Chapter 5

Bearing Materials
Symbols
linear thermal expansion coefficient, m/mK specific heat, J/(kgK) bore diameter, mm moduius of elasticity, N/m^ thermal conductivity, W/mK mass, kg rotational speed, rev/min pressure, N/m^ Q At,n V 61 v p <7i quantity of heat, J temperature change, K surface velocity, m/s strain in axial direction Poisson's ratio density, kg/m^ stress in axial direction, N/m'

5.1 Introduction
Another factor that can affect the successful operation of tribological elements is the solid materials used. Bearing materials must have special characteristics if the bearings are to operate successfully. Some desirable characteristics that will be explored in this chapter are compatibility with rubbing counterface materials; embeddability for dirt particles and wear debris; conformability to enable the bearing to accommodate misalignment, geometrical errors, and deflection in the structure; thermal stability; corrosion resistance; and fatigue resistance.

5.2 Material Characteristics

The selection of the bearing material for a particular application depends on (1) the type of bearing (journal, thrust, ball, etc.), (2) the type of lubricant (grease, oil, water, gas, etc.), and (3) the environmental conditions (temperature, pressure, etc.). No single material has been developed that can satisfy all

123
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the requirements of a good bearing material. Therefore, the selection must be made on the basis of the characteristics considered of primary importance in the application. 1. Compa^M:%. Although a properly performing hydrodynamic bearing is one in which the shaft and the bearing are separated by a lubricant Rim, there are times during the operation when the shaft and the bearing come into contact. High spots on the shaft and the bearing rub, localized heating occurs, the high spots can weld, and the microscopic welds can fracture. This sequence of events results in scoring damage to both the shaft and bearing materials. The ability of these material combinations to resist welding and scoring is a measure of their compatibility. 2. Em&etMmMtti/. In the operation of bearings dirt or other foreign debris is carried into the bearing clearance by the lubricant and by the rotation of the shaft. If this dirt cannot be embedded in the bearing material, scoring damage results. The ability to embed or absorb this dirt determines the embeddability characteristic of the bearing material. 3. Con/ormaM!%. As the term implies, conformability is a measure of the ability of the bearing material to conform to misalignment between the shaft and the bearing or to other geometric inaccuracies produced in manufacturing the parts. Usually, bearing materials having a low modulus of elasticity (low E) are readily conformable. 4. Corrosion resM^ance. The bearing material should be resistant to attack by the lubricant or any of the oxidation products produced during lubricant degradation. For example, lubricating oils without oxidation inhibitors produce organic acids, which attack and corrode certain bearing materials. The selection of materials for use with water as the lubricant is of necessity limited to corrosion-resistant materials. 5. Fa^gMe resM^ance. High fatigue resistance is necessary in applications in which the load changes direction or in which the load intensity varies cyclically. Fatigue failures appear initially as cracks in the bearing surface. These cracks propagate throughout the bearing material, interconnecting with other cracks and resulting in loose pieces of bearing material. Fatigue strength is particularly important where cyclic loading is present. 6. DwnewszonaZ ana* ^/termaJ s%aMt%. The thermal characteristics of the bearing material are important with regard to both heat dissipation and thermal distortion. The thermal conductivity A*y of the bearing material should be high to ensure maximum dissipation of the frictional heat generated if hydrodynamic lubrication conditions cannot be maintained. The linear thermal expansion coefficient a should be acceptable within the overall design so that the effects of temperature variation are not detrimental. Values of ^ and a are given in Sec. 5.7. Even if a material has

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these desirable characteristics, additional constraints of acceptable cost and material availability need to be satisfied. The properties and characteristics of several bearing materials are shown in Table 5.1. Brinell hardness number, load-carrying capacity, and maximum operating temperature are given. Also in this table ratings of fatigue strength, antiseizure property, conformability, and embeddability are given based on an arbitrary scale, with 1 being the most desirable or best.

5.3 Metallics
Bearing materials for conformal surfaces fall into two major categories: 1. Afe^aH^cs.' babbitts, bronzes, aluminum alloys, porous metals, and metal overlays such as silver, babbitts, and indium 2. JVowne^aHzcs.' plastics, rubber, carbon-graphite, wood, ceramics, cemented carbides, metal oxides (e.g., aluminum oxide), and glass The principal metallic materials will now be covered in more detail.

5.3.1

Tin- and Lead-Base Alloys

The babbitts are among the most widely used materials for hydrodynamicaHy lubricated bearings. Babbitts are either tin or lead-base alloys having excellent embeddability and conformability characteristics. They are unsurpassed in compatibility and thus prevent shaft scoring. Tin- and lead-base babbitts have relatively low load-carrying capacity. This capacity is increased by metallurgically bonding these alloys to stronger backing materials such as steel, cast iron, or bronze. Babbitt linings are either still cast or centrifugally cast onto the backing material. Fatigue strength is increased by decreasing the thickness of the babbitt lining. Dowson (1998) points out that at the beginning of the century babbitt linings were rarely less than 3 mm thick and not infrequently at least 6.4 mm thick. The need to provide adequate compressive and fatigue strength gradually brought the thickness of the lining down to 500 ^m, at the expense of other desirable features such as embeddability and conformability. The optimum thickness of the bearing layer varies with the application but is generally between 0.02 and 0.12 mm. Tables 5.2 and 5.3 show the composition and physical properties of some of the tin- and lead-base alloys presently used. Table 5.2 shows the significant effect of temperature in decreasing the strength properties of these alloys. The alloys in more general use are shown in Table 5.3. The effect of various percentages of the alloying elements on the mechanical and physical properties of tin- and lead-base alloys can be significant. Increasing the copper or the antimony increases the hardness and the tensile strength and decreases the ductility. However, increases beyond the percentages shown in Table 5.3 can result in decreased fatigue strength.

