powerful time domain approach as it reveals not only stability but also the actual time response of the system.

It was pointed out earlier that the performance of a feedback control system is more preferably measured by its time domain response characteristics. This is in contrast to the analysis & design of systems in the communication field, where the frequency response is of more importance, since in this case most of the signals to be processed are either sinusoidal or

difficult to determine, especially in the case of high order systems. In the design aspects, there are no unified ways of arriving at a designed system given the time-domain specifications, such

graphical methods available in the frequency-domain analysis, all suitable for the analysis & design of linear feedback control systems once the analysis & design are carried out in the frequency domain, time domain behavior of the system can be interpreted based on the relationships that exist between the time-domain & the frequency-domain properties. Therefore, we may consider that the main purpose of conducting control systems analysis & design in frequency domain is merely to use the techniques as a convenient vehicle toward the same objectives as with time-domain methods. The starting point in frequency-domain analysis is the transfer function. For a single loop feed back system, the closed loop transfer function is written C(s) CITSTUDENTS.IN G(s)
Page 172

CI

TS

as peak overshoot, rise time , delay time & setting time. On the other hand, there is a wealth of

TU

periodic in nature. However analytically, the time response of a control system is usually

DE N

TS .IN

Control Systems M(s) = R(s) = 1+ G(s) H(s)

10ES43 (1)

Under the sinusoidal steady-state, we get s = j ; then equation(1.0) becomes,

C(j ) M(j ) = R(j ) =

G(j ) (1.1)

The sinusoidal steady-state transfer relation M(j ), which is a complex function of expressed in terms of a real & an imaginary part; that is,

M((j ) = Re [ M (j )] + j Im [ M(j )]

Or , M(j ) can be expressed in terms of its magnitude & phase as

M(j ) = M ( ) Where

m(

DE N
)

M(( ) =

TU

G(j )

And

CI

TS

1 + G(j ) H(j )

G(j )

m(

) =

1 + G(j ) H(j ) (1.5)

G(j ) -

1 + G(j ) H(j )

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
(1.2) (1.3) (1.4)

1+ G(j ) H(j )

, may be

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Control Systems

10ES43

since the analysis is now in the frequency domain, some of the terminology used in communication system may be applied to the present control system characterization. For instance, M( ) of Eq. (1.4) may be regarded as the magnification of the feed back control system is similar to the gain or amplification of an electronic amplifier. In an audio amplifier, for instance, an ideal design criterion is that the amplifier must have a flat gain for all frequencies. Of course, realistically, the design criterion becomes that of having a flat gain in the audio frequency range. In control system the ideal design criterion is similar. If it is desirable to keep the output C(j ) identical to the input R(j ) at all frequencies, M(j ) must be unity for all frequencies. However, from Eq. (1.1) it is apparent that M(j ) can be unity only when G(j ) is infinite, while H(j ) is finite & nonzero. An infinite magnitude for g(j ) is, of course, impossible to achieve in practice, nor would it be desirable, since most control system become unstable when its loop gain becomes very high. Further more, all control system are subject noise. Thus in addition to responding to the input signal, the system should be able to reject &

should have a cutoff characteristic in general, & sometimes even a band-pass characteristic. The phase characteristics of the frequency response are also of importance. The ideal situation is that the phase must be a linear function of frequency within the frequency range of interest.

to realize physically. Typical gain & phase characteristics of a feedback control system are shown in Fig. 1.2. The fact is that the great majority of control systems have the characteristics

M( )

TS
c

of a low-pass filter, so the gain decreases as the frequency increases. 0

CI
1 0 CITSTUDENTS.IN

TU

Figure 1.1 shows the gain & phase characteristics of an ideal low-pass filter, which is impossible

Fig. 1.1. Gain-phase characteristics of an ideal low-pass filter.

DE N
m(

suppress noise & unwanted signals. This means that the frequency response of a control system

TS .IN
Deg

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Control Systems 0

10ES43

M( )
m(

Mp ) Deg

Fig.1.2. Typical gain & phase characteristics of a feedback control system.

Frequency-Domain characteristics:

If a control system is to be designed or analyzed using frequency-domain techniques, we need a set of specification to describe the system performance. The following frequency-domain specifications are often used in practice.

Peak response M p :

The peak response Mp is defined as the maximum value of M( ) that is given in

back control system. Normally, a large M p corresponds to a large peak overshoot in the step response. For most design problems it is generally accepted that an optimum value M p of should be somewhere between 1.1 & 1.5. Resonant frequency

The resonant frequency Bandwidth :

drops at 70.7 percent of its zero-frequency level, or 3 dB down from the zero-frequency gain. In general, the bandwidth of a control system indicates the noise-filtering characteristics of the system. Also, bandwidth gives a measure of the transient response properties, in that a large bandwidth corresponds to a faster rise time, since higher-frequency signals are passed on to the outputs. Conversely, if the bandwidth is small, only signals of relatively low frequencies are passed, & the time response will generally be slow & sluggish. CITSTUDENTS.IN
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CI

The bandwidth , BW, is defined as the frequency at which the magnitude of M(j ), M( ),

TS
p: p is

TU

Eq.(1.4). In general, the magnitude of M p gives an indication of the relative stability of a feed

defined as the frequency at which the peak resonance Mp occurs.

