SECOND CLASS LECTURE

OSI Seven-Layer Model

In the 1980s, the European-dominated International Standards Organization (ISO),
began to develop its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking suite.
OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking (the Basic
Reference Model, or seven-layer model), and a set of concrete protocols.
The standard documents that describe OSI are for sale and not currently available online.
Parts of OSI have influenced Internet protocol development, but none more than
the abstract model itself, documented in OSI 7498 and its various addenda.
In this model, a networking system is divided into layers. Within each layer,
one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacts directly only
with the layer immediately beneath it, and provides facilities for use by the layer above it.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the
same layer in a remote host.

The seven layers of the OSI Basic Reference Model are (from bottom to top):

1. The Physical Layer describes the physical properties of the various

communications media, as well as the electrical properties and interpretation
of the exchanged signals. Ex: this layer defines the size of Ethernet coaxial cable,
the type of BNC connector used, and the termination method.

2. The Data Link Layer describes the logical organization of data bits
transmitted on a particular medium. Ex: this layer defines the framing,
addressing and checksumming of Ethernet packets.

3. The Network Layer describes how a series of exchanges over various

data links can deliver data between any two nodes in a network. Ex: this layer
defines the addressing and routing structure of the Internet.

4. The Transport Layer describes the quality and nature of the data delivery.
Ex: this layer defines if and how retransmissions will be used to ensure data delivery.
5. The Session Layer describes the organization of data sequences larger
than the packets handled by lower layers. Ex: this layer describes how request
and reply packets are paired in a remote procedure call.

6. The Presentation Layer describes the syntax of data being transferred.

Ex: this layer describes how floating point numbers can be exchanged between
hosts with different math formats.

7. The Application Layer describes how real work actually gets done.
Ex: this layer would implement file system operations.

The original Internet protocol specifications defined a four-level model,

and protocols designed around it (like TCP) have difficulty fitting neatly into
the seven-layer model. Most newer designs use the seven-layer model.

\begin{soapbox}

The OSI Basic Reference Model has enjoyed a far greater acceptance than the
OSI protocols themselves. There are several reasons for this. OSI's committee-based
design process bred overgrown, unimaginative protocols that nobody ever accused
of efficiency. Heavy European dominance helped protect their investments in X.25
(CONS is basically X.25 for datagram networks). Perhaps most importantly, X.25
data networks never caught people's imagination like the Internet, which, with a
strong history of free, downloadable protocol specifications, has been loath to
embrace yet another networking scheme where you have to pay to figure how
things work.

And why should we? OSI's biggest problem is that doesn't really offer anything new.
The strongest case for its implementation comes from its status as an "international standard",
but we already have a de facto international standard - the Internet. OSI protocols will
be around, but its most significant contribution is the philosophy of networking represented
by its layered model.
If the Internet community has to worry about anything, it's the danger of IETF turning
into another ISO - a big, overgrown standards organization run by committees,
churning out thousands of pages of rubbish, and dominated by big business players
more interested in preserving investments than advancing the state of the art.
Open System Interconnection Reference Model
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a network
medium to a software application in another computer. The OSI reference model is
a conceptual model composed of seven layers, each specifying particular network
functions. The model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered the primary architectural
model for intercomputer communications. The OSI model divides the tasks
involved with moving information between networked computers into seven
smaller, more manageable task groups. A task or group of tasks is then assigned to
each of the seven OSI layers. Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the
tasks assigned to each layer can be implemented independently. This enables the
solutions offered by one layer to be updated without adversely affecting the other
layers. The following list details the seven layers of the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) reference model:

Layer 7—Application

Layer 6—Presentation

Layer 5—Session

Layer 4—Transport

Layer 3—Network

Layer 2—Data link

Layer 1—Physical

Note A handy way to remember the seven layers is the sentence "All
people seem to need data processing." The beginning letter of each word
corresponds to a layer.
All—Application layer

People—Presentation layer

Seem—Session layer

To—Transport layer

Need—Network layer

Data—Data link layer

Processing—Physical layer
Figure 1-2 illustrates the seven-layer OSI reference model.
Figure 1-2: The OSI Reference Model Contains Seven Independent Layers

Characteristics of the OSI Layers

The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories:
upper layers and lower layers.

The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are
implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to
the end user. Both users and application layer processes interact with software
applications that contain a communications component. The term upper layer is
sometimes used to refer to any layer above another layer in the OSI model.
The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer
and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest
layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the network
cabling, for example) and is responsible for actually placing information on the
medium.