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Tabte 5.1: Properties and characteristics of various conforma! bearing metals [From Clauser (1948)]
Bearing metal Load-carrying capacity Brinell hardness number psi MPa Room 149 C ( 3 0 0 F) temperature 800-1500 800-1200 1200-1500 Maximum operating temperature F C 300 149 300 149 500 260 500 260 177 350 260+ 500+ 232-260 450-500 260+ 500+ 107-149 225-300 500+ 260+ 177 350 Fatigue strength" Antiseizure property" Conformability
and

embeddability "

20-30 5.5-10.4 6-12 Tin-base babbitt 5.5-8.3 6-12 15-20 Lead-base babbitt 11-17 22-26 8.3-10.4 Alkali-hardened lead 10.4-13.8 15 30-40 Cadmium base 10.4-17.2 20-23 20-30 Copper lead > 2 7 . 6 60-70 60-80 Tin bronze 20.7-31.1 40-60 40-70 Lead bronze >27.6 65-100 75-100 Phosphor bronze >27.6 40-45 45-50 Aluminum alloy >27.6 25 25 Silver (overplated) 13.8 7 10 Copper-nickel matrix >27.6 b b Trimetal and plated >27.6 b b Grid type Thin babbitt overlay, 0.051-0.178 mm b 13.8 b ( 0 . 0 0 2 0 . 0 0 7 in. Conventional babbitt overlays, 0.51 mm b 10.4 b ( 0 . 0 0 2 0 in.) "This is an arbitrary scale with 1 being the highest rating. ^Approximately the same as the babbitts.

1500-2000
1500-2500

3 3 3 3

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

> 4000
3000-4500 > 4000

> 4000 > 4000

2000

> 4000 > 4000 2000

107-149 107-149
149
149

225-300 225-300
300

2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2

2
3 3 3

2
3 3 3 3 3

2 2 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2

1500

300

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Table 5.2: Composition and physical properties of white mctat bearing alloys" [From ASTM B23-83. Reprinted by permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials.]
1 Antimony 6 8 F ) 1 100C (212F) Tin 1 Antimony Lead 1 Copper 20C ( Lead Copper Arsenic Specific gravity^ Yield point** Composition of alloys tested, Specified nominal composition of alloys, pst MPa percent pst MPa percent 4.56 None 4.5 91.0 1 2650 18.3 4400 30.3 4.52 90.9 7.34 4.5 3.1 0.03 7.5 89.0 3000 20.6 6100 42.0 7.4 89.2 7.39 3.5 2 8.0 3150 21.7 6600 45.5 8.3 .03 83.4 7.46 84.0 3 8.2 8 . 0 75.0 15.0 10.0 1600 11.0 3550 24.5 .11 14.5 10.0 9.73 .45 Remainder 7 15.0 5.0 1750 12.1 3400 23.4 .14 79.4 14.9 5.2 10.04 .45 Remainder 8 16.0 1.0 10.05 1.0 Remainder 15 Melting 20C (68F) 20C ( 6 8 F ) Proper Temperature 100 C 20C 100C (212F) 100C (212F) AHoy point Ultimate strength in compression^ Johnson's apparent elastic number** pouring of complete (68 F) (212F) temperature liquefaction Brinell harness"? limit^ C pst MPa F c F c F pst MPa pst MPa PS] MPa pst MPa 700 371 433 223 17.0 8 . 0 6950 47.9 12,850 1050 7.2 2450 16.9 825 441 88.6 1 466 241 8700 60.0 7.6 3350 23.1 795 424 669 354 24.5 12.0 14,900 1100 2 102.7 240 14.5 9900 68.3 17,600 5350 36.9 915 491 792 422 464 27.0 121.3 1300 9.0 3 620 268 464 240 10.5 6150 15,650 2500 17.2 338 514 22.5 42.4 107.9 1350 9.3 7 459 237 9.5 6150 15,600 8.3 2650 18.3 645 341 522 272 20.0 42.4 107.6 1200 8 479 248 350 538 281 21.0 13.0 662 15 "Compression test specimens were cylinders 1.5 in. (38 mm) in length and 0.5 in. (13 mm) in diameter, machined from chill castings 2 in. (51 mm) in length and 0.75 in (19 mm) in diameter. The Brinell tests were made on the bottom of parallel machined specimens cast in a mold 2 in. (51 mm) in diameter and 0.0625 in. (16 mm) deep at room temperature **Data not available on alloys 11 and 13. ^The specific gravity multiplied by 0.0361 equals the mass density in pounds per cubic inch. ^The values for yield point were taken from stress-strain curves at a deformation of 0.125 percent of gage length. ^Johnson's apparent elastic limit is taken as the unit stress at the point where the slope of the tangent to the curve is two-thirds its slope at the origin. -f The ultimate strength values were taken as the unit load necessary to produce a deformation of 25 percent of the specimen length. ^These values are the average BrineU number of three impressions on each alloy, using a 10-mm (0.39-in) ball and a 500-kg (1102.3 Ib) load applied for 30 s. AHoy number** Tin

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p.
ID

o S
o ^

3 ^ '

S ^d
3 *D to

S tng

.
o,.^

33'S

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5.3.2

Copper-Lead Alloys

Two alloys, one consisting of 60% copper and 40% lead and the other of 70% copper and 30% lead, or slight variations, are used as lining materials on steelbacked bearings. These alloys are either strip cast or sintered onto the backing strip, thus providing a bearing with a higher load-carrying capacity than one lined with the babbitt alloys. They also have higher fatigue resistance and can operate at higher temperatures, but they have poor antiseizure properties. They are used in automotive and aircraft internal combustion engines and in diesel engines. Their high lead content provides a good bearing surface but makes them susceptible to corrosion. Their corrosion resistance and antiseizure properties are improved when they are used as trimetal bearings with a lead-tin or lead-indium overlay electrodeposited onto the copper-iead surface.

5.3.3

Bronzes

Several bronze alloys, including lead, tin, and aluminum bronzes, are used extensively as bearing materials. Some are described in Table 5 . 4 . Because of their good structural properties, they can be used as cast bearings without a steel backing. Bearings can also be machined from standard bar stock. Lead bronzes, which contain up to 25% lead, provide higher load-carrying capacity and fatigue resistance and a higher temperature capability than the babbitt alloys. Tin contents up to about 10% are used to improve the strength properties. Higher-lead bronze ( 7 0 % copper, 5% tin, and 25% lead) can be used with soft shafts, but harder shafts ( 3 0 0 BHN) are recommended with the harder lower-lead bronzes, particularly under conditions of sparse lubrication. Lead bronze bearings are used in pumps, diesel engines, railroad cars, home appliances, and many other applications. Tin bronzes, which contain 9 to 20% tin and small quantities of lead (usually < 1%), are harder than lead bronzes and are therefore used in heavier-duty applications.