DE N

TS .IN

Control Systems Cutoff rate :

10ES43

Often, bandwidth alone is inadequate in the indication of the characteristics of the system in distinguishing signals from noise. Sometimes it may be necessary to specify the cutoff rate of the frequency response at the higher frequencies. However, in general, a steep cutoff characteristics may be accompanied by a large Mp, which corresponds to a system with a low stability margin. The performance criteria defined above for the frequency-domain analysis are illustrated on the closed-loop frequency response, as shown in Fig. 1.3. There are other criteria defined chapter. M( ) that may be used to specify the relative stability &

performance of a feedback control system. These are defined in the ensuring sections of this

Mp

1 0

Bandwidth

Fig.1.3. Typical magnification curve of a feedback control system.

For a second-order feedback control system, the peak resonance Mp, the resonant frequency & the bandwidth are all uniquely related to the damping ratio frequency

TS

M p, ,

& the bandwidth of a second-order system:

p,

TU
C(j ) = R(j ) 1

BW

DE N
& the natural undamped
2 n

of a closed-loop system,

CI
n

of the system. Consider the second-order sinusoidal steady-state transfer function

M(j ) =

(j )2 + 2

= CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
(1.6)
n (j

)+

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Control Systems 1+ j2( /

n)

10ES43 -( /
n) 2

We may simplify the last expression by letter u = /

n.

The Eq. (1.6) becomes

1 M(ju) = 1 + j2 u - u2 ( 1.7)

The magnitude & phase of M (j ) are 1 M(ju) = M(u) =

[( 1 u2 )2 + ( 2 u)2] And 2 u = - tan -1

M(ju) =

m(u)

DE N
1 u2
2

setting it equal to zero. Thus dM(u)

from which

CI

TS

du

TU
1 =2 4u3 4u + 8u

The resonant frequency is determined first by taking the derivative of M(u) with respect to u &

[( 1 u2 )2 + ( 2 u)2] 3/2 ( 4 u3 4u + 8u 2) = 0 ( 1.10)

= 0

The root of Eq. (1.11) are up = 0 and up = 1-2

2

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
(1.8) (1.9) ( 1.11) (1.12) ( 1.13)
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Control Systems

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The solution Eq. (1.12) merely indicates that the slope of the M( ) versus

curve is zero at

= 0; it is not true maximum. The solution of eq. (1.13) gives the resonant frequency,
p

1-2

(1.14) 2
p 2

Since frequency is a real quantity, Eq. (1.14) is valid only for 1 simply that for all values of Mp = 1. 1 Mp = 2 12

or

0.707. This means

greater than 0.707, the solution of

= 0 becomes the valid one, &

It is important to note that Mp is a function of only, whereas 5

TS .IN
p is

Substituting Eq. (1.13) into Eq. (1.8) & simplifying, we get

(1.15)

a function of &

3 Mp

CI

TS
1 0 0.5 0.707 1.0 Damping ratio 1.5 1 Fig.1.4 Mp versus-damping ratio for a second order system, Mp = 2 12

TU
2 2.0 CITSTUDENTS.IN

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Control Systems 1.0

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0.8 up =
p

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.5 0.707 1.0 Damping ratio

Fig 1.5. Normalized resonant frequency- versus-damping ratio for a second order system, Up = 12

Fig.1.4 & 1.5 illustrate the relationship between Mp & , & u = respectively. Bandwidth :

DE N
. 1 = = 2.

Bandwidth BW of a system is a frequency at which M( ) drops to 70.7% of its zero frequency level or 3 dB down from the zero frequency gain. Equating the Eq.

TS

M(u) =

TU
=

[( 1 u2)2 + ( 2 u)2]

CI

[( 1 u2)2 + ( 2 u)2]

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
p/ n

& ,

= 0.707

0.707

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Control Systems Squaring both sides ( 1 u2)2 + 4 2u2 = 2 1 + u4 2u2 + 4 2u2 Let u2 = x 1 + x2 2x + 4 2 x x2 2x + 4 x x(2- 4 b = - ( 2 - 4 2 ) , c = -1 -b x= b2 4ac
2 2

10ES43

= 2

= 2

x
2

x2 x ( 2 - 4 2 ) 1 = 0 a = 1,

(2 4 2 ) =

TU
(2 4 2 ) =

TS
=

(2 4 2 )

CI

2 (1 2 2 ) =

DE N
2a (2 4 2 )2 + 4 2 (4 + 16
4

2 16
4

16

2 4 + 16
4

2 2 (1 2 2 ) 2 2 + 4 = 2 CITSTUDENTS.IN
4

TS .IN
= 1 =1 16
2

+4

+8

16

+4

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Control Systems 2 (1 2 2 ) 2 2 + 4 = 2 2 [(1 2 2 ) = 2 [(1 2 2 ) u2 = x = /

n 4 4

10ES43 4
2

2+4

4 2]

=u=
n[

BW =

( 1 2 2) + 4

For the second order system under consideration, we easily establish some simple relationship between the time domain response & the frequency-domain response of the system.

