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Unit 2
1) Introduction to Smart Meters, Real Time Prizing
2) Smart Appliances
3) Automatic Meter Reading(AMR),
4) Outage Management System(OMS),
5) Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles(PHEV),
6) Vehicle to Grid,
7) Smart Sensors,
8) Home & Building Automation,
9) Phase Shifting Transformers.
{All above points are imp regarding university question paper}

SMART METERS
THE electronic meters for electricity (smart meters), are undergoing an increasing
deployment in private homes all over in the world, mostly triggered from the
government decisions in order to fulfill energy saving targets. As a consequence, an
ever growing physical communication network, made up of millions of local meters,
has been established, whose considerable advantages are so far in favor primarily, if
not solely, of the energy distributors, since they are enabled at simplified, more
efficient and less costly transactions with the customers, e.g. for meter reading, billing
and energy supply administration. By its nature, however, a digital communication
network has, among its features, the flexibility and extensibility of the structure, so
that new applications can also be provided.
OBJECTIVES OF SMART METERING
Many governments around the world have policy objectives to roll -out smart
metering to all residential electricity customers. It is expected that the smart meters
deployed in the domestic sector will have functions such as:
1. Remote provision of accurate readings/information for defined time
periods - delivery of information to customers, suppliers and other market
actors.
2. Two way communication between the meter and energy supplier or
designated market organization, so as to; upload and download data,
transfer data at defined periods, provide remote configuration, and change
software and firmware.
3. Providing real time information to in-home displays and other devices in
the home area network (HAN).
4. Supporting a range of time of use tariffs with multiple registers within the
meter, for billing purposes.
5. To provide load management capability to deliver demand side
management. To provide remote disablement and enablement of
supply.
6. Providing capacity to communicate with measuring devices within
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micro-generators and the ability to measure net export.
7. Providing a data logging facility for different measurements.

The specific functions and measurement capabilities required to satisfy this
functionality have not yet being standardized and vary by the meter type. The
European Union has already mandated the European standard organizations
CEN, CENELEC and ETSI to develop open architecture for utility meters to
ensure interoperability.

In order to collect measurements from smart meters, different communication
techniques are being used. Power Line Carrier from the LV transformer is used in
the smart meter deployment in Italy. In this configuration, data concentrators
installed at each LV transformer collect information from the smart meters and
transmit it to the energy supplier over a high speed communication link.

The communication infrastructure and its configuration, determine the rate at which
data is read from the smart meters. Possible data reading methods can include;
reading of consumption information at the end of predetermined billing cycles,
periodical reading of load profiles and on-demand (spontaneous) reads of specific
data.

BENEFITS OF SMART METER INTERFACING THE HOUSEHOLD
The smart meter installation brings quite evident benefits to the utilities in a medium
or short span of time: it provides a more timely and precise billing and reduces the
costs of interacting with customers by activating, closing or suspending contracts with
no personnel displacement; it also give significant help in avoiding electricity related
frauds; finally it offers the potential for a better power peak control and distribution.
The interest of electrical energy distributors is therefore self-evident and it is
reasonable to assume that even for other energy sources (gas, water, heat) the utilities
could find it technologically sound and profitable to extend a similar smart metering
philosophy, even though it can be expected some delay due to the lack of such a pre-
existing physical interconnection as it is the low voltage power line for the electricity
meter. On the other hand alternatives (e.g. wireless solutions) are available, and
regulatory authorities decisions can offer additional obligations or incentives.

Nonetheless a complete exploitation of smart metering advantages is only achieved
when an efficient local interface, between the smart meter and the household is
accomplished. Benefits can then be extended to the community, and to the final user.
As a matter of fact the interconnection of energy users and the ability to easily
provide data related to energy consumption is a crucial opportunity for the
management of such critical area as the energy saving. After the Kyoto Protocol, even
the most recent 20-20-20 agreements converge at implementing policies aimed at
saving energy and reducing CO2 emissions. The role of smart meters in this context is
enhanced by a number of added services, here discussed in two categories.
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1. Consumer information and awareness. The energy related data can be made
available from the meter to the home inhabitant: instantaneous power, total energy
consumption, possibly grouped in statistically significant ranges (hours of the day,
periods of the month or year). The aim is to make the user aware of its consumption,
in order to reduce it or adapt it to the actual needs. This requires an easy-to-see
display, showing simple and immediate information, allowing the consumer to
interact in almost real time.

2. Interactive services for the regulation of energy demand. These fall under the
category of Demand Side Management (DSM), a general strategy for optimal energy
efficiency, including DR techniques. DR services are offered by the distributor or
supplier of energy; they are often based on incentives offered at government level,
which motivate the consumer to adhere to plans aimed at optimizing the distribution
of energy consumption during the day, and encourage savings that will impact both
on consumer spending and on the energy request from the community.




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REAL TIME PRICING

Since electricity is non-storable economically, wholesale prices (i.e., the
prices set by competing generators to regional electricity retailers) vary from day to
day and usually fluctuate by an order of magnitude between low-demand night-time
hours to high-demand afternoons. However, in general, almost all retail consumers
are currently charged some average price that does not reflect the actual wholesale
price at the time of consumption . As a remedy to this problem, various time-
differentiated pricing models have been proposed: real-time pricing (RTP), day-
ahead pricing (DAP), time-of-use pricing (TOUP), critical-peak pricing (CPP), etc.
In all of these variations, the main idea is twofold: first, allowing retail prices to
reflect fluctuating wholesale prices to the end users so that they pay what the
electricity is worth at different times of the day; second, encouraging users to shift
high-load household appliances to off-peak hours to not only reduce their electricity
costs but also to help to reduce the peak-to-average ratio (PAR) in load demand.
The research literature includes a wide range of work related to RTP. The
earliest peak-load pricing discussion dates more than half a century ago. More recent
theoretical and simulation studies in some IEEE papers have focused on
understanding the economic advantages of RTP. Many of these (e.g., [10], [11])
have proposed carefully designed tariff models in order to improve system
performance and users participation in RTP and CPP programs. On the other hand,
the environmental implications of RTP are examined in and it is shown that RTP can
potentially reduce the emission levels of SO , NO , and CO in many regions in the
United States, where peak demand is met more by oil-fired capacity than by
hydropower.

Time-differentiated pricing is currently implemented in various regions in
North America, e.g., in form of hourly-based DAP tariff used by the Illinois
Power Company in the United States and the three-level (on-peak, mid-peak,
off-peak) TOUP tariff used by the Ontario Hydro Company in Toronto, Canada.


SMART HOME APPLIANCES
Currently, there are virtually no appliances in the home that are not available
with some degree of automation. The combination of automation and
programmability with artificial intelligence is the next step in the evolution of the
home automation system.
Artificial Intelligence enables new era of energy efficient home appliances
which can reduce the energy bill by up to 20%. Various smart devices based on AI
based technology, which embodiessmart-grid fived, smart-core features diagnosis,
smart access, smart adaptation and smart food management. Users can check which
food items they put in the machine and where, and how long they have until the
items expire on LCD displays or their handsets via Wi-Fi connections. Smart
means offering ultimate benefits of empowerment and convenience to our
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consumers. The AI technology essentially transforms how consumers take care of
their home and makes it easier and smarter than ever before.


















Smart appliances can be instructed to work at the most cost-effective times
according to a smart grid plan. When switched on, they suggest options of
recommend time or lowest rate to use the minimum amount of energy at the least
expensive rates. smart access technology makes it possible for owners to watch
washing cycles while they are out. Alert messages will be sent to their mobile devices
for the end of a phase or any error during the operation.
Energy problem is becoming one of the toughest issues nowadays. In order to
meet the increased demands regarding energy awareness, we have been developing a
new way of representing and interacting with energy in electric products, specifically
home appliances. Rapid advances in electronic revolution not only transform our
modern life, but also enlarge the worlds appetite for energy, especially electricity. A
strong motivation to meet the growing demands for energy is emerging recently. As
a result, how to reduce energy consumption is becoming one of the hot spots for both
industrial and academia.

These days, appliances have become intelligent, offering greater convenience and
more functions. Because of functional increase, appliances have more complex
configuration processes. And users should occasionally upgrade the software for their
appliances.







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[Smart Appliances that can shutoff when an electric utility reaches peak capacity &
give us options to use it at some other time or at a lower power level.]

GE has partnered with Tendril & has developed a home-based energy management
system called the Tendril Residential Energy Ecosystem (TREE) that will allow GEs
smart appliances to communicate over a broadband or smart meter network.]
Smart refrigerators will make sure their daily defrost cycle, which amounts to around
7% of their energy use, does not occur during peaks. Smart clothes dryers and
dishwashers will wait until late night to turn on. When customers suffer slight
inconveniences to help the grid through tight spots they may be recompensed on their
power bills. At the same time, in instances when they arent willing to be
inconvenienced, consumers can override the devices and use appliances at will.
Customers will find incentives to participate in peak shaving through time-of use
pricing in which peak power costs more than electricity at other times of the day. The
nation's largest pilot for time-of-use pricing, operated by Puget Sound Energy, was
recently cancelled because many customers were actually paying more than under
standard rates. So they were leaving the program improves. People who are elderly or
disabled benefit the most from a home automation system that employs artificial
intelligence. These systems offer those who are less mobile, or in delicate health, the
opportunity to be independent, rather than staying in an assisted living facility. In the
third generation, the home appliances should be supplied to realize the next three
points.
The first point is the comfortable way of life, the second point is the ease of life to
manage time and space, and the third point is the health and environment conscious
life. Figuratively speaking, this means a "heartware, which is neither hardware nor
software, has to be developed and incorporated in home appliances. In order to
develop such "heartware", extensive studies on the human habits, thought, reasoning,
intuition, learning and the combined systems of these should be carried out. And
based on these, new appliances and operating systems thereof should be developed. In
the process of understanding the human-like reasoning and judgment, a soft
processing called "Fuzzy Reasoning" replacing the conventionally developed hard
"Artificially Intelligent", are now being applied to appliances. Further more, new
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processing called "Neuro" and Thaos" which are non-linear information processing
methods are now being developed.

Application to Washing Machine: As an typical example related to clothing, there is
an automatic washing machines controlled to its optimum condition. This is attained
by combining the logic of fuzzy reasoning with the learning capability of neural
network. Whereas more of the modern automatic household machines are controlled
by fuzzy reasoning, the reasoning employed there should be more detailed in order to
make the control finer Although the finer control is possible by providing a large
number of various sensors and by utilizing the information derived by these, this is
only possible by sacrificing the machine cost. Therefore, the establishment of the
desired inference rules by existing sensors is desired. This means the accomplishment
of human-like judgment by using only one type of physical data.

At a primitive stage, the control of washing machine is accomplished by the fuzzy
reasoning with three independent sensors. These sensors are an optical sensor, a
current sensor and a water-level sensor An optical sensor detects the degree and type
of soiling and the type of detergents. A current sensor detects the amount of washing
clothes. A water-level sensor detects
the amount of water. The washing and rising periods, number of rinsing cycles,
spinning time, water-level and current strength are reasoned out by using those
sensors' outputs.

In order to make the machine control finer, it is necessary to acquire more washing
information such as the type of clothes, preferred washing course, water quality and
the dissolution of detergent (water temperature and the amount of the detergent).

Although these can be done by providing sensors dedicated for these purpose, this
will certainly increase the machine cost. It has been found that this problem can be
solved by optimizing the parameters of the membership functions of fuzzy reasoning
after those are roughly set initially. This optimization can be done by the trainability
of neural network, and this process is called neuro-fuzzy. Despite

an increased amount of judging information, the increase of design and product costs
is very low and also the machine operation can be optimized.


AUTOMATIC METER READING
AMR only permits to deliver information on unique direction, its automatic meter
reading makes power-staff get rid of heavy manual labor, and greatly improve reading
accuracy. However, AMR has little amount of information available, has no or only a
simple monitoring capabilities. It cannot meet requirements to flexible interaction.
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The automatic meter reading (AMR) systems has been installed in many countries
and use by many energy suppliers, this system introduced to make ability for remote
reading of customers energy consumption. AMR is based on different
communication technique for transferring data to long distance.

Wireless and power line carrier communication are two economical solution for
automatic meter reading, but power line carrier communication is more economical
solution in cooperation with wireless system . Power line carrier communication
(PLC) is a kind of technique to transmit data over power line in low voltage side. In
PLC we modulate data over specific carrier frequency and transmit it over power
line, so every users who connected to low voltage side of power line in the same
phase can act as data node.

If an AMR system may be established in a power network every user connected each
other via power line. Because of powerful ability that such system provides to us we
can introduce new system that be more than just meter reading, this system is famous
as smart metering. Smart metering provides more ability in supplies network, such as
transferring of command and more data.

Various groups are working on a new approach for detect and find illegal connection
in power line grid based on smart metering. As technology continues to improve in
price/performance, the number of municipal utilities implementing automatic meter
reading (AMR) systems continues to grow. Today, most AMR deployments are
walk-by or drive-by systems. A battery-operated transmitter in each meter sends
a radio frequency (RF) signal that is read by a special receiver either carried by hand
or mounted in a vehicle. These solutions require a much smaller staff of meter
readers, who merely need to walk or drive by the many meters in any neighborhood.
The result is more accurate readings taken in far less time all without any need to
enter anyones property. Although this form of AMR is an enormous improvement
over manual meter reading, continued high labor and vehicle costs are driving the
industry to an even better solution.
Fully-automatic meter reading can eliminate entirely the need for anyone to walk or
drive by any metersever againwith special receivers deployed to automatically
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and continuously read all meters in their vicinity. Among the many advantages are the
ability to monitor daily demand, implement conservation programs, create usage
profiles by time of day, and detect potentially hazardous conditions, such as leaks or
outages. But there is still one drawback with these AMR deployments: the costly
network backhaul required by leased lines or cellular services from a local telephone
company, or Power Line Carrier (PLC) solutions from the local power company.
Leveraging Wireless Mesh for AMR
Advances in wireless mesh networking now make fully-automatic meter reading
practical and affordable for virtually any water, gas or electric utility. A wireless mesh
is a self-forming, self-healing network that requires minimal management, and no
separate wiring or costly backhaul services. The mesh topology automatically creates
multiple wireless paths, allowing the network to readily overcome obstacles and
interference, easily expand into new territory, and deliver mission-critical reliability.
For these reasons, a wireless mesh network is ideal for AMR applications.

The configuration essentially works as follows. A radio transmitter in each meter,
sometimes called a meter interface unit, sends its reading to a nearby gateway
receiver. Each gateway receiver serves an entire neighborhood cluster of meters.
The many gateway receivers connect via either standard Ethernet ports or Wi-Fi
communications to a community-wide wireless mesh network. The mesh then routes
the traffic to utilitys datacenter, where a special server ultimately passes all the
readings along to the customer billing system. The increased accuracy of the meter
readings alone often cost-justifies the entire investment.
Automatic meter reading systems consist of three primary components:
1. Meter interface module: Smart Metering consist of meter interface module with
power supply, Battery backup and required controlling module and a
communication interface that allows data to be transmitted from this remote device
to a central location. In many instances, this communication interface is bi
directional and allows central office signals to be received by the remote unit as
well. Every electric, gas or water meter must have such an interface unit to be
remotely read. Some key components of the Smart Metering device may be shared
by more than one meter without regard for the type of meter; i.e.., electric, gas or
water.
2. Communications systems: This used for the transmission of data and control
send signals between the meter interface units and the central of fice. Typically,
such communications take the form of telephone, radio frequency (RF), GSM, and
over hard wire cable. The system components in the communications system depend
on the communication media used.
3. Central office or Master Location Monitoring System: This system include
communication modems which work as a Tran receivers, computer. Many utilities
have for some time been taking advantage of electronic meter reading systems using
hand-held data terminals that communicate with a central controller via phone lines.
There is great similarity between the host side electronic meter reading and
automatic meter reading system function.
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The benefits of AMR include:
1. Lower cost to read the meters using the GTCL AMR wireless system,
the power or utility company can read all of the meters in a community
every day, or more frequently as appropriate. It is not necessary to send a
service person to visit every customer location once a month.
2. More accurate and complete reads the power or utility company will no
longer need to estimate usage when meters are not physically accessible to
their service people. They can get real -time usage data from any of the
meters in the system instantly. Meters are always accessible.
3. Working as a two-way communication with each meterwith intelligent
power meters and two way communications, the power company can
manage their peak loads better and offer incentives for customers to shift
their power usage to off -peak times.
4. Theft of service detection and preventionMeter tampering is detected
instantly through the wireless network, making it much more difficult for
someone to steal the service.
5. Sub metering-Multi-tenant properties can provide individual user data to the
utility on a remote basis. The reduction of associated costs c oupled with the
magnitude of the transmitted information can, in many cases, allow the
utility to offer its commercial customers new report oriented services.
6. Down loading of all relevant data from the meter installed at consumer
premises or valves/checkpoints for pipelines.
7. Transform the data into signals suitable for transmission through the wireless
communication media.
8. Transmit info to information centers of a company based on the priority.
9. Transform the data into a format suitable for report generation, invoicing
control from the computer system at any of above information centers. Also
transform the data into a format suitable for management information, load
monitoring, load surveying, evaluation of tamper attempts etc.
10. Alarm the above information centers in a selectable cycle, in case of
occurrence of deliberate tampering, pre specified parameters of system
anomaly/variations/irregularity, initiated from the CMU itself without
waiting for the interrogation from information centers. tem will
have security features to prevent any access by unauthorized personnel to the
data, hardware & software.
11. The system will have security features for restricting personnel from
performing activities, which are not within their authorization.
12. The communication links between CMU & Boards various information
centers will be fully encrypted as per relevant Data Encryption Standards
(DES).
13. Security of Data in transit will be provided by using standard protocols,
Error detection and correction protocols & security me asures.
14. Intelligent building applications -An area of overlap between intelligent
buildings and the AMR system is customer information coupled with the
variable rate structures. The AMR system can act as a specialized interface
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between the building and the outside world. Information regarding
operations, prevailing rates, customer usage, etc., would be instrumental to
intelligent building owners and operators. This information would be made
available to the building's computer and could be displayed on wall-mounted
units as well.



OUTAGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

The primary goal of any distribution utility is to provide customers
with a reliable power supply and high quality service while maintaining maximum
cost efficiency. The importance of power supply reliability is increasing in the wake
of industry deregulation. In addition to the price of electric power, its reliability and
the quality of service are also key parameters that will determine winners and losers
in the utility industry. Disruptions occurring in the power supply due to faults caused
by natural hazards or electric malfunctions are the main factors that affect the
reliability of the system and, consequently, customer satisfaction

Electric utilities are looking for better ways to manage operations and satisfy
customers. To this end, many electric utilities are actively installing or are considering
installing an Outage Management System (OMS) for their electric distribution
operations. While these systems are costly, they provide superb capabilities for swift
and accurate dispatching of restoration resources as well as the ability to manage
nearly overwhelming amounts of data in an organized manner.

These systems are currently reducing the average outage restoration by over 30%.
With this new outage management technology, the utility can also acquire additional
revenue by offering new customer services, such as Outage Alert and/or Outage
Watch services. These services provide the customer with Integrated Voice Response
(IVR) messages to notify them of an outage at a remote site.

OMS Problem Description:
When a fault occurs in the distribution network, the protective device closest
to the fault should isolate the faulted portion of the network and thereby de-energizing
a minimal number of customers behind the device. The fault must be cleared and the
protective device that operated must be found and replaced by dispatched crew to
restore normal system operation. To reduce the duration of an outage, the protective
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device that operated should be found as soon as possible. Prompt and accurate outage
determination can expedite crew dispatch to the fault location.

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) is still not widely deployed in
distribution systems because of the high cost involved. As a result, trouble calls from
affected customers are presently the major source of information concerning
abnormal network status. Recent advancements in Automated Meter Reading (AMR)
technology with communications through fixed networks, and a wide application of
Power Outage Monitors (POM), provide additional information on the de-energized
portion of the network.
The OMS provides a decision support environment that can be used to address
complex problems faced by distribution dispatchers and system operators during an
emergency situation. The quality of an automated outage management process
depends on the inferencing power of the computerized outage determination
procedure.

More accurate methods require information about the system connectivity and
protective device location. The required information can be maintained in an
Automated Mapping/Facility Management system implemented in Geographic
Information System technology (AM/FM/GIS), or in a separate database. For
purposes of this discussion, the components of an effective outage management
system include:

A well-designed high-volume call handling system OMS have been developed
with interfaces into Supervisory Control and Data Aquistion (SCADA),
Automatic Meter Reading systems (AMR), Utility Call Centers, Customer
Information Systems (CIS), and an Automated Mapping/Facility
Management/ Geographic Information System (AM/FM/GIS) systems.

A Geographic Information System (GIS)/mapping system
An outage analysis system

Advantages of OMS can be summarized as follows:

Accurate calculation of the system average interruption duration index (SAIDI),
customer average interruption duration index (CAIDI), system average
interruption frequency index (SAIFI), momentary average interruption
frequency index (MAIFI) etc.

History of individual feeder performance

Accurate failure rates of equipment [with knowledge as to how these rates were
determined] Determination of typical restoration times and crew efficiencies

Accurate data for performance of predictive reliability analysis and sag analysis.


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PLUG IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

The instability of Crude Oil prices motivates numerous questions related to the future
need for replacement of crude oil and derived products. Crude oil-based products are
part of our everyday life, from health equipments (through numerous artifacts that
makes modern life possible), to power generation and transportation. Therefore the
production shortage or high prices of fuel can very easily and very directly affect our
lives. Therefore, the increasing dependence of the transportation sector on fossil fuels
needs special attention. In addition, environmental problems, particularly those
associated to global warming, as a consequence of carbon dioxide and air pollution in
urban areas are already perceived by the society as very serious. These problems
together with the Kyoto Protocol measurements push manufactures to introduce more
effective and environment friendly internal combustion (IC) engines or hybrid
engines. The transportation sector alone represents about 20% of the total CO2
emissions from fuel.

It is in this context that the automobile industry together with the governments would
have to make significant active efforts to develop and enforce the usage of low
emission vehicles. With growing concerns about energy security, environment, and
economics, interest in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) and Plug-in Hybrid Electric
Vehicles (PHEVs) has increased. BEVs/PHEVs have large-capacity batteries and an
intelligent converter to connect to electric power grid.

The main types available today are listed below.

1. HEVs: Hybrid electric vehicles run on gasoline with a motor and use batteries
to improve fuel efficiency. They do not use electricity from any external
source.
2. Pure-in EVs: EVs run on an electric motor powered by batteries that are
recharged by plugging in the vehicle.
3. Plug-in PHEVs: PHEVs can be charged with electricity like EVs and run
under engine power like hybrid electric vehicles. The combination offers
increased driving range with potential large fuel and cost savings and emission
reductions.

The plug-in EV can provide a wide range of service for the electric generation chain
(ancillary services, regulation, back up power and peak shifting). The plug-in EV
would be primarily used for transportation, but when not in use, the EVs could be
connected to the grid, providing storage and supply services to the grid approximately
for 96% of the day.



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VEHICLE TO GRID
Using a plug, BEVs/PHEVs can charge the battery using electricity from an electric
power grid, also referred to as Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) operation, or discharge it to
an electric power grid during the parking hours, also referred to as Vehicle-to-Grid
(V2G) operation. Indeed, most of the time vehicles sit idle parked at homes, streets,
parking lots, or garages; hence BEVs/PHEVs battery capacity can be fully utilized
during such times. Therefore, BEVs/PHEVs could serve as decentralized energy
storage in a smart grid and can act as either a load or a generator as needed.

BEVs/PHEVs can be used to feed power back to home or office building, which is
known as Vehicle-to-Building (V2B) operation. The new parking facility called
smart garage need to be introduced for each building. The destinations, either
parking lots or parking garages, are assumed to be equipped with a bi-directional
charger and controller. The parking facility should allow either charge or discharge
mode for the car batteries when necessary. The idea is that the parking facility can
offer an aggregation service for charging the batteries when the building demand is
lower than its peak load and discharge the batteries to partially supply the building to
reduce the peak demand during a high demand. This mode will be considered as DSM
by V2B. Considering the electricity rate when the vehicle batteries were charged is
lower than when the batteries are discharged, the battery storage may be used to offset
high cost during the peak demand.

Benefits Of Using BEVs/PHEVs In Power System

It is expected that V2B operation will improve the reliability of the distribution
system, provide extra economic benefits to the vehicle owners, and reduce the home
or building electricity purchase cost based on the demand side management (DSM)
and outage management (OM) programs with customer incentives.

1 Demand Side Management (DSM)

For electric utility, DSM is defined as the planning, implementation, and monitoring
of distribution network utility activities designed to influence customer use of
electricity in ways that will produce desired changes in the load shape, which
includes peak clipping, valley filling, load shifting, strategic conservation, strategic
load growth, and flexible load shape. However, for utility end-user (customer), DSM
is often understood to include two components: energy efficiency (EE) and demand
response (DR). EE is designed to reduce electricity consumption during all hours of
the year; DR is designed to change onsite demand for energy in intervals and
associated timing of electric demand by transmitting changes in prices, load control
signals or other incentives to end-users to reflect existing production and delivery
costs. In the V2B option, the owners will plug in their vehicles during the day at their
final destination for a given time frame.

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2 Outage Management (OM)

Another important benefit of V2B is using the battery energy storage in BEVs/PHEVs
as an emergency back-up power for the commercial facility/building, which increases
the reliability of the power supply for that load.

3 Spinning reserves and Regulation

EV could provide ancillary services to the grid, like spinning reserves and regulation
just by being plugged in to the grid. Thus they can cover short operating capacity
reserves and provide voltage regulation with a quick response. It is considered that
EV are charging only with excess energy from renewable energy in base load hours,
in order to provide the peak load shifting. The results do also show that charging EV
from fuel power plant and discharging in peak hours with lower efficiency than direct
production has from economical and ecological point of view, to be avoided.

EV batteries could be suitably used for peak hours shifting for higher penetration of
renewable, enabling a higher renewable part of baseload electricity production.

4 BEV/PHEV Charging/discharging

It is assumed that the primary electric vehicle charging station is located at the
residence, business, or fleet facility where the vehicle is parked. Also, it is assumed
that there are also a number of public charging sites that are available. An intelligent
method for scheduling optimal usage of energy stored in these vehicles is necessary.
Finding optimal times to charge or discharge in order to maximize profits to vehicle
owners while satisfying system and vehicle owners is to be determined.

Grid connected PHEV

Figure shows a typical parking lot for plug-in electric vehicles connected to the utility
grid. V2G can reduce dependencies on small expensive units in the existing and
future power systems as energy storage that can decrease running costs. It can
contribute to efficient management of load fluctuation, peak load; however, it increase
spinning reserves and reliability. As number of gridable vehicles in V2G is much
higher than small units of existing systems, unit commitment (UC) with V2G is more
complex than basic UC for only thermal units. Particle swarm optimization to solve
the V2G scheduling problem, as PSO can reliably and accurately solve complex
constrained optimization problems easily and quickly without any dimension
limitation and physical computer memory limit. The charging round-the-clock for
costumers with significant higher transportation needs would be possible without
causing significant shortage in electricity supply, because of the higher storage
availability. An increasing EV penetration can be closely related with the increase of
renewable implementation, because it could contribute to ensure the necessary storage
and backup power. A suitable grid connection could also ensure the adequate back up
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capacity to increase renewable energy, promoting a more sustainable energy system.









Electric vehicles are capable of providing a set of interesting ancillary services to the
grid, in that they may contribute to provide the required storage capacity, that enable
brother use of renewable energy. In addition the individual perspective benefits from
the possible revenues from providing these services and constitutes a significant
motivation to the EV owners. The operational consumption could be sufficiently
covered by the revenues that are associated to provide energy stored in off peak
periods to the grid in peak power demand periods. The results obtained show that the
EV, when providing both these services, could present lower total costs than the ones
in case of an IC engine vehicle.
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SMART SENSORS

Smart Sensors

Sensors and actuators in the smart grid are fundamental elements required for
successful operation of the grid. It is through these devices that the actual power
systems reaction to various inputs and outputs is measured. As in classic control
systems, it is through sensors that vital information about a variety of conditions is
received.





























Fig. 3 Various Sensor Technologies for Transmission and Substations are shown
The sensors convert voltage, current, phase angle, position status, and
other data into manageable signals that are either analog or digital in nature. In the
power delivery smart grid, sensors will increase in both type and quantity. In fact,
over the last 1015 years, a number of new commercially produced sensors have
been introduced by suppliers. These have included transformer monitors, circuit
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breaker monitors, and infrared cameras. Systems built in intelligence have made
our life much easier. Sensors can be deployed in manned or unmanned situations.
These have found applications where response time is critical. For example in fire
detection. A temperature sensor based smart sensor connected with ZigBee can be
used to detect fires and hazards and take preventive actions sooner than otherwise.

The transmission line sensors include sensors like the corona camera, sagometer,
partial discharge, and acoustic sensor. While all of these sensors provide useful
information to the utility operators and managers, they have been difficult to apply
out to the field assets due to the lack of wide area, high-bandwidth
communications. As a result, many of these remote sensors have been limited to
periodic data collection, local controls that are not integrated with the overall grid
management and asset management functions, and specialized, proprietary
communication systems.

To operate the grid with lower margins requires that the system be highly
monitored and automated, with constant feedback available regarding the real-
time system state. This allows for necessary control adjustments to keep the
system within its specified margins. Today technology is available to control the
grid to an even greater degree.

(a) RF Conductor and Connector Temperature Sensors:
These sensors measure the temperature of the high-voltage conductor to which
they are attached as well as the current flowing in the conductor. They
communicate wirelessly. There are two applications for these sensors:
the rating of transmission lines
the identification of high-risk compression connectors.

Conductor temperature sensor installed on a reinforced aluminium cable
(ACSR) conductor. The sensor communicates using a cell phone modem. RF
conductor temperature and current sensor, offering power harvesting, line
working install, and low cost.









Fig. 4 RF Temperature Sensor

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(b) Post and Bushing External Insulation RF Leakage Current:

This sensor technology measures the leakage current levels and provides an
indication of when to wash insulation or when a high risk of flashover exists.
Associated projects are developing algorithms for specific types of insulation.
These sensors are being demonstrated.












Fig. 5 RF leakage current clamp on RF leakage current sensor for transmission
line applications installed on a 115 kV composite insulator.

(c) Low-Cost Gas-in-Oil Sensors:

Although online dissolved gas analysis (DGA) systems for transformers are
widely available, their cost is relatively high. EPRI is developing solid-state
micro-sensors that detect hydrogen (an indicator of partial discharges) and
acetylene that will be available at a fraction of the current market cost for DGA
systems.

Metal-insulated semiconductor (MIS) sensors are small (0.1 mm2) and consume
very little power (0.1 mW). The MIS sensors being developed have a high
sensitivity to hydrogen (0.10 ppm). The sensors respond very quickly (0.1 s) and
can operate in a range of temperature environments (25200 degree C). Figure 6
shows an MIS sensor for measuring acetylene gas levels in oil.

Laboratory tests are under way on model transformers in order to investigate drift
in flowing oil (fresh, aged, and very aged) and to determine the stability of the
measured signal over several months to ensure reliable and repeatable
performance in service. An MIS sensor for measuring acetylene gas levels in oil.
The use of MIS gas-in-oil sensors can increase the number of transformers
monitored due to their low cost.

(d) A solar powered tank top temperature sensor installed on a
transformer
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.




Fig. 7 Solar powered tank top temperature sensor

(e) Transformer-3D Acoustic Emissions Technique:

This technique enables the detection and location of gassing sources in power
transformers and LTCs. New technology to locate in 3D the discharge or bubbling
sources in a transformer are ready for demonstration in EPRI member substations.
The field demonstration results further aid in the development of algorithms. An
exciting recent expansion of this opportunity will allow utilities to trial a new on-
line acoustic emission solution that can trend high-risk transformers identified
with a 24h test. This project is being demonstrated.







Fig. 8 Acoustic sensor

(f) Transformer-On-line Frequency Response Analysis (FRA):

The FRA of a transformer is developed by measuring the response of a
transformer to normally occurring transients on the power system (e.g., lightning
and switching). Changes in the frequency response can identify changes in the
internal geometry of the transformer. This sensing system is being demonstrated.



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(g) Synchronized Phasor Measurements (Syncro-phasors ):

It has been recognized in recent years that synchronized phasor measurements are
exceedingly versatile tools of modern power system protection, monitoring, and
control. Future power systems are going to depend on making use of these
measurements to an ever-increasing extent. The principal function of these
systems is to measure positive sequence voltages and currents with a precise time
stamp (to within a microsecond) of the instant when the measurement was made.
The time stamps are directly traceable to the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
standard and are achieved by using Global Positioning System (GPS)
transmissions for synchronization. Many PMUs also provide other measurements,
such as individual phase voltages and currents, harmonics, local frequency, and
rate of change of frequency.

PHASE-SHIFTING TRANSFORMERS
A Phase-Shifting Transformer is a device for controlling the power flow through
specific lines in a complex power transmission network.
The basic function of a Phase-Shifting Transformer is to change the effective
phase displacement between the input voltage and the output voltage of a
transmission line, thus controlling the amount of active power that can flow in the
line.
More effective utilization of network capacity has become more important since
liberalization of electricity markets and the continuing increase of renewable
generation sources in the electricity supply mix. In the liberalized environment,
the Transmission System Operator (TSO) has no direct control over the location
or the amounts of electricity produced as these are determined by market
participants. Subject to trading arrangements, the final dispatch of generation may
not be known to the TSO until as little as 1 hour ahead of real time operation.
Further, generation coming from renewable energy sources offers no guaranteed
output and is often located at distant parts of the network where there may not be
sufficient infrastructure to accommodate them or transfer the energy towards the
main load centers. With long delays to granting of consents for new or uprated
overhead lines, existing network thermal capacity must be utilized as fully as
possible.

In the context described above, phase shifting transformers (PSTs) could prove a
useful option for controlling the flow of power under different operational
circumstances. In particular, they offer the possibility of flexibly increasing
utilization of the thermal capacity of the network under a variety of different
conditions. A number of transformers of this kind are already installed in GB and
in the interconnected electricity network of continental Europe. However,
practical experience suggests that there is room for improvement in the way these
units are operated both for day- to-day operation and for long term planning
purposes. This mainly concerns the degree to which the settings on multiple
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PSTs could be coordinated to maximize the networks power transfer capability
without making it unduly vulnerable to differences between the planned operating
state of the system and the actual one.



PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF PHASE-SHIFTING
TRANSFORMERS
Phase shifting transformers are devices that are able to exercise control on the
flow of power across a transmission line and consequently on the network, by
means of redistributing the power across the different circuits of the network.

The flow of active and reactive power over a long distance, high voltage
transmission line in steady state conditions is described by the following equations
,where the subscript - s stands for the sending end of the transmission line, the - r
for the receiving end, is the is reactance the load and angle, the angular
difference of the voltage phasors on either end of the line. A phase shifting
transformers by principle of operation is that it manipulates inserting that
phase c shift angle and be added up to increase or decrease the original and
angle consequently the flow of active power on the line. The flow of reactive
power is also influenced but to less extend. The phase shift angle can be acquired
either by the appropriate connection (Y- or -) of the windings of a single three-
phase transformer or by using two separate transformers.






In the latter case, the transformer consists of a parallel (shunt) branch and a series
branch. Power is extracted from the network through the parallel branch and
injected back to the transmission line by injecting voltage through the series
branch. One can distinguish between two different design options. In the first one,
the Phase Angle Regulator (PAR), the injected voltage is of the same magnitude
as the lines voltage but not in phase. So a phase shift angle is introduced to the
line that is also the controlled variable. In the second design option, the
Quadrature Boosting Transformer (QB), the injected voltage is always shifted by
90 with respect to the line voltage. The magnitude of the injected voltage is the
controlled variable . All the PSTs installed on the transmission network of GB
belong to the second category, they are QBs.



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PST DESIGNED FOR NON-LINEAR LOADS
The level of harmonic currents may be reduced by using phase-shifting
techniques, and