5.4 Nonmetallics
Although nonmetaMic materials such as rubber and graphite have found increasing application, polymeric and plastic materials have had the greatest recent impact in triboelements. These materials fall into two categories: thermosetting and thermoplastic materials. In thermosetting materials the fabrics of nonoriented fibers are generally set in phenolic, or occasionally cresyHc, resins. Of the thermoplastic materials nylon has been recognized as a valuable bearing material as has the remarkable low-friction polymer polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). The great merit of these materials is that they can operate effectively without lubricants, although their mechanical properties generally limit their application to lightly loaded conditions and often to low speeds and conforming surfaces.

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Table 5 . 4 : Typical bronze and copper alloy bearing materials [From Booser ( 1 9 6 6 ) ] Designation Material

Cu

Sn Pb Zn Fe Nominal composition, percent

Al

Brinell hardness number BNH

Tensile strength MPa ksi

SAE 480 AMS 4840

SAE 67 SAE 40 SAE 660 SAE 64 SAE 62 SAE 620 SAE 63

ASTM B14852-9c

Copper lead High-lead tin bronze Semiplastic bronze Leaded red brass Bronze Phosphor bronze Gunmetal Navy G Leaded gunmetal Aluminum bronze

65 70 78 85 83 80 88 88 88 85

5 6 5 7 10 10 8 10

35 25 16 5 7 10 2

11

5 3 2 4

25 48 55 60 60 63 65 68 70 195

55.2 172.5 207.0

241.5 241.5 241.5 310.5

276.0 276.0

621.0

8 25 30 35 35 35 45 40 45 90

Maximum operating temperature F C 350 177 204+ 400+ 450 232

Maximum load ksi MPa

13.8
20.7+ 20.7+

232
232+ 232+ 260+

450
450+ 450+ 500+

24.2 27.6 27.6 27.6

27.6+ 27.6+

260 260
260+

500 500
500+

31.1+

3+ 3+ 3.5 4 4 4 4+ 4+ 4.5+

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Table 5.5: Limits of application of nonmetallic bearing materials. [Remsed /rom O'Connor e^ a/.
Material Load-carrying capacity psi MPa 600 4.1 6000 41.4 1000 6.9 500 3.4 2500 17.2 Maximum temperature F C 750 399 200 93 200 93 500 260 Maximum speed m/s ft/min

PV limit" 15 xlO^ 15xlQ3 3xlQ3 lx!Q3 10xlQ3 25xlQ3 3xlQ3 3xlQ3 15xlQ3 15x103

Carbon graphite Phenotics Nylon PTFE (Tenon) 260 Reinforced PTFE 414.0 60,000 260 PTFE fabric 1000 6.9 104 Polycarbonate (Lexan) 6.9 Acetal resin (Delrin) 82 1000 66 50 0.34 Rubber 66 2000 13.8 Wood = load (psi); V = surface speed (ft/min).

500 500 220 180 150 150

12.7 12.7 5.1 0.51 5.1 0.25 5.1 5.1 7.6 10.2

2500 2500 1000 100 1000 50 1000 1000 1500 2000

The limits of applying nonmetaHic materials are shown in Table 5.5. The specific limits shown in this table are load-carrying capacity, maximum temperature, maximum speed, and PV limit, where J** is the pressure expressed in pounds force per square inch and V is the surface speed expressed in feet per minute.

5.4.1

Carbon Graphites

In addition to their excellent self-lubricating properties, carbon graphites have several advantages over conventional materials and lubricants. They can withstand temperatures of approximately 370C in an oxidizing atmosphere such as air and can be used in inert atmospheres to 700 C or at cryogenic temperatures. They can be used in equipment in which lubricant contamination must be prevented, such as textile machinery and food-handling machinery. Carbon graphites are highly resistant to chemical attack and are used in applications where the chemicals attack conventional lubricants. They can be used with low-viscosity lubricants, such as water, gasoline, or air. Carbon graphites are used for pump shaft bearings, impeller wear rings in centrifugal pumps, and journal and thrust bearings in covered motor pumps and for many other applications. Because of its low expansion coefficient of 2.7 x 10*6 mm/mm-C, a carbon graphite liner is shrunk-fit into a steel sleeve. The steel backing provides mechanical support, improves heat transfer, and helps to maintain shaft clearance. The mating shaft should be made of harder metals. Chromium plates, hardened tool steels, or even some ceramics are used. A PV value of 15,000 is used when lubricant is present. Depending on the material grade and the application, friction coefficients ranging from 0.04 to 0.25 are obtainable. Absorbed water vapor enhances Him formation and reduces the friction and wear of carbon graphite. With no water vapor present

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Figure 5.1: Phenolic laminate bearings, (a) Tubular bearing; (b) circumferentially laminated bearing; (c) axially laminated bearing; (d) stave bearing; (e) molded bearing.
(e)

(low humidity), wear increases. In general, low speeds and light loads should he used in nonlubricated applications.

5.4.2

Phenolics

Among several types of plastic bearings presently in use are the phenolics. These are in the form of laminated phenolics, made by treating sheets of either paper or fabric with phenolic resin, stacking the desired number of sheets, and curing with heat and pressure to bond them together and set the resin. Other filling materials, such as graphite and molybdenum disulfide, are added in powdered form to improve lubrication qualities and strength. Figure 5.1 shows the various orientations of the phenolic laminates used in bearings. Tubular bearings (Fig. 5.la) are used where complete bushings are required. Bearings in which the load is taken by the edges of the laminations (Fig. 5.1b and c) are used in light-duty service. Stave bearings (Fig. 5.Id) are used mainly for stern-tube and rudder-stock bearings on ships and for guide bearings on vertical waterwheel turbines. Molded bearings (Fig. 5.1e) are used for roll-neck bearings in steel mills or for ball-mill bearings. Table 5.6 gives some typical applications of phenolic bearings. Laminated phenolics operate welt with steel or bronze journals when lubricated with oil, water, or other liquids. They have good resistance to seizure. One main disadvantage of these materials is their low thermal conductivity (0.35 W/m-C, about 1/150 that of steel), which prevents them from dissipating frictional heat readily and can result in their failure by charring. In large roll-neck bearings the heat is removed by providing a large water Row through the bearing. Laminated phenolics have good resistance to chemical attack and can be used with water, oil, diluted acid, and alkali solutions. They have good conformability, having an elastic modulus of 3.45 to 6.90 GPa, in comparison with

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Table 5.6: Typical applications of laminated phenolic bearings [From A*aM/wtan

Bearing application Roll neck Type"
(e)