1. The maximum over shoot of the unit step response in the time domain depends upon only.

2. The response peak of the closed - loop frequency response Mp depends upon

DE N
n.

3. The rise time increases with , & the bandwidth decreases with the increase of fixed
n,

TS .IN
(2 + 4
4

(1 2 2 )

2+4

2 2

] 1/2

- 4 2 +2]1/2

only. , for a

therefore, bandwidth & rise time are inversely proportional to each other.

4. Bandwidth is directly proportional to

5. Higher bandwidth corresponds to larger Mp.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU

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Control Systems Recommended Questions: 1. Give the Comparison between Time Domain and Frequency Domain Analysis

10ES43

2. For the second order system under consideration, establish some simple relationship between the time domain response & the frequency-domain response of the system. 3. Define Peak response, resonant frequency, cutoff rate and bandwidth.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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Control Systems
UNIT- 8
Introduction to State variable analysis:

10ES43

1 Introduction
The classical control theory and methods (such as root locus) that we have been using in class to date are based on a simple input-output description of the plant, usually e1.rpressed as a transfer function. These methods do not use any knowledge of the interior structure of the plant, and limit us to single-input single-output (SISO) systems, and a'3 we have seen allows only limited control of the closed-loop behavior when feedback control i. u eel. Modern control theory solves many of the limitations by using a much ' richer" description of the plant dynamics. The so-called state-space description provide the dynamics as a set of coupled first-order differential equations in a set of internal variables known as state variables, together with a set of algebraic equations that combine the st ate variables into physical output variables.

1.1 Definition of System State

The concept of the state of a dynamic system refers to a minimum set of variables, known as state variables, that fully describe the system and its response to any given set of inputs [1-3]. In particular a state- determined system model has the characteristic that: A mathematical description of the system in terms of a minimum set of variables Xi( t ), i= 1 .. . , n, together with knowledge of those variables at an initial time to and t he system inputs for time t 2 t0 , are sufficient to predict the fut ure system state and outputs for all timet > t0 . This definition asserts that the dynamic behavior of a stat&determined system is completely characterized by the response of the set of n variables xi( t ) where the number n is defined to be the order of the system. The system shown in Fig. 1 has two inputs Ut(t) and u2(t ) and fom output variables y1(t), ... y4 (t ). If the system is stat&determined, knowledge of its state variables (x 1(t0) x 2 (t0) , . .. ,xn( t 0)) at some ini tial time t0 , and the inputs u 1(t) and u2 (t) for t 2 t0 is sufficient to determine all future behavior of the system. The state variables are an internal description of the system which completely characterize the system state at any time t, and from which any output variables Yi( t ) may be computed. Large classes of engineering, biological, social and economic systems may be represented by tate-determined system models. System models constructed with the pure and ideal (linear) one-port elements (such as rna , spring and damper elements) are state-determined

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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Control Systems
Input vector u Output vector y - y1(t)

10ES43

ult)
,
u (t)

System ---- ) descibed by state variables

t ,

{x1 ,x2 ' ... Xn }

t>

>

y (t)

Figure 1: System inputs and outputs. system models. For such systems the number of state variables, n, is equal to the number of independent energy storage elements in the system. The values of the state variables at any time t specify the energy of each energy storage element within the system and therefore the total system energy, and t he time derivatives of the state variables determine the rate of change of the system energy. Fmthermore, the values of the system state variables at any time t provide sufficient information to determine the values of all other variables in the system at that time. There is no unique set of state variables that describe any given system; many different sets of variables may be selected to yield a. complete system description. However, for a given system the order n is unique, and is independent of the particular set of state variables chosen. State variable descriptions of systems may be formulated in terms of physical and measurable variables, or in terms of variables that are not directly measurable. It is possible to mathematically transform one set of state variables to another the important point is that any set of state variables must provide a complete description of the system. In tllis note we concentrate on a partic ular set of state variables that are based on energy storage variables in physical systems.

