Translation Strategies:

A Review and Comparison of Theories

by Zohre Owji, M.A.

Abstract
Extensive research has been done in the field of translation
strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or
theorist represets his/her own point of view and their views
differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are
used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal
translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have
investigated and described various translation strategies from
their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field
are described and compared to each other in this paper. The
purpose of this study was to show the different theories in the
field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature
review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future
studies. Baker (1992) offered the clearest taxonomy of
translation strategies that she believed professional translators
use when they encounter a translation problem while performing
a translation task.
Key Words
Translation, translation strategies, Baker's taxonomy, theoretical
research, translational problems


1.0. Introduction
his study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Review of
literature; 3. Conclusions; 5. References;

1.1. General
Nowadays, in a world characterized by global communication, translation
plays a key role in exchanging information between languages. To move
along the natural and professional continuum of conveying the meaning from
one particular language into another, a translator needs to learn some skills,
which are referred to as translation strategies.
Bergen (n. d.) quotes Chesterman's (1997) list of some general
characteristics of translation strategies:
a) Translation strategies apply to a process;
b) They involve text-manipulation;
c) They are goal-oriented;
d) They are problem-centered;
e) They are applied consciously;
f) They are inter-subjective.
Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they
encounter a problem and literal translation is not useful. Different
researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies
from their different perspectives. This paper concentrates on the differences
between these theories. It intends to show what translation strategies exist
and when and why they are used by professional translators.

2. Review of Literature
2.0. Preliminaries
In this chapter, three main issues are discussed: 1) translation (the
definition of general translation), 2) translation strategies (typologies,
characteristics, models and an introduction to Baker's (1992) model of
translation strategies), 3) the existing gaps and the aim of the present
study.

2.1. Theoretical background
2.1.1. Translation
Translation is a complicated task, during which the meaning of the source-
language text should be conveyed to the target-language readers. In other
words, translation can be defined as encoding the meaning and form in the
target language by means of the decoded meaning and form of the source
language. Different theorists state various definitions for translation.
2.1.2. The definition of general translation
It is necessary to understand the concept of translation as
mentioned by many translation theorists to obtain an overall
picture of the translation process. Some of these concepts quoted
by Jiraphatralikhit, Kaewjan, Klinpoon, Visitwanit (2005: 7) are as
follows: Bensoussan (1990) states that translation is closely related
to the reading process. Hatim and Mason (1990) suggest that
translation is a process involving the negotiation of meaning
between producers and receivers of the text. Picken (1989) defines that general translation is a
method of transferring oral and written messages from writing to speech or from one language to
another. Larson (1984) states that in general translation communicates, as much as possible, the
same meaning that was understood by the speakers of the source language, using the normal
language form of the receptor language, while maintaining the dynamics of the original source
language text. She also expresses that the goal of a translator should be to produce a receptor
language text (a translation) that is idiomatic; i.e., one that has the same meaning as the source-
language text, but is expressed in the natural form of the receptor language. Nida (1974), cited by
Jiraphatralikhit et al. (2005), believes that translating consists of reproducing in the receptor
language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning
and second in terms of style. Catford (1965, as cited in Jiraphatralikhit et al. 2005) views
translation as the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by the equivalent text
material in another language (TL). Bell (1991) views translation as the replacement of a text in
one language by an equivalent text in another language. Newmark (1981: 7) indicates that
translation is a craft that attempts to replace a written message and/or statement in one language
by the same message or statement in another language. Also, he views translation as a science, a
skill, an art, and a matter of taste. As a science, translation includes the knowledge and
assessment of the facts and the language that describes them; as a skill, translation contains the
appropriate language and acceptable usage; as an art, translation differentiates good writing from
bad and involves innovative, intuitive and inspired levels; and lastly, viewing translation as a
matter of taste includes the fact that the translator resorts to his/her own preferences; so, the
translated text varies from one translator to another. Kelly (2005: 26-27) defines translation as
the skill of understanding the source text and rendering it in the target language by using the
register, the background knowledge, and other language resources according to the intended
purpose. Therefore, a translator is a mediator of the two languages and cultures who can transfer
the SL to the TL.
What has been discussed above relates to translation theory, which identifies
translation problems and recommends the most appropriate procedure for
translation in order to solve the identified problems. So, translation can be
explained as a decision-making process and a problem-solving task. It is
also a complicated task during which the translator encounters some
problems or problematic issues which require observation, identification and
finding the suitable solution. The means by which the translator deals with
When a translator
translates a text
literally, translation
strategies may not be
needed.
these problems are called strategies. Finding the adequate strategy for
solving the above-mentioned problems takes place in the decision-making
process.