Size range tn. mm 3-30 76-762

Fabric weight oz/yd g/m 466-1552 15-50

Resin 40-60

Lubricant Water or emulsion

Diametral clearance** m. mm 0-13 0-0.5

Ship, stern tube

(d)

76-660

3-26

248

60

Water

0.001/mm diameter over 127 mm 0.001/mm diameter over 127 mm

Rudder, pintle Small craft, stern tube Centrifugal pump Water wheel, turbine, guide bearing Ball mitl

( a ) . (d)
(c)

76-660

3-26

93-248
248

3-8

55-60

Grease or water Water Pumped liquid Water

13-76
13-102

.5-3 .5-4 4-24

8
3-8

60 60

.127 .127 .127 .381-.762

Principal reasons for using laminated phenolic bearing material Longer life, power savings due to lower friction, lower-cost water lubrication, greater cleanliness of operation, better holding of gage due to less water. 0.001/in. Longer life, greater case of handling and installing, higher diameter over 5 in. load-carrying capacity particularly with impact loads, lower 0.001/in. friction, greater corrosion and dediameter cay resistance, lower journal wear, over 5 in. greater local availability .005 .005 Longer life, better lubrication with pumped liquid (water, gasoline, chemical solutions, etc.) Longer life, lower friction, no decay, less journal wear Longer life, higher load-carrying capacity, lower friction, lower lubricant cost Lighter weight, satisfactory dimensional stability and loadcarrying capacity Longer life, lower noise and vibration transmission

M-(b),(c)

93-248
248

(d)

102-610

60

.005

( a ) , ( e )

381-1219

15-49

202-466

6.5-15

55-60

Water or emulsion of water and grease

.015-0.30

Aircraft, landing gear Railway, bolster cup

( ^ )

51-381

2-12

93

60

Oil
Grease

Molded cone

202

6.5

53

0.001/mm diameter over 127 mm

0.001/in. diameter over 5 in.

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about 3.45 GPa for babbitts. Laminated phenolics also have a high degree of embeddability. This property is advantageous in ship stern-tube bearings, which are lubricated by water that contains sand and other sediment. Because of their good resilience, they are highly resistant to damage by fatigue and shock loading. They do not hammer out or extrude under shock loading as do some babbitt alloys. Because laminated phenolics are made up of organic fibers that absorb certain liquids and expand, small changes in dimensions can occur. Water or lubricants containing water have a greater measurable effect on the dimensional stability of phenolics than do oils. Expansion is greater perpendicular to the laminations (2 to 3%) than parallel (0 to 0.3 percent).

5.4.3

Nylon

Nylon is one of the classes of thermoplastic materials, as differentiated from the thermosetting plastics, the phenolics. Nylon bearings can be molded, or nylon powders can be sintered in a manner similar to the manufacture of porous metals. Nylon is not affected by petroleum oils and greases, food acids, milk, photographic solutions, etc., and thus can be used in applications where these fluids are handled. Nylon has good abrasion resistance, a low wear rate, and good embeddability. Like most plastics, it has good antiseizure properties and softens or chars rather than seizing. It has low thermal conductivity (0.24 W/m-C), and failure is usually the result of overheating. Cold flow (creep) under load is one of its main disadvantages. This effect can be minimized by supporting thin nylon liners in metal sleeves. Nylon bearings are used in household applications such as mixers and blenders and for other lightly loaded applications.

5.4.4

Teflon

Teflon is a thermoplastic material based on the polymer polytetraftuoroethylene (PTFE), which has a low friction coefficient. It has excellent self-lubricating properties and in many applications can be used dry. It is resistant to chemical attack by many solvents and chemicals and can be used in the temperature range -260 to 260C. Like nylon, it has a tendency to cold-form under loads. Teflon in its unmodified form also has the disadvantages of low stiffness, a high thermal expansion coefficient, low thermal conductivity, and poor wear resistance. These poor properties are greatly improved by adding fibers such as glass, ceramics, metal powders, metal oxides, graphite, or molybdenum disulMe.

5.5 Form of Bearing Surfaces

The metallic and nonmetallic materials described in the two preceding sections may be applied to bearing surfaces in several ways, (as shown in Fig. 5.2):

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 Bearing material

- Backing material

^- Lining material

/-Bronze Carbon-graphite filler

Figure 5.2: Different forms of bearing surfaces, (a) Solid bearing; (b) lined bearing; (c) Ailed bearing; (d) shrink-fit bearing. * Solid bearing (Fig. 5.2a). Bearings are machined directly from a single material (cast iron, aluminum alloys, bronzes, porous metals, etc.). * Lined bearing (Fig. 5.2b). Bearing material is bonded to a stronger backing material. The thickness of the bearing lining may range from 0.25 mm to as much as 13 mm. Most modern bonding techniques are metallurgical, although chemical and mechanical methods are also used. The lining material may be cast, sprayed, electrodeposited, or chemically applied. * Filled bearing (Fig. 5.2c). A stronger bearing material is impregnated with a bearing material that has better lubricating properties (e.g., graphite impregnated into a bronze backing). * Shrink-fit liner bearing Fig. 5.2d). Carbon-graphite or plastic liners are shrunk into a metal hacking sleeve by retaining devices such as setscrews, dowels, and clamping flanges.

5.6 Materials and Manufacturing Processes Used for Rolling-Element Bearings

Nonconformal surfaces such as rolling-element bearings operate under conditions that impose high compressive stresses for millions of stress cycles as the

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balls or the rollers rotate through the loaded zone of the bearing. For such applications the race and ball materials should be hard and have high fatigue resistance. Until about 1955 the technology of rolling-element bearing materials did not receive much attention from materials scientists. Bearing materials were restricted to SAE 52100 and some carburizing grades such as AISI 4320 and AISI 9310, which seemed to be adequate for most bearing applications, despite the limitation in temperature of about 176C for 52100 steel. A minimum acceptable hardness of Rockwell C 58 was specified. Experiments indicated that fatigue life increased with increasing hardness. The advent of the aircraft gas turbine engine, with its need for advanced rolling-element bearings, provided the major impetus for advancements in the technology of rolling-element bearing materials. Higher temperatures, higher speeds and loads, and the need for greater durability and reliability all served as incentives for developing and evaluating a broad range of new materials and processing methods. The combined research efforts of bearing manufacturers, engine manufacturers, and government agencies over the past three decades have resulted in startling advances in rolling-element bearing life, reliability, and performance. The discussion here is narrow in scope. For a comprehensive treatment of the research status of current bearing technology and current bearing designs, refer to Bamberger et al. ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