CI

A standard form for the state equations is used throughout system dynamics. In the standard form the mathematical description of the system is expressed as a set of n coupled first-order ordinary differential equations, lmown as the state equations, in wllich the time derivative of each state variable is eAr . pressed in terms of t he state variables x 1(t), ... , xn( t ) and t he system inputs u1(t), ... , ur( t). In the general case the form of the n state equations is:
X1
X2

TS

1.2

The State Equations

TU

DE N
it (x, u, t)
h (x, u, t)
Xn

TS .IN

(1)
fn( x ,u t )

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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Control Systems

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x = f (x, u, t ) .

TS .IN
+ +
buui b21ui

where Xi = dxijdt and each of the functions fi (x, u , t ) , (i = 1, ... , n) may be a general nonlinear , time varying function of the state variables, the sy. tern inputs, and time. i It is common to express the state equations in a vector form, in \Vhich the . et of n state variables is written as a state vector x( t ) = [x 1(t), x2(t), ... , xn(t)f, and the set of r inpu ts is written as an input vector u (t) = [u 1(t) , u2 (t) . . . ,ur(t)f. Each state variable is a time varying component of the column vector x(t). This form of the state equations explicitly represents the basic elements contained in the definition of a state determined system. Given a set of initial conditions (the values of the Xi at some time to) and the inputs for t 2: to , the state equations explicitly specify the derivatives of all state variables. The value of each state variable at some time 6.t later may then be found by direct integration. The system state at any instant may be interpreted as a point in an n-dimensional state space, and the dynanlic state response x(t) can be interpreted as a path or tra jectory traced out in the state space. In vector not ation the set of n equations in Eqs. (1) may be written:

(2)

DE N
+ + + +
ainXn a2nXn

where f (x, u, t ) is a vector function with n components fi (x, u , t). In this note we restrict attention primarily to a description of systems that are linear and time-invariant (LTI), that is systems described by linear differential equations with constant coefficients. For an LTI system of order n, and with r inputs, Eqs. (1) become a set of n coupled first-order linear differential equations with constant coefficients:
Xi x2 auxl a2ixi

TU

+ ai2 X2 + a22x2

+ + +
. ..

+ + +

birUr b2rUr

(3)

Xn

ani Xi

an2X2

...

annXn

bniUi

bnrU r

CI

TS

where the coefficients ai j and bij are constants that describe the system. This set of n equations defines the derivatives of the state variables to be a weighted sum of the state variables and the system i nputs. Equations (8) may be written compact ly in a matrix form:
Xi au a2i a12 al n a2n X1 bn b1r b2r

d dt

x2
Xn

a22
an2

x2
Xn

b2i
bnl

anl

. ..

ann

bnr

[:l

(4)

which may be summarized as: x=Ax+Bu

1In

(5)

this note we use bold-faced type to denote vector quantities. Upper case letters are used to denote general matrices while lower case letters denote column vectors. See Appendi.-...: A for an introduction to matrix notation and operat ions.

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where the state vector x is a column vector of length n, the input vector u is a column vector of length r, A is an n x n square matrix of the constant coefficients aii, and B is an n x r matrix of the coefficients bij that weight the inputs.

1.3

Output Equations

TS .IN
+ +
d nul d 21U 1

A system output is defined to be any system variable of interest. A description of a physical system in terms of a set of state variables does not necessarily include all of the variables of direct engineering interest. An important property of the linear state equation description is that all system variables may be represented by a linear combination of the state variables xi and the system inputs ui . An arbitrar y output variable in a system of order n with r inputs may be written:

(6)

\vhere the ci and di are constants. If a total of m system variables are defined as outputs, the m such equations may be written as:

Y2

C21X1

C22X2

DE N
C2nXn

Y1

Cn Xl

+ + +
en

c12X2

+ +

+ +

ClnXn

+ +

+ +

d1rU r d 2rUr

(7)

Ym

Cm1X1

CmzX2

. ..

CmnXn

d m1U1

. ..

d m,U r

or in matrix form:
Y1 Y2 c12 c22

TU
C1n C2n c21

xi

dn

d1r dzr

Xz

d 21

The output equations, Eqs. (8), are commonly written in the compact form:
y = Cx+ Du

TS

Ym

Cml

Cm2

. ..

Cmn

Xn

dml

d mr

[ J:l

(8)

(9)

where y is a column vector of the output variables Yi( t ), Cis an m x n matrix of the constant coefficients Cij that weight the state variables, and D is an m x r matrix of the constant coefficients dij that weight the system inputs. For many physical systems the matrix D is the null matrix, and the output equation reduces to a simple weighted combination of the state variables: (10) y = Cx.

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CI

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1.4

State Equation Based Modeling Procedure

The complete system model for a linear time-invariant system consists of (i) a set of n state equations, defined in terms of the matrices A and B, and (ii) a set of output equations that relate any output variables of interest to t he state variables and i nputs, and expres eel in terms of the C and D matrices. The ta.<>k of modeling the system is to derive the elements of the matrices, and to write the system model in the form:
X

Ax+Bu Cx+ Du.