Figure 1-3 illustrates the division between the upper and lower OSI layers.
Figure 1-3: Two Sets of Layers Make Up the OSI Layers
Protocols

The OSI model provides a conceptual framework for communication between

computers, but the model itself is not a method of communication. Actual
communication is made possible by using communication protocols. In the context
of data networking, a protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs
how computers exchange information over a network medium. A protocol
implements the functions of one or more of the OSI layers.

A wide variety of communication protocols exist. Some of these protocols include

LAN protocols, WAN protocols, network protocols, and routing protocols. LAN
protocols operate at the physical and data link layers of the OSI model and define
communication over the various LAN media. WAN protocols operate at the lowest
three layers of the OSI model and define communication over the various wide-
area media. Routing protocols are network layer protocols that are responsible for
exchanging information between routers so that the routers can select the proper
path for network traffic. Finally, network protocols are the various upper-layer
protocols that exist in a given protocol suite. Many protocols rely on others for
operation. For example, many routing protocols use network protocols to exchange
information between routers. This concept of building upon the layers already in
existence is the foundation of the OSI model.

OSI Model and Communication Between Systems

Information being transferred from a software application in one computer system

to a software application in another must pass through the OSI layers. For example,
if a software application in System A has information to transmit to a software
application in System B, the application program in System A will pass its
information to the application layer (Layer 7) of System A. The application layer
then passes the information to the presentation layer (Layer 6), which relays the
data to the session layer (Layer 5), and so on down to the physical layer (Layer 1).
At the physical layer, the information is placed on the physical network medium
and is sent across the medium to System B. The physical layer of System B
removes the information from the physical medium, and then its physical layer
passes the information up to the data link layer (Layer 2), which passes it to the
network layer (Layer 3), and so on, until it reaches the application layer (Layer 7)
of System B. Finally, the application layer of System B passes the information to
the recipient application program to complete the communication process.

Interaction Between OSI Model Layers

A given layer in the OSI model generally communicates with three other OSI
layers: the layer directly above it, the layer directly below it, and its peer layer in
other networked computer systems. The data link layer in System A, for example,
communicates with the network layer of System A, the physical layer of System A,
and the data link layer in System B. Figure 1-4 illustrates this example.

Figure 1-4: OSI Model Layers Communicate with Other Layers

OSI Layer Services

One OSI layer communicates with another layer to make use of the services
provided by the second layer. The services provided by adjacent layers help a given
OSI layer communicate with its peer layer in other computer systems. Three basic
elements are involved in layer services: the service user, the service provider, and
the service access point (SAP).

In this context, the service user is the OSI layer that requests services from an
adjacent OSI layer. The service provider is the OSI layer that provides services to
service users. OSI layers can provide services to multiple service users. The SAP is
a conceptual location at which one OSI layer can request the services of another
OSI layer.
Figure 1-5 illustrates how these three elements interact at the network and data link
layers.
Figure 1-5: Service Users, Providers, and SAPs Interact at the Network and
Data Link Layers
OSI Model Layers and Information Exchange
The seven OSI layers use various forms of control information to communicate
with their peer layers in other computer systems. This control information consists
of specific requests and instructions that are exchanged between peer OSI layers.

Control information typically takes one of two forms: headers and trailers. Headers
are prepended to data that has been passed down from upper layers. Trailers are
appended to data that has been passed down from upper layers. An OSI layer is not
required to attach a header or a trailer to data from upper layers.

Headers, trailers, and data are relative concepts, depending on the layer that
analyzes the information unit. At the network layer, for example, an information
unit consists of a Layer 3 header and data. At the data link layer, however, all the
information passed down by the network layer (the Layer 3 header and the data) is
treated as data.

In other words, the data portion of an information unit at a given OSI layer
potentially can contain headers, trailers, and data from all the higher layers. This is
known as encapsulation. Figure 1-6 shows how the header and data from one layer
are encapsulated into the header of the next lowest layer.

Figure 1-6: Headers and Data Can Be Encapsulated During Information Exchange

Information Exchange Process

The information exchange process occurs between peer OSI layers. Each layer in
the source system adds control information to data, and each layer in the destination
system analyzes and removes the control information from that data.
If System A has data from a software application to send to System B, the data is
passed to the application layer. The application layer in System A then
communicates any control information required by the application layer in System
B by prepending a header to the data. The resulting information unit (a header and
the data) is passed to the presentation layer, which prepends its own header
containing control information intended for the presentation layer in System B. The
information unit grows in size as each layer prepends its own header (and, in some
cases, a trailer) that contains control information to be used by its peer layer in
System B. At the physical layer, the entire information unit is placed onto the
network medium.