5.6.1

Ferrous Alloys

The need for higher temperature capability led to the evaluation of several available molybdenum and tungsten alloy tool steels as bearing materials. These alloys have excellent high-temperature hardness retention. Such alloys melted and cast in an air environment were, however, generally deficient in fatigue resistance because of nonmetallic inclusions. Vacuum processing techniques can reduce or eliminate these inclusions. Techniques used include vacuum induction melting (VIM) and vacuum arc remelting (VAR). These have been extensively explored, not only with the tool steels now used as bearing materials but with SAE 52100 and some of the carburizing steels as well. Table 5.7 lists a fairly complete array of ferrous alloys, both fully developed and experimental, from which present-day bearings are fabricated. AISI M-50, usually VIM-VAR or consumable electrode vacuum melted (CEVM), has become a widely used quality bearing material. It is usable at temperatures to 315C, and it is usually assigned a materials life factor of 3 to 5. T-l tool steel has also come into fairly wide use in bearings, mostly in Europe. Its hot hardness retention is slightly superior to that of M-50 and approximately equal to that of M-l and M-2. These alloys retain adequate hardness to about 400C. Surface-hardened or carburized steels are used in many bearings where, because of shock loads or cyclic bending stresses, the fracture toughness of through-hardened steels is inadequate. Some of the newer materials being developed, such as CBS 1000 and Vasco X-2, have hot hardness retention compa-

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Table 5 . 7 : Typical compositions of selected bearing steels [From Bamberger et al. ( 1 9 8 0 ) ]

Designation

C
1.00 1.03 0 . 8 0 0 . 8 3

P
(max)

8 (max)

Mn

Si

Cr

V 1.00 1.90 2.00 1.00 1.00 4.90 0.14 1.20 1.08 1.03 0.45

W 1.50 6.15 18.0 12.5 1.40 1.40

Mo

Co

Cb

Ni

AHoying element, wt %

SAE 52100" MHT'' AISI M-l AISI M-2" AISI M-10 AISI M-50" T-l (18-4-1)" T15 440C" AMS 5749
Vasco Matrix 11

CRB-7 AISI 9310" CBS 600" CBS 1000M"

Vasco X-2' "Balance, iron. **Also contains 1.36% Al. "Carburizing grades.

0.85 0.80 0.70 1.52 1.03 1.15 0.53 1.10 0.10 0.19 0.14 0.14

0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.010 0.018 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.006 0.007 0.018 0.011

0.025 0.025 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.030 0.004 0.014 0.004 0.013 0.003 0.001 0.014 0.019 0.011

0.35 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.30 0.30 0.26 0.48 0.50 0.12 0.43 0.54 0.61 0.48 0.24

0.30 0.35 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.41 0.30 0.21 0.31 0.28 1.05 0.43 0.94

1.45 1.50 4.00 3.85 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.70 17.30 14.50 4.13 14.00 1.18 1.50 1.12 4.76

8.00 5.00 8.00 4.25 0.20 0.50 4.00 4.80 2.02 0.11 0.94 4.77 1.40

5.10 7.81 0.03

0.32

0.10 3.15 0.18 2.94 0.10

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.E 4

,-High-speed tool steels

CBS 1000-

VascoX-2-^

8 10 a
12
14 300

CBS 1000M -^

400

500 600 700 Material temperature, K 400 600 800 Material temperature, F

800

J 900

200

1000

Figure 5.3: Hot hardness of CBS 1000, CBS 1000M, Vasco X-2, and high-speed tool steels. Anderson and

rable to that of the tool steels (Fig. 5.3). They too are available as ultraclean, vacuum-processed materials and should offer adequate resistance to fatigue. Carburized steels may become of increasing importance in ultra-high-speed applications. Bearings with through-hardened steel races are currently limited to approximately 2.5 million dbNa (where db is bore diameter in millimeters and A?a is rotational speed in revolutions per minute). At higher db/Va values fatigue cracks propagate through the rotating race as a result of excessive hoop stress (Bamberger et al., 1976). In applications where the bearings are not lubricated with conventional oils and protected from corrosion at all times, a corrosion-resistant alloy should be used. Dry-film-lubricated bearings, bearings cooled by liquefied cryogenic gases, and bearings exposed to corrosive environments such as high humidity and salt water are applications where corrosion-resistant alloys should be considered. Of the alloys listed in Table 5.7, both 440C and AMS 5749 are readily available in vacuum-melted heats. Forging and forming methods that result in improved resistance to fatigue have also been developed. Experiments indicate that fiber or grain How parallel to the stressed surface is superior to fiber How that intersects the stressed surface (Bamberger, 1970; Zaretsky and Anderson, 1966). Forming methods that result in more parallel grain How are now being used in the manufacture of many bearings, especially those for high-load applications.

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5.6.2

Ceramics

Experimental bearings have been made from a variety of ceramics including alumina, silicon carbide, titanium carbide, and silicon nitride. The use of ceramics as bearing materials for specialized applications will probably continue to grow for several reasons. These include * High-temperature capability. Because ceramics can exhibit elastic behavior to temperatures beyond 1000C, they are an obvious choice for extreme temperature applications. * Corrosion resistance. Ceramics are essentially chemically inert and able to function in many environments hostile to ferrous alloys. * Low density. This can be translated into improved bearing capacity at high speeds, where centrifugal effects predominate. * Low thermal expansion coefficient. Under severe thermal gradients, ceramic bearings exhibit less drastic changes in geometry and internal play than do ferrous alloy bearings. Silicon nitride has been developed as a bearing material (Sibley, 1982; Cundill and Giordano, 1982). Silicon nitride bearings have exhibited fatigue lives comparable to and in some instances superior to that of high-quality vacuum-melted M-50 (Sibley, 1982). Two problems remain: (1) quality control and precise nondestructive inspection techniques to determine acceptability and (2) cost. Improved hot isostatic compaction, metrology, and finishing techniques are all being actively pursued.