(11) (12)

The matrices A and B are properties of the system and are determined by the system structure and elements. The output equation matrices C and D are determined by the particular choice of outpu t variables. The overall modeling procedure developed in this chapter is based on the following steps: 1. Determination of the system order n and selection of a set of state variables from the linear graph system representation. 2. Generation of a set of tate equations and the system A and B matrices using a well defined methodology. This step is also based on the linear graph system description.

3. Determination of a suitable set of out put equations and derivation of the appropriate C and D matrices.

Block Diagram Representation of Linear Systems Described by State Equations

The matrix-based state equations express the derivatives of the state-variables eA.rplicitly in term. of the states themselves and the inputs. In tllis form the state vector is expressed as the direct result of a vector integration. The block diagram representation is shown in Fig. 2. Thls general block diagram shows the matrix operations from input to output in terms of the A, B, C, D matrices, but does not show the path of individual variables. In state-determined systems, the state variables may always be taken as the out puts of integrator blocks. A system of order n has n integrators in its block diagram. The derivatives of the state variables are the inputs to the integrator blocks and each state equation eA.rpresses a derivative as a sum of weighted state variables and inputs. A detailed block diagran1 representing a system of order n may be constructed directly from the state and output equations as follows: Step 1: Draw n integrator (S-1) blocks, and assign a state variable to t he output of each block.

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DE N

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u(t)

Y(t)

Step 2: At the inpu t to each block (which represents the derivative of its state variable) draw a summing element. St ep 3: Use the state equations to connect the state variables and inputs to the summing elements through scaling operator block. .

Exam ple 1

TU
y(t)

Draw a block diagram for the general second-order, single-input single-output system:

DE N

St ep 4: Expand the output equations and sum the state variables and inputs through a set of scaling operators to form the components of the output.

The transfer function and the classical input-output differential equation for any system variable may be found directly from a state space representation through the Laplace transform. The following exam ple illustrates the general method for a first-order system.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

Sol ut ion: The block diagram shown in Fig. 3 was drawn using the four steps described above.

Transformation From State-Space Equations to Classical Form

TS

TS .IN
(i)

Figure 2: Vector block diagram for a linear system described by state-space system dynamics.

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11

r-+
y(t)
x2

u(t)

G-/ +

22

Example 2

TU
dx dt y( t)

Find the t ransfer function and a single first-order differential equation relating the output y(t) to the input u(t) for a system described by the fiTst-order linear state and output equations:

DE N
a x( t) + bu( t ) cx(t)

Figure 3: Block diagram for a state-equa tion based second-order system.

Sol ut ion: The Laplace transform of the state equation is

TS

+ du( t )

CI

sX(s) = aX (s)

+ bU(s) ,

which may be rewritten with the state variable X(s) on the left-hand sid e:

(s - a) X(s)) = bU (s).
Then dividing by (s -a ), solve for the state variable:

X(s) = sa U(s),
7

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

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and substit ute into the Laplace transfor m of the outpu t equat ion Y (s) = eX (s) + dU (s): Y (s) U(s) [+d] s -a ds + ( be - ad ) U(s) (s-a) The transfer funct ion is: H (s)

(vi)

= Y(s) = d s + ( be - ad )
U(s) (s - a)

(vii)

The differential equation is found directly: (s -a ) Y(s)

= ( d s +(be - ad)) U(s) ,

and rewriting as a differential equation:

dy du dt - ay = ddt + ( be - ad) u( t).

Classical representations of higher-order systems may be derived in an analogous set of step by using the Laplace transform and matrix algebra. A et of linear tate and out put equations written in standard for m

DE N
y

TS .IN
+ BU(s) + DU (s)
-aln -a2n

(viii)

(ix)

Ax+Bu Cx+ Du

(13) (14)

may be rewritten in the Laplace domain. The sy tem equations are then s X (s ) Y (s) AX (s)

TU

= CX (s)

(15)

and the. tate equations may be rewritten: sx (s)- Ax(s) = [sl - A] x(s) = Bu(s).

TS

(16)

where the term sl creates ann x n matrix wi th s on the lead ing diagonal and zeros el ewhere. (This step is necessary because matrix addition and subtraction is only defined for matrices of the same dimension.) The matrix [sl- A] appears frequently throughout li near system theory; it is a square n x n matrix with elements directly related to the A matrix:

CI

(s - a u )
[sl - A]=

-a12 -a21 (s - a22 )

-an2

(17)

-anl

(s- ann)

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The state equations written in the form of Eq. (16), are a set of n simultaneous opera tional expressions. The common methods of solving linear algebraic equations, for examplE Gaussian elimination, Cramer s rule, the matrix inverse, elimination and substitution, maj be directly applied to linear operational equations such as Eq. (16). For low-order single-input single-output systems the transformation to a classical formu lation may be performed in the following steps:
1. Take the Laplace transform of the state equations.