2.2. Translation strategies
2.2.1. What is a strategy?
The word strategy is used in many contexts. In translation studies many
theorists have used the term translation strategies widely but with some
considerable differences in the meaning and the perspective from which they
look at it. A list of more general definitions of the word strategy is given
below:
A strategy is a long-term plan of actions designed to achieve a
particular goal (Wikipedia Committee, n. d.).
A systematic plan, consciously adapted and mentioned, to improve
one's learning performance (Instruction Curriculum Reading Glossary,
n. d.).
A strategy is a planned, deliberate, goal-oriented (has an identifiable
outcome) procedure achieved with a sequence of steps subject to
monitoring and modification (Curriculum Learning Literate-Futures
Glossary, n. d.).
A set of explicit mental and behavioral steps used to achieve a specific
outcome (Deep Trance, n.d.).
Clearly, these definitions are general and can be related to different fields of
study. This study mainly concerns translation strategies, although the
above-mentioned definitions can be narrowed down to this research field, as
well. Translation strategies have their own characteristics, through which
one can gain an appropriate understanding of them.
Generally speaking, a translator uses a strategy when s/he encounters a
problem while translating a text; this means, when a translator translates a
text literally, translation strategies may not be needed. Bergen (n. d.)
mentions that strategies are not obvious and trivial. Although, when they
translate word for word and use a dictionary, beginners in the area of
translation think they have made a good translation; they do not understand
that a problem still exists and changes must be made at some levels of the
translation. Therefore, problem-solving is the most important function of the
strategies. However, the question that arises here is: what is a translation
problem?