5.7 Properties of Common Bearing Materials

This section provides representative values for a number of solid material properties required in evaluating fluid film bearings. The tables and figures presented in this section came from ESDU (1984). With many materials a wide range of property values is attainable by, for example, heat treatment or a small change in composition. The quoted values given in the tables are therefore only typical values likely to be met in fluid Aim lubrication applications. Unless otherwise stated, all material properties are quoted for room temperature ( 2 0 C ) . Bearing materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates. In addition to these three major classifications, there is one additional group of bearing materials that might he considered, namely, composites. A brief explanation of the material classifications and their representative characteristics is given here:

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* Afe^a?s. Metallic materials are normally combinations of metallic elements. They have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Metals are extremely good conductors of electricity and heat and are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. Furthermore, metals are quite strong yet deformable. * Ceramics. Ceramics are compounds of metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. The wide range of materials that fall within this classification includes ceramics that are composed of clay, cement, and glass. These materials are typically insulative to the passage of electricity and heat and are more resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramics are hard but very brittle. * Pofymers. Polymers include plastic and rubber materials. Many polymers are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements. Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures. These materials typically have low density and may be extremely flexible. * Composites. Composite materials include more than one material type. Fiberglass is an example, in which glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material. A composite is designed to display a combination of the best characteristics of each of the component materials. Fiberglass acquires strength from glass and flexibility from the polymer. Composites are beyond the scope of this book, but the properties of the other three main classifications of materials will be considered along with a number of materials within each classification.

5.7.1

Density

As pointed out in Sec. 4.12, the density p of a solid material is the mass divided by the volume and hence has metric units of kilograms per cubic meter. Typical values lie between 10^ and 10^ kg/m^. Figure 5.4 illustrates the density ordering of various metals, polymers, and ceramics, and Table 5.8 gives quantitative density at room temperature (20 C). Alloying changes the density only slightly. To a first approximation, the density of an alloy (metallic solid resulting from dissolving two or more molten metals in each other) is given by the "rule of mixtures" (i.e., by a linear interpolation between the densities of the alloy components).

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Table 5.8: Densities of various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C; 68F) [ ^ o
Material Density, p lbm/in" kg/m-i

Metals: 2.7 x!Q3 0.097 Aluminum and its alloys" 3.1 x!Q3 0.11 Aluminum tin 10.1xlQ3 0.36 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 7.4 x!Q3 0.27 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 8.6 xlQ3 0.31 Brasses 7.5 x!Q3 0.27 Bronze, aluminum 8.9 x!Q3 0.32 Bronze, leaded 8.7 x!Q3 0.31 Bronze, phosphor (cast)** 6.4 x!Q3 0.23 Bronze, porous 8.9 x!Q3 0.32 Copper 9.5 x!Q3 0.34 Copper lead 7.4 x!Q3 0.27 Iron, cast 6.1 x!Q3 0.22 Iron, porous 7.8 x!Q3 0.28 Iron, wrought 1.8 x!Q3 0.065 Magnesium alloys 7.8 x!Q3 0.28 Steels^ 6.7 xlQ3 0.24 Zinc alloys Polymers: 1.4 x!Q3 0.051 Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 1.14 x!Q3 0.041 Nylons (polyamides) 0.95xlQ3 0.034 Polyethylene, high quality 1.3 x!Q3 0.047 Phenol, formaldehyde 1.0 x!Q3 0.036 Rubber, natural*^ 1.8 x!Q3 0.065 Rubber, silicone Ceramics: 3.9 x!Q3 0.14 Alumina (A^Os) 1.7 x!Q3 0.061 Graphite, high strength 2.9 x!Q3 0.10 Silicon carbide (SiC) 3.2xlQ3 0.12 Silicon nitride (SisN^) "Structural alloys. **Bar stock typically 8.8 x!Q3 kg/m3 ( 0 . 3 0 lbm/in.' ^Excluding "refractory" steels. ^"Mechanical" rubber

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10"

*
-

Metals Lead Copper Steels Cast iron

Zinc alloys Sintered iron

Polymers

Ceramics

Alumina
Aluminum-tin

Aluminum

Silicon nitride Silicon carbide

Magnesium

Siliconc rubber Acetal Phenol formaldehyde Nylon Natural rubber Polyethylene

G^pMe

10"

,, .

8x10^

Figure 5.4: Illustration of density for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C; 68F).

5.7.2

Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio

A simple tensile load applied to a bar produces a stress <7i and a strain ei, where load = stress in axial direction cross-sectional area change in length = strain in axial direction original length The elastic constant, or modulus of elasticity (sometimes referred to as "Young's modulus"), can be written as

(5.1)

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Although no stress acts transversely to the axial direction, there will nevertheless be dimensional changes in the transverse direction, for as a bar extends axially it contracts transversely. The transverse strains 2 are related to the axial strains by Poisson's ratio M such that

ez = -m

(5.2)

where the negative sign simply means that the transverse deformation will be in the opposite sense to the axial deformation. The metric unit of modulus of elasticity is newton per square meter, or pascal, and Poisson's ratio is dimensionless. Figure 5.5 illustrates values of the modulus of elasticity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C). The moduli of elasticity for metals and ceramics are quite similar, but those for the polymers are considerably lower. Tables 5.9 and 5.10 give quantitative values of the modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio, respectively, for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature.

5.7.3

Linear Thermal Expansion CoefHcient

Different materials expand at different rates when heated. A solid object increases in length by a certain fraction for each degree rise in temperature. This result is accurate over a fairly large range of temperatures. It can be used for calculating how much an object will expand for a given change in temperature, once the extent of the material's expansion is measured. This value is given for each material by a number called "linear expansivity" or "linear thermal expansion coefficient" a. The metric unit of a is Kelvin**^. Figure 5.6 illustrates the linear thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers, and ceramics applied over the temperature range 20 to 200C. The polymers have the highest value, followed by the metals and then the ceramics. Table 5.11 gives quantitative values of the linear thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers, and ceramics from 20 to 200C.