3. Treat the state equations a. a set of simultaneous algebraic equations and solve fo1 those state variables required to generate the output variable.
4. Substitute for the state variables in the output equation.

5. Write the output equation in operat ional form and identif y the transfer f unction.

This met hod is illustrated in the following two examples.

Use the Laplace transform method to derive a single differential equation for the capacitor voltage Vc in the series R-L-C electric circuit shown in Fig. 4

TS
R

Solution: The linear graph method of state equation generation selects the

TU
c

Example 3

DE N
R

6. Use the transfer function to write a single differential equation between the outpu1 variable and the system i nput.

CI

'Is (t)

(a) Physical system

(b) Linear graph

Figme 4: A series RLC circuit.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
c
R . .
C

2. Reorganize each state equation so that all terms in the . tate variables are on thE left-hand side.

(c) Normal tree

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capacitor voltage vc(t) and the inductor cmrent iL( t ) as state variables, and generates the following pair of state equations:
Vc

tL

l[
=

0 1/C -1/ -R j

l[ l [
iL
Vc

0 + 1/

]lr

V in

(i)

The required output equation is: (ii)

sVc(s) sh(s)

OVc(s) + 1/Ch(s) + OVs(s) -1/LVc( s) - R/ Lh(s) + 1/LVs(s)

Step 2: Reorganize the state equations:

Step 3: In this case we have two simultaneous operational equations in the state variables vc and i. The output equation requires only vc. If Eq. (iv ) is multiplied by [s + R/ L], and Eq. (v) is multiplied by 1/C, and the equations added , h(s) is eliminated:

TU

[s ( s + R/ L )

DE N
+ 1/LC ] Vc(s)
=

sVc(s) - 1/Ch (s) 1/ LVc(s) + [s + R/ L] h(s)

Step 4: The out put equation is y = Vc . Operate on both sides of Eq. (vi) by [s2 + ( R/ L )s + 1/LC r 1 and write in quotient form:

TS

1/ LC Vc(s) = s2 + ( R/ L )s + 1/ LC Vs(s)

CI

Step 5: The transfer f unction H (s) = Vc(s)/Vs(s) is:

H (s) _

1 / LC - s + ( R/ L )s + 1 / LC
2

Step 6: The d ifferential equation relating vc to Vs is:

d 2vc dt 2

+ L dt + LCvc

Rdvc

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
OVs(s) 1 / LVs(s)

Step 1: In Laplace transform form the state equations are:

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

1/LCVs(s)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

1
=

LCVs(t )

(:ix)

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Cramer's Rule, for the solu tion of a set of linear algebraic equations, is a useful method to a pply to the solution of t hese equations. I n solving for the variable Xi in a set of n linear algebraic equations, such as Ax = b the rule states:
X =

det [A(i)] det [ A]

(18)

where A(i) is anot her n x n mat rix formed by replacing the it h column of A with the vector b. If [sl- A] X(s) = BU(s) (19)

X(s) =

det [[sl - A](i)J det [sl - A] U(s)

TS .IN

t hen the relationship between the ith state variable and the input is

(20)

where (sl - A)(i) is defined to be the matrix formed by replacing the ith column of (sl - A) with the column vector B. The differential eq uation is det [sl - A] x; = det [(sl - A )(i)J uk(t).

(21)

Example 4

Use Cramer's Rule to solve for vL(t) in t he electrical system of Exan1ple 3.

TU

Solu tion: From Example 3 the state equat ions are:

DE N

(i)

TS

and t he output eq uation is:

(ii)

CI

In the Laplace domain the state equations are:

s -1/C ] [ Vc(s) ] _ [ 0 ] [ l / L s + R/ L h(s) - l / L Vin(s).

(iii)

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The voltage Vc(s) is given by:

Vc(s)

-1/C ] det [(si - A)( l)] - det [ (s+R/ L ) V: (s) det [(sl- A)] Vi,.(s)[ s -1/C ] '" det 1/ L (s + R/ L )
1/LC
= s2

+ ( R/ L )s + (1/LC) V;,.( s ).

(iv)

The current h(t ) is: det[(sl-A)(2) ] det [(sl - A )] Vin(s) = det

=

h(s)

det [

sj L s2 + ( R / L )s + (1/LC) Vin(s).

The output eq uation may be written directly from the Laplace transform of Eq. (ii):

VL(s)

giving t he differential equation

cPvL

TU
X(s)

-1/ LC -(R/ L )s ] [s 2 + (R/ L )s + ( 1/ LC) + s2 +(R/ L)s + ( 1/ LC ) + 1 V.(s) 2 = -1/ LC - ( R/ L)s + (s + ( R/ L )s + ( 1/ LC))V.(s) 2 s +(R/ L )s + (1/ LC) s sz = s 2 + ( R/ L )s + ( 1/ LC)Vs(s), (vi)

R dvL 1 dt2 + L dt + LCvL(t)

DE N
cPV.
=

= -Vc(s) - Rh(s) + V.(s)

For a single-input single-output (SISO) system the transfer f unction may be fotmd directly by evaluating the inverse matrix

CI

TS

(sl - A)-1 BU(s).