2.2.2. Translation problems
According to Dr. Miremadi (1991), translation problems are divided into two
main categories: lexical problems and syntactic problems.
1. Lexical problems
In the interpretation of lexical problems, Miremadi states that, although
words are entities that refer to objects or concepts, a word in one language
may not be substituted with a word in another language when referring to
the same concepts or objects.
He divides lexical problems into five subcategories:
Straight/ denotative meaning
This kind of meaning refers to those words of the source text that can be
matched with those of the target text "without missing images" (e.g.
mother, father, etc).
Lexical meaning
Lexical meaning refers to words or phrases which seem to be equivalen,
although in that situation this may not be the case; the translator must be
aware of the intention beyond the words in order not to misrepresent the
author's message.
Metaphorical expression
This subcategory refers to the problematic issues of translating idioms and
similar expressions.
Broeik (1981) quoted by Dr. Miremadi (1991) offers the following
suggestions for translating idiomatic expressions:
a) Distinguishing between ordinary expressions and metaphors
b) Having access to the resources of translating a single metaphor
c) Being aware of different contexts and their constraints on using
metaphors
d) Correctly realizing the constraints on the translation, and rendering the
message.
Semantic voids
This subcategory includes those words and/or expressions that represent
concepts that cannot be found in other special communities. The close
equivalents may be found, although the exact equivalent cannot.
According to Dr. Miremadi (1991), this may happen in two cases, subjects
to extra-linguistic factors such as those words that have referents in a
certain speech community but not in others, and subject to intra-
linguistic factors such as those concepts that may exist in two language
communities but the structure of their use may be completely different,
Dagut (1931) believes, as Dr. Miremadi (1991) mentioned, that this case
occurs when the systems of lexicalization of shared expressions are different
from each other.
Proper names
The last but not the least sub-category in this group is the problem of proper
names. Although proper names refer to individuals and can be transcribed
from one language into another, sometimes the specific meaning that they
carry, which do not exist in the target speech community, may be lost
(e.g. Asghar Rize in Persian).
2. Syntactic problems
Syntactic problems are the other main category of translation problems; as
Dr. Miremadi (1991) quoted Nida (1975), one can find no two languages
that have the exact identical systems of structural organizations (i.e.
language structure varies from one language to another).
These differences include:
a. Word classes
Languages differ from each other in the internal word formation of
language classification.
b. Grammatical relations
This difference exists among the languages in the way that a
constituent of a sentence functions within that sentence.
c. Word order
d. Style
e. Pragmatic aspects
Considering all these problems, a translator is expected to convey the
message of the source text to target readers; however, there is no
completely exact translation between any two languages and as Dr.
Miremadi (1991) quoted Werner (1961), the degree of approximation
between two language systems determines the effectiveness of the
translation.
2.2.3. Translation strategies' typologies
Different scholars suggest various types, categorizations and classifications
for the strategies according to their particular perspectives. Here, some of
these typologies are mentioned.
Chesterman (1997), as Bergen (n. d.) stated, believes that in translation
strategies' field there is "considerable terminological confusion". As
Chesterman (1997) believes, the general characteristics of translation
strategies are as follows:
1. They involve text manipulation.
2. They must be applied to the process.
3. They are goal-oriented.
4. They are problem-centered.
5. They are applied consciously.
6. They are inter-subjective. (It means the strategies must be empirical and
understandable for the readers not the person who used them.)
Different scholars have various perspectives to the aspects of the act of
translation, so, they define and describe different types of strategies.
Bergen's (n. d.) classification of the strategies includes three
categorizations: 1. Comprehension strategies, 2. Transfer strategies, 3.
Production strategies
By his classification, he meant: first, we read and comprehend a text.
Second, we analyze the differences between the source text and the target
one, and we must decide on the kinds of strategies which we are up to use
them. And lastly, we produce the equivalent text in the target language.
Lorscher (1996: 28) identifies nine basic elements, or as he called, building
blocks of translation strategies. These building blocks are as follows:
Original elements of translation strategies
1. Realizing a translational Problem RP
2. Verbalizing a translational Problem VP
3. Searching for a possible solution to a translational Problem SP
4. Solution to a translational Problem SP
5. Preliminary Solution to a translational Problem PSP
6. Parts of a Solution to a translational Problem SPa, SPb
7. Solution to a translational Problem is still to be found SP
8. Negative Solution to a translational Problem SP=
9. Problem in the reception of the Source Language text PSL
The first complex notation means that there is a translation problem of some
sort, and the translator immediately finds a preliminary solution to the
problem [(P) SP], and stops working on this problem [#], or [/] decides to
leave this problem unsolved and return to it later [SP ].
Hatim and Munday (2004) stated that some of the main issues of translation
are linked to the strategies of form and content of literal and free
translations. This division can help identify the problems of certain overly
literal translations that impair comprehensibility. However, the real
underlying problems of such translations lie in areas such as text type and
audience.
Local strategies (concerning how to handle translation problems)
Bergen (n. d.) compared local strategies to the many vital systems which
deliver air, blood etc. to various parts of the body helping them to function
well.
Chesterman (1997) believes, as quoted by Bergen (n. d.), that the
taxonomy of translation strategies can be presented simply. It includes a
basic strategy which is: change something. In his statement, Chesterman
(1997) does not refer to the replacement of elements in the source text