5.7.4

Thermal Conductivity

When two bodies at different temperatures are brought together, the fastermoving molecules of the warmer body collide with the slower-moving molecules of the cooler body and transfer some of their motion to the latter. The warmer object loses energy (drops in temperature) while the cooler one gains energy (rises in temperature). The transfer process stops when the two bodies reach the same temperature. This transfer of molecular motion through a material is called "heat conduction." Materials differ in how fast they let this transfer go on. The metric units of thermal conductivity i*ff are watts per meter-Kelvin. Figure 5.7 illustrates the thermal conductivity of various metals, polymers, and ceramics. The metals and ceramics in general are good conductors, and the polymers are good insulators. Table 5.12 quantifies the thermal conductivity

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Metals

Polymers

Ceramics

0Uj

Phenol formaldehyde Acetal Nylon

10"

Polyethylene

10"

Natural rubber

10"

Figure 5.5: Illustration of modulus of elasticity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C; 68F). [i-rom

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Table 5.9: Modulus of elasticity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C; 68F) [From E3ZW (
Material Modulus of elasticity, . E Mlbf/in.^ GPa

Metats 9.0 62 Aluminum 70 10.2 Aluminum alloys" 9.1 63 Aluminum tin 29 4.2 Babbitt, lead-base white metal 7.5 52 Babbitt, tin-base white metal 14.5 100 Brasses 17.0 117 Bronze, aluminum 14.1 97 Bronze, leaded 16.0 110 Bronze, phosphor 8.7 60 Bronze, porous 18.0 124 Copper 15.8 Iron, gray cast 109 24.7 170 Iron, malleable cast 23.1 159 Iron, spheroidal graphite'* 11.6 80 Iron, porous 24.7 170 Iron, wrought 5.9 41 Magnesium alloys 28.4 196 Steel, low alloys 29.0 200 Steel, medium and high alloys 28.0 193 Steel, stainless' 30.7 212 Steel, high speed 50 7.3 Zinc alloys Polymers 0.39 2.7 Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 0.28 1.9 Nylons (polyamides) 0.13 Polyethylene, high density 0.9 1.02 7.0 Phenol formaldehyde^ 0.0006 0.004 Rubber, natural^ Ceramics 56.6 390 Alumina (AbOa) 3.9 27 Graphite 450 65.3 Cemented carbides 65.3 450 Silicon carbide (SiC) 45.5 314 Silicon nitride (SigN^i) "Structural alloys. **For bearings. "Precipitation-hardened alloys up to 211 GPa (30 lbf/in.2). ''Some alloys up to 96 GPa (14 lbf/in.^). ' Filled. ^25-Percent-carbon-black "mechanical" rubber.

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2x10*"

Metals

Polymers

Ceramics

10'"

Polyethylene Silicone rubber Natural rubber Acetal, nylon Nitrite rubber

5 5

Zinc Magnesium Aluminum Brass, copper Most bronzes Babbits Steel Leaded bronze Cast irons Sintered iron

Phenol formaldehyde

Figure 5.6: Illustration of thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers, and ceramics applied over temperature range 20 to 200C (68 to 392F).

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Table 5.10: Poisson's ratio for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C; 68F) [From E ? I W
Material Poisson's ratio, V 0.33

Metals: Aluminum and its alloys Aluminum tin Babbitt, lead-base white metal Babbitt, tin-base white metal Brasses Bronze Bronze, porous Copper Iron, cast Iron, porous Iron, wrought Magnesium alloys Steels Zinc alloys^ Polymers: Acetal (polyformaldehyde) Nylons (polyamides) Polyethylene, high density Phenol formaldehyde^ Rubber Ceramics: Alumina (A^O^) Graphite, high strength Cemented carbides Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (SisN,)) "Structural alloys.

0.33 0.33 0.22 0.33 0.26 0.20 0.30 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.40 0.35 0.50 0.28 0.19 0.19 0.26

results given in Fig. 5.7. In Fig. 5.7 and Table 5.12, unless otherwise stated, the temperature is assumed to be room temperature (20C; 68F).

5.7.5

Specific Heat Capacity

The nature of a material determines the amount of heat transferred to or from a body when its temperature changes by a given amount. Imagine an experiment in which you take a cast iron ball and a babbitt (lead-based white metal) ball of the same size, heat them both to the temperature of boiling water, and then lay them on a block of wax. You would find that the cast iron ball melts a considerable amount of wax but the babbitt ball, in spite of its greater mass, melts hardly any. It therefore would seem that different materials, in cooling through the same temperature range, give up different amounts of heat.
The quantity of heat energy given up or taken on when a body changes its

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Table 5.11: Linear thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers and ceramics applied over temperature range 20 to 200 (68 to 392) [F^om. (1984)]
Material Linear thermat expansion coefficient, 5 ^in./in.-F ^m/m-K 12.8

Metals: 23 Aluminum 24 Aluminum alloys" 24 Aluminum tin 20 Babbitt, lead-based white metal Babbitt, tin-based white metal 23 19 Brasses Bronzes 18 Copper 18 Copper lead 18 11 [ron, cast Iron, porous 12 Iron, wrought 12 27 Magnesium alloys 11 Steel, alloy*' 17 Steel, stainless Steel, high speed 11 Zinc alloys 27 Polymers: Thermoplastics^ 60-100 Thermosets^ 10-80 Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 90 Nylons (polyamides) 100 126 Polyethylene, high density 25-40 Phenol formaldehyde*^ 80-120 Rubber, natural^ 34 Rubber, nitrite^* 57 Rubber, silicone Ceramics: 5.0 Alumina (AlsOg)'* Graphite, high strength 4.5 4.3 Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (SisN^) 3.2 "Structural alloys. Cast alloys can be up to 15//m/m-K. "^Typical bearing materials. ^25 ^m/m-K to 80 /im/m-K when reinforced. ^Mineral filled. -f Fillers can reduce coefficients. ''Varies with composition. ' ' O to 200C.

13.3 13.3 11 13 10.6 10.0 10.0 10.0 6.1 6.7 6.7 15 6.1 9.5 6.1 15 35-56 6-44 SO 56 70 14-22 44-67 62 103
2.8 0.8-2.2 2.4 1.8

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3x10'

Metals Aluminum Copper Brass Magnesium alloys Cast iron Bronze Steel Stainless steel

Potymers

Ceramics

^ 10

10-

Figure 5.7: Illustration of thermal conductivity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics. [From E^Dt/

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Table 5.12: Thermal conductivity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics Material Metals: Aluminum Aluminum alloys, casting" Aluminum alloys, silicon** Aluminum alloys, wrought" Aluminum tin Babbitt, lead-based white metal Babbitt, tin-based white metal Brasses" Bronze, aluminum" Bronze, leaded
Bronze, phosphor (cast)^

Thermal conductivity W/m K Btu/ft hr F

209 146 170 151 180 120

Bronze, porous Copper" Copper lead Iron, gray cast Iron, spheroidal graphite Iron, porous Iron, wrought Magnesium alloys Steel, low alloy" Steel, medium alloy Steel, stainless^ Zinc alloys Polymers: Acetal (polyformaldehyde) Nylons (polyamides) Polyethylene, high density Rubber, natural Ceramics: Alumina (AbOs)^ Graphite, high strength Silicon carbide (SiC)

24 56 120 50 47 50 30 170 30 50 30 28 70 110 35 30 15 110

84 98 87 100 14 32 69 29 27 29 17 98 17 29 17 16 40 64 20 17 8.7 64

0.24 0.25 0.5 1.6

25 125 15

0.14 0.14 0.29 0.92

14 72 8.6

"At 100C. **At 100C (-150 W/m- K at 25C. "20 to 100C.

' ' B a r stock typically 69 W/m K. 'Typically 22 W/m-K at 200 C. ^Typically 12 W/nr K at 400C.

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Table 5.13: Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers and ceramics at room temperature ( 2 0 ; 68 F) [From
Material Specific heat capacity, Cp Btu/lb F kJ/kg K

Metals: 0.22 0.9 Aluminum and its alloys 0.96 0.23 Aluminum tin 0.036 0.15 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 0.05 0.21 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 0.39 Brasses 0.093 0.38 Bronzes, 0.091 0.091 0.38 Copper* 0.076 0.32 Copper lead 0.10 0.42 Iron, cast Iron, porous 0.11 0.46 0.11 0.46 Iron, wrought 0.24 Magnesium alloys 1.0 0.11 0.45 Steels'* Zinc alloys 0.096 0.4 Polymers: 0.33 1.4 Thermoplastics 2.0 Rubber, natural 0.48 Ceramics: Graphite 0.2 0.8 0.7 Cemented carbides 0.17 "Aluminum bronzes up to 0 . 4 8 kJ/kg K ( 0 . 1 2 Btu/lb F). ''Rising to 0.55 kJ/kg K ( 0 . 1 3 Btu/lbF) at 200C (392F).

temperature is proportional to the mass of the object, to the amount that its temperature changes, and to a characteristic number called the "specific heat capacity" of the material the body is made from.

(5.3)
where = quantity of heat, J p = specific heat of material, J/(kg-K) ^ = mass of body, kg tnt = temperature change, K

Figure 5.8 illustrates the specific heat capacity of various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20 C). Polymers have considerably higher specific heat than metals or ceramics. Table 5.13 quantifies the information presented in Fig. 5.8.

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2.0

Metals

Polymers Natural rubber

Ceramics

1.8

1.6
Thermoplastics

.1.2

S1.0 Magnesium Aluminum

Steel Cast iron Copper

Figure 5.8: Illustration of specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C; 68F). [R-om ESYW

5.8 Closure
In this chapter the general characteristics of bearing materials have been established and discussed. Some desirable characteristics covered in this chapter are compatibility with rubbing counterface materials; embeddability for dirt particles and wear debris; conformability to enable the bearing to accommodate misalignment, geometrical errors, and deflections in structure, strength, corrosion resistance, and fatigue resistance. The various types of bearing material that are now available have been evaluated in terms of these characteristics. These materials consist of metallics (babbitts, bronzes, aluminum alloys, porous metals, and metal overlays such as silver and indium) or nonmetallics (plastics, rubber, carbon-graphite, ceramics, cemented carbides, and metal ox-

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ides). Bearing materials applicable to conformal surfaces, where hydrodynamic lubrication occurs, as well as to nonconformal surfaces, where elastohydrodynamic lubrication occurs, were discussed. The stresses acting on conformal a,nd nonconformal surfaces differ considerably, and therefore the solid surface requirements are quite different. The last section listed representative values of a number of solid material properties required in evaluating fluid film bearings. These properties included density, modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio, linear thermal expansion coefficient, thermal conductivity, and specific heat capacity. Values of these parameters were given for a variety of metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature. The materia) developed in this chapter should prove useful in subsequent chapters.

5.9 Problem
5.1 Describe and compare the main types of materials that are available for use as a plain journal bearing when an oil or a grease is undesirable as a lubricant.

References
Anderson, N. E., and Zaretsky, E. V. (1975): Short-Term Hot-Hardness Characteristics of Five Case-Hardened Steels. JV^y! Tec/t. JVote D-gML Bamberger, E. N. (1970): Effect of Materials-Metallurgy Viewpoint. fntera*McipKnor:/ ^4pproac/t to ^e LM^WcaMon o/ Concentrated Contacts, P. M. Ku (ed.), NASA Spec. Publ. 237, pp. 409-437. Bamberger, E. N., Zaretsky, E. V., and Signer, H. (1976): Endurance and Failure Characteristics of Main-Shaft Jet Engine Bearing at 3 x 10^ DN. J. L^&r. Tec/moJ., vol. 98, no. 4, pp. 580-585. Bamberger, E.N.,etal. (1980): Materials for Rolling Element Bearings. j5ear!w<? Des!(?n-#Mtortca% Aspects, Present Tec/mo^ofyy tmd Future Problems, W. J. Anderson (ed.), ASME, New York, pp. 1-46. Booser, E. R. (1966): Bearing Materials and Properties. AfacA. Z?es., vol. 38, Mar., pp. 22-28. Clauser, H. R. (1948): Bearing Metals. (Materials and Methods Manual 4 0 ) , Mater. Mecca's, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 75-86. Cundill, R. T., and Giordano, F. (1982): Lightweight Materials for Rolling Elements in Aircraft Bearings. ProMems w ReaWwcs ana* Z/M&Wcat:on, ACylRD/Con./. Proc. 323, pp. 6-1 to 6-11. Dowson, D. (1998): RMtor?/ o/ TWMo<?y, 2na*. ea*., Professional Engineering Publishing, London and Bury St. Edmunds. Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU) (1984): Properties o/ Common neermy Material. Item 84041, London. Kaufman, H. N. (1980): Bearing Materials. TWMogy -FWctton, tVear, A. Z. Szeri (ed.). Hemisphere Publishing Corp., Washington, D.

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C., pp. 477-505.

O'Conner, J. J., Boyd, J.. and Avellone, E. A. (eds.) (1968): &oo^ o/ LM^Wca^ow Fftgmeermy. McGraw-HiM, New York. Sibley, L. B. (1982): ^!/icon A^^Wiie Z?earm^ E/emen^g /or Tempera^Mre yipp^ca^o?M. ^IGylRD/Con/. Proc. 323, pp. 5-1 to 5-15. Zaretsky, E. V., and Anderson, W. J. (1966): Material Properties and Processing Variables and Their Effect on Rolling-Element Fatigue. JVyt.!M Memo.

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