Using the definition of the mat rix inverse: [sl _ Ar1 = adj [sl - A] clet [sl - A] '

12

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
s -1/C ] Vin(s) 1/L (s +R/ L )
(v)

1f 1]

dt2

(vii)

(22)

(23)

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X ( s ) = adj [sl - A] BU (s). clet [sl - A] and substituting into the output equations gives: Y( s) C [sl - Ar BU (s) + DU ( s ) 1 = [c [sl- At B + D] U (s). C adj (sl - A) B + det [sl - A] D U(s ) det [sl - A] H (s)U (s )
1

(24

(25

Expanding the inverse in ter ms of the determinant and the adjoint matrix yields: Y (S)

so that the required differential equation may be found by e>..'-panding: det [sl - A] Y (s) = [C adj (sl - A) B

+ det [sl - A] D] U (s).

and taking the inverse Laplace transform of both sides.

Example 5

Use the matrix inverse method to find a differential equation relat ing vL( t ) to \i,.( t ) in the system described in Example 3. Solution: The state vector, written in the Laplace domain,
1

DE N
1 fL s

X (s) = [sl - Ar BU (s)

from the previous example is:

TU

[ i:] [

L 1

The determinant of [sl- A] is det [sl - A] =

TS

(s

+ ( R/ L )s + (1/LC)) ,

CI

and the adjoint of [sl - A] is aclj [ 1 f L s 1L] = [ s 11{L

From Example .5 and the previous example, the output equation v L(t) = -vc Ri L + \i,.( t ) specifies that C = [-1 - R] and D = [1]. The transfer function, Eq. (26) is: H( s) = C adj (sl - A) B + det }sl - A] D . (v) det [sl - A]

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
(i)
1[

(26

(27

1 L] n(s).

(ii)

(iii)

1 C].

(iv)

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Since

10ES43

C adj(sl - A ) B

_1 _R

] [ s + R/ L 1/ C ] [ 0 ] s 1/ L -1/L
(vi)

--s-L LC'
the transfer function is

H (s)

-(R/ L )s- 1/(LC) + (s2 + ( R / L )s + (1/ LC)) [ 1 ] (s2 + ( R / L )s + (1/ LC ))

s2

(82

+ ( R / L )S + (1/ LC) )'

(vii)

which is t he same result found by using Cramer 's rule in Example 4.

Transformation from Classical For m to State-Space Represent at ion

(ansn + an-lsn-l

TU

The block diagram provides a convenient method for deriving a set of state equations for a system t hat is specified in terms of a single input /out put differential equation. A set of n state variables can be id entified as the o utputs of integrators in t he diagram, and state equations can be written from the cond itions at the inputs to t he integrator blocks (the derivative of the state variables). There are many methods for doing this; we present here one convenient state equation formulation that is widely used in control system theory. Let the differential equation representing the system be of order n, and without loss of generality assume that t he order of the polynomial operators on both sides is the same:

+ + ao) Y (s) = (bnS + bn-lsn-l + + bo) U(s).

11

DE N
0

TS

We may multiply both sides of the equation by s-n to ensure that all differential operators have been eliminated:

(an+ an-1s-1 + + a1s-(n- 1) + a s-n) Y(s) =

(bn + bn-ls- + + b1s-(n - 1) + + bos-n) U(s) ,
1

CI

from which t he output may be specified in ter ms of a t ransfer function. If we define a dwnmy variable Z(s), and split Eq. (29) into two parts

Z (s)

Y(s)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

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(28)

(29)

(30) (31)

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u(f)

ill9.I

s e 0XN EJN1-1
+ -

+>Q

y(t)

aN

Figure 5: Block diagram of a system represented by a classical differential equation. Eq. (30) may be solved for U(s) ),

CI

TS

TU

The dummy variable Z(s ) is specified in ter ms of t he system in pu t u(t ) and a weighted sum of succe ive integrat ions of itself. Figure 5 shows t he overall st r ucture of tlus direct-form block diagram. A string of n cascaded integrator (1/ s) blocks, with Z( s) defined at t he in put to the first block, is used to generate t he feedback terms, Z(s) fs-', i = 1, ... n, in Eq. (33). Equation (31) serves to combine t he out puts from the integrators into t he output y (t). A set of state equations may be found f rom t he block diagram by assigning t he state variables Xi(t) to t he ou t puts of t hen integrators. Because of t he d irect cascade connection of t he i ntegrators, t he state eq uat ions take a very simple for m. By inspection: X1
X2