words by their equivalent in the target text; it means that this replacement
cannot be the only task of a translator and it is not sufficient. The normal
types of changes made by the translators can be classified as:
a) The words which are used in the source text
b) The structure of these words
c) The natural context of the source text
Thus, as Bergen (n. d.) mentioned, according to Chesterman (1997), local
translation strategies can be categorized into semantic, syntactic, and
pragmatic changes; each group has its own subcategories. Also, there is no
obvious distinction between them, so it is difficult to say which exact
strategy is being used. In the following subsections, Chesterman's (1997)
classification of translation strategies is described, according to Bergen (n.
d.):
Syntactic strategies
These local strategies change the grammatical structure of the target text in
relation to the source text. Although most of the strategies are applied
because a literal translation is not appropriate, Chesterman (1997) presents
his first syntactic strategy, literal translation. He believes that, according to
many translation theorists, this is a "default" strategy.
1. Literal translation: It means the translator follows the source text form as
closely as possible without following the source language structure.
2. Loan translation: This is the second syntactic strategy in his classification
which refers to the borrowing of single terms and following the structure of
the source text which is foreign to the target reader.
3. Transposition: Another term that Chesterman (1997) has borrowed from
Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) is transposition that refers to any change in
word class, for example adjective to noun.
4. Unit shift: This is a term that has been borrowed from Catford (1965) in
the levels of morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence and paragraph.
5. Paraphrase structure change: This strategy refers to changes which take
place in the internal structure of the noun phrase or verb phrase, although
the source language phrase itself maybe translated by a corresponding
phrase in the target language.
6. Clause structure change: This is a term which refers to a strategy in
which the changes affect the organization of the constituent phrases or
clauses. For example, changes from active to passive, finite to infinite, or
rearrangement of the clause constituents.
7. Sentence structure change: It is a term that refers to changes in the
structure of the sentence unit. It basically means a change in the
relationship between main clauses and subordinate ones.
8. Cohesion change: The way in which the parts of a sentence join together
to make a fluent, comprehensible sentence is called textual
cohesion.Cohesion change is a term referring to a strategy which affects
intra-textual cohesion, this kind of strategy mainly takes place in the form of
reference by pronouns, ellipsis, substitution or repetition.
9. Level shift: By the term level, Chesterman (1997) means the
phonological, morphological, syntactical and lexical levels. These levels are
expressed variously in different languages.
10. Scheme change: This strategy is another term in Chesterman's (1997)
classification. It refers to rhetorical schemata such as parallelism, alliteration
and rhythm and rhyming in poetry. Parallelism refers to similar arrangement
of collocations, phrases or sentences.
Semantic strategies
The second group in Chesterman's (1997) classification is semantic strategy
which has its own subcategories.
1. Synonymy: It is the first subcategory in this group. In this strategy the
translator selects the closest synonym, which is not the first literal
translation of the source text word or phrase.
2. Antonymy: In this strategy, the translator uses a word with the
opposite meaning. This word mostly combines with a negation.
3. Hyponymy: It means using a member of larger category (e.g. rose is a
hyponym in relation to flower), and also hypernym is a related
superordinate term, which describes the entire category with a broader
term (e.g. flower is a hypernym in relation to rose).
4. Converses: This strategy refers to pairs of opposites expressing similar
semantic relationships from the opposite perspectives (e.g. send-
receive take-give).
5. Trope change: The formal name that is used for a figure of speech or
metaphor is called trope which means using a term or phrase to
compare two things that are unrelated with the purpose of revealing
their similarity. This relates to a type of strategy called trope change
strategy.
6. Abstraction change: The other kind of strategy in the list is abstraction
change. This strategy concerns shifting either from more abstract
terms to more concrete ones or vice versa.
7. Distribution change: This is a kind of strategy in which the same
semantic component is distributed over more items (expansion) or
fewer ones (compression).
8. Emphasis change: This strategy increases, decreases or changes the
emphasis of thematic focus of the translated text in comparison to the
original.
9. Paraphrase strategy: This is the last strategy in the list. According to
the overall meaning of the source text, it creates a liberal approximate
translation, some lexical items may be ignored in this sort of strategy.
Pragmatic strategies
1. Cultural filtering: According to Chesterman (1997 as cited in Bergen n.
d.), the first sort of strategy in this group is cultural filtering. It may be
described as the concrete realization, at the level of language, of the
universal strategy of domestication or target culture-oriented
translation. This strategy is generally used while translating culture-
bound items.
2. Explicitness change: In explicitness change strategy some information
of the source text maybe added; or deleted to make the text more or
less explicit.
3. Information change: The next type of strategy is information change
which is similar to the previous strategy; however, here the changed
information is NOT implicit in the source language text.
4. Interpersonal change: This strategy is used to affect the whole style of
the text to make it more or less informed, technical etc.
5. Speech act: There is another strategy the changes the nature of the
source text speech act, either obligatory or non-obligatory (e.g. from
reporting to a command, or from direct to indirect speech).
6. Visibility change: This is a strategy that increases the "presence" of
either the author of the source text or its translator (e.g. footnotes
that are added by the translator).
7. Coherence change: Another strategy is coherence change which is
similar to cohesion change which was mentioned in the previous
section (syntactic strategies). The only difference is that, cohesion
change concerns micro-structure level (e.g. a sentence or a
paragraph), but coherence change concerns a higher textual level (i.e.
combining different paragraphs to each other in a way different from
the source text).
8. Partial translation: This is a strategy that refers to translating a part of
a text, not the entire text (e.g. song lyrics or poetry).
9. Trans-editing: As Bergen also stated, according to Stetting (1989),
another strategy which can be mentioned in this section is trans-
editing that refers to extensive editing of the original text when
necessary (i.e. changing the organization of the source text
information, wording or etc).
The above-mentioned strategies present the classification of Chesterman
(1997) cited by Bergen (n. d.). It is clear that all strategies can specific
cases of "changing something," which is, as Chesterman (1997) believes,
the basic strategy of translation.
The levels on which these translation strategies work differ from each other;
and as Bergen (n. d.) stated, this may lead to terminological confusion
among researchers who are concerned with translation studies.
As Venuti (2001) states, from Vinay and Darbelnet's (1958) point of view,
translators can select two main methods of translating which are
called:direct/literal translation and oblique translation.
When literal translation is not possible because of lexical and syntactical
differences between the two languages, oblique translation is used.
Oblique translation includes seven subcategories which are as follows:
1. Borrowing: that is used to tackle a meta-linguistic difference. It is the
simplest strategy of translation that means using source language
terms in the target text.
2. Calque: This is a special type of borrowing in which the borrowed
expression is literally translated into the target language.
3. Literal translation: that means rendering a source language text into
the appropriate idiomatic or grammatical equivalent in the target
language.
4. Transposition: that is substituting one word class with another without
changing the meaning of the message.
5. Modulation: this means changing in point of view (e.g. changing part
of speech).
6. Equivalence: this refers to rendering two situations by different
stylistic and structural methods; these two texts include the source
text and its equivalent text which is the target text.
7. Adaptation: that refers to those situations when cultural differences
occur between the source language and the target language. Thus,
translation can be considered as a special kind of equivalence which is
situational equivalence
The above-mentioned strategies fit the classification of Vinay and Darbelnet
(1958), which shows some similarities with Chesterman's classification;
however, as we can see above Chesterman's (1997) classification is clearly
more detailed. All the above-mentioned strategies are theories which are
named differently by different theorists. However; if one wants to examine
the applicability of these strategies, there would be no clear borderline
between them. Moreover, they are just some of the strategies that can be
used by a translator, and it seems that there are different options that a
translator may have while doing the translation. However, there is no
hierarchical order of more or less often used strategies. Baker (1992) offers
a taxonomy of eight translation strategies, which are used by professional
translators.
Baker's taxonomy: Mona Baker (1992: 26-42) lists eight strategies, which
have been used by professional translators, to cope with the problematic
issues while doing a translation task:
1. Translation by a more general word
This is one of the most common strategies to deal with many types of
nonequivalence. As Baker believes, it works appropriately in most, if
not all, languages, because in the semantic field, meaning is not
language dependent.
2. Translation by a more neutral/ less expressive word
This is another strategy in the semantic field of structure.
3. Translation by cultural substitution
This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression
with a target language item considering its impact on the target
reader. This strategy makes the translated text more natural, more
understandable and more familiar to the target reader.
The translator's decision to use this strategy will depend on:
1. The degree to which the translator is given license by those who
commission the translation
2. The purpose of the translation
4. Translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation
This strategy is usually used in dealing with culture-specific items,
modern concepts, and buzz words. Using the loan word with an
explanation is very useful when a word is repeated several times in the
text. At the first time the word is mentioned by the explanation and in
the next times the word can be used by its own.
5. Translation by paraphrase using a related word
This strategy is used when the source item in lexicalized in the target
language but in a different form, and when the frequency with which a
certain form is used in the source text is obviously higher than it would
be natural in the target language.
6. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words
The paraphrase strategy can be used when the concept in the source
item is not lexicalized in the target language.
When the meaning of the source item is complex in the target
language, the paraphrase strategy may be used instead of using
related words; it may be based on modifying a super-ordinate or
simply on making clear the meaning of the source item.
7. Translation by omission
This may be a drastic kind of strategy, but in fact it may be even
useful to omit translating a word or expression in some contexts. If the
meaning conveyed by a particular item or expression is not necessary
to mention in the understanding of the translation, translators use this
strategy to avoid lengthy explanations.
8. Translation by illustration
This strategy can be useful when the target equivalent item does not
cover some aspects of the source item and the equivalent item refers
to a physical entity which can be illustrated, particularly in order to
avoid over-explanation and to be concise and to the point.
As it is obvious, each theorist offers his/her own strategies according to his/
her perspective; however, Bakers (1992) taxonomy of translation strategies
include the most applicable set of strategies, because it shows the strategies
which are used by professional translators. So, this definition indicates the
applicability of these strategies, i. e. not only is it a set of strategies but it
can also be tested by professional translators to see to what degree they
work if at all.

3. Conclusion
In this study, translation in general, translational problems and mainly
translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation
strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest
various definitions of translation strategies according to their different
perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most
applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she
also shows the application of each.

5. References
1. Baker, M. (1992). In other words: A course book on translation. London:
Routledge.
2. Bell, R. T. (1991). Translation and translating: Theory and practice.
London and New York: Longman.
3. Bergen, D. (n. d.). Translation strategies and the students of
translation. Jorma Tommola, 1, 109-125. Retrieved July 21, 2010,
fromhttp://www.hum.utu.fi/oppiaineet/englantilailentilologia/exambergen.pd
f .
4. . Hatim, B., & Munday, J. (2004). Translation: An advanced source book.
London: Routledge.
5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of
strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research
Gate, 1, 54-71. Retrieved May 21, 2011,
from http://aut.researchgateway.ac.nz./handle/10292/870.html.
6. Kelly, D. (2005). A handbook for translator trainers: A guide to reflective
practice. Manchester, UK: St. Jerome.
7. Lorscher, W. (1996). A psycho linguistic analysis of translation processes.
Meta, XLI, 1, 26-32. Retrieved May 18, 2009,
fromhttp://erudit.org/revue/meta/2004/v41/n1/029689ar.html.
8. Miremadi, S. A. (1991). Theories of translation and interpretation.
Tehran: SAMT.
9. Newmark, p. (1981). Approaches to translation. Tehran: Rahnama.
10. Venuti, L. (2000). The translation studies reader. London and New York:
Routledge.


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