The physical layer in System B receives the information unit and passes it to the
data link layer. The data link layer in System B then reads the control information
contained in the header prepended by the data link layer in System A. The header is
then removed, and the remainder of the information unit is passed to the network
layer. Each layer performs the same actions: The layer reads the header from its
peer layer, strips it off, and passes the remaining information unit to the next
highest layer. After the application layer performs these actions, the data is passed
to the recipient software application in System B, in exactly the form in which it
was transmitted by the application in System A.

OSI Model Physical Layer

The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link
between communicating network systems. Physical layer specifications define
characteristics such as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data
rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors. Physical layer
implementations can be categorized as either LAN or WAN specifications. Figure
1-7 illustrates some common LAN and WAN physical layer implementations.

Figure 1-7: Physical Layer Implementations Can Be LAN or WAN Specifications

OSI Model Data Link Layer

The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link.
Different data link layer specifications define different network and protocol
characteristics, including physical addressing, network topology, error notification,
sequencing of frames, and flow control. Physical addressing (as opposed to
network addressing) defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer.
Network topology consists of the data link layer specifications that often define
how devices are to be physically connected, such as in a bus or a ring topology.
Error notification alerts upper-layer protocols that a transmission error has
occurred, and the sequencing of data frames reorders frames that are transmitted
out of sequence. Finally, flow control moderates the transmission of data so that the
receiving device is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one
time.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has subdivided the
data link layer into two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access
Control (MAC). Figure 1-8 illustrates the IEEE sublayers of the data link layer.

Figure 1-8: The Data Link Layer Contains Two Sublayers

The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer of the data link layer manages
communications between devices over a single link of a network. LLC is defined in
the IEEE 802.2 specification and supports both connectionless and connection-
oriented services used by higher-layer protocols. IEEE 802.2 defines a number of
fields in data link layer frames that enable multiple higher-layer protocols to share a
single physical data link. The Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer of the data
link layer manages protocol access to the physical network medium. The IEEE
MAC specification defines MAC addresses, which enable multiple devices to
uniquely identify one another at the data link layer.

OSI Model Network Layer

The network layer defines the network address, which differs from the MAC
address. Some network layer implementations, such as the Internet Protocol (IP),
define network addresses in a way that route selection can be determined
systematically by comparing the source network address with the destination
network address and applying the subnet mask. Because this layer defines the
logical network layout, routers can use this layer to determine how to forward
packets. Because of this, much of the design and configuration work for
internetworks happens at Layer 3, the network layer.
OSI Model Transport Layer

The transport layer accepts data from the session layer and segments the data for
transport across the network. Generally, the transport layer is responsible for
making sure that the data is delivered error-free and in the proper sequence. Flow
control generally occurs at the transport layer.

Flow control manages data transmission between devices so that the transmitting
device does not send more data than the receiving device can process. Multiplexing
enables data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single physical link.
Virtual circuits are established, maintained, and terminated by the transport layer.
Error checking involves creating various mechanisms for detecting transmission
errors, while error recovery involves acting, such as requesting that data be
retransmitted, to resolve any errors that occur.

The transport protocols used on the Internet are TCP and UDP.

OSI Model Session Layer

The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions.

Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that
occur between applications located in different network devices. These requests
and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. Some
examples of session-layer implementations include Zone Information Protocol
(ZIP), the AppleTalk protocol that coordinates the name binding process; and
Session Control Protocol (SCP), the DECnet Phase IV session layer protocol.

OSI Model Presentation Layer

The presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that
are applied to application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent
from the application layer of one system would be readable by the application layer
of another system. Some examples of presentation layer coding and conversion
schemes include common data representation formats, conversion of character
representation formats, common data compression schemes, and common data
encryption schemes.

Common data representation formats, or the use of standard image, sound, and
video formats, enable the interchange of application data between different types of
computer systems. Conversion schemes are used to exchange information with
systems by using different text and data representations, such as EBCDIC and
ASCII. Standard data compression schemes enable data that is compressed at the
source device to be properly decompressed at the destination. Standard data
encryption schemes enable data encrypted at the source device to be properly
deciphered at the destination.
Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular
protocol stack. Some well-known standards for video include QuickTime and
Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG). QuickTime is an Apple Computer
specification for video and audio, and MPEG is a standard for video compression
and coding.

Among the well-known graphic image formats are Graphics Interchange Format
(GIF), Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG), and Tagged Image File Format
(TIFF). GIF is a standard for compressing and coding graphic images. JPEG is
another compression and coding standard for graphic images, and TIFF is a
standard coding format for graphic images.

OSI Model Application Layer

The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that
both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software
application.

This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating

component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model.
Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners,
determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the
identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to
transmit.

When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether
sufficient network resources for the requested communication exist. In
synchronizing communication, all communication between applications requires
cooperation that is managed by the application layer.
Some examples of application layer implementations include Telnet, File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).