X3

an -1 ao a1 - - ,. + -x1- -x2 1 () ut . an an an a,

DE N

and rearranged to generate a feed back structure that can be used as t he basis for a block d iagram: 1 1 + + a1 1 + ao 1 ) Z(s) . Z(s) = U(s) (33) an an s an s"- 1 an s-n

(an-1

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
(32)

0< --<Y--

3
N

(34)

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In mat rix form these equations are

i;l i;2

0 0

1
0

0 0

0 0 0

xl x2 Xn-2 Xn-1 Xn

0 0

Xn-2 Xn-1 Xn

0 0 0 0 -ao f an -ad an

1
0 -an-2 / an

'U

1
-an-1/ an

0 0 1/ an

(t) .

Z(s)/ s(n+l-i) .

But z ( t ) = dxn/ dt , which is found from the nth state equation in Eq. (34). When substituted into Eq. (36) the out put equation is:

DE N TU
rFy c2y dy dt 3 + 7 dt 2 + 19 dt

Example 6

Draw a d irect form realization of a block diagram, and write the state equations in phase variable for m, for a system wi t h the differential equation

CI

Sol ution: The system order is 3, and using the struct ure shown in Fig. 5 t he block diagram is as shown in Fig. 6.

The state and out put equations are found directly from Eqs. (35) and (37): 0 1 -19
0
X!

TS

+ 13y = 13 dt + 26u

r -13
0

1r 1 r 1
1 -7
2 X3

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
(36)
bn + -u (t).

(35) The A matrix has a very distinctive form. Each row, except the bottom one, is filled of zeroes except for a one in the position just above the lead ing diagonal. Equation (35) is a common form of t he state equations, used in control system theory and known as the phase variable or companion for m. Tllis form leads to a set of state variables wllich may not correspond to any physical variables within t he system. The corresponding ou t put relationsllip is specified by Eq. (31) by noting t hat Xi(s) =

a,

(37)

du

(i)

u(t),

(ii)

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Figure 6: Block diagram of the transfer operator of a third-order system found by a direct realization.

y(t)

[ 26 13 0 ] [
X3

+ [OJ 'l.t (t) .

The Matrix Transfer Function

For a multiple-input mul tiple-output system Eq. 22 is writ ten in terms of the input vector U (s) 1 X (s ) = [si - Ar BU (s)

DE N
C [sl- Ar B {U(s)}
1

TU

generating a set of n simultaneous linear equations, where the matrix is B is n x r. Them component system output vector Y (s ) may be found by su bstit uting this solution for X (s) into t he output equation as in Eq. 25:

Y(s)

and expanding the inverse in terms of the determinant and the ad joint matrix

CI

TS

[c [si - Ar

B + D] {U (s)}

Y (s)

C aclj (sl- A ) B + det [sl- A] DU(s) det [sl - A]

(40)

H(s)U(s),

where H(s) is defined to be t he matrix tmnsfer function relati ng t he o utput vector Y (s) to the input vector U(s):

H (s)

= ( C adj (sl - A) B + d et [sl - A] D)

det [sl - A]

CITSTUDENTS.IN

TS .IN
(iii)
7'

component

(38)

+ D {U(s)}
(39)

(41)

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For a system with r inpu ts U1(s), . . . , Ur(s) and m out puts Yi (s), ... , Ym(s), H(s) is am x r matrix whose elements are individ ual scalar t ransfer functions relating a given component of t he output Y(s) to a component of the input U(s). Expansion of Eq. 41 generates a set of equations:

U1(s) U2 (s) [
where the ith component of the o utput vector Y(s) is:

(42)

u,.(s)
(43)

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU

DE N

The elemental transfer f u nction Hij(s) is the scalar transfer function between the ith out put com ponent and t he jth inpu t component. Eq uation 41 shows that all of the Hi j(s) transfer functions in H(s) have the same denominator factor det [sl - A], giving the important result that all i np ut-out pu t differential equations for a system have the same characteristic polynomial, or alternatively have the same coefficients on t he left-hand side. If the system has a single-input and a single-output, H(s) is a scalar, and the procedure generates the input /out put transfer operator directly.

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Control Systems Recommended Questions: 1.Define state equation & write the mathematical form of it.

10ES43

2. Define output variables & give the matrix form of it for n variables of the system. 3. Explain briefly the state equation based on modeling procedure. 4. Draw a block diagram for the general second-order, single-input single-output system:

5. Find the transfer function and a single first-order differential equation relating the output y(t) to the input u(t) for a system described by the first-order linear state and output equations:

Q.6 Use the Laplace transform method to derive a single differential equation for the capacitor voltage vC in the series R-L-C electric circuit shown in Fig below.

CITSTUDENTS.IN

CI

TS

TU

DE N

TS .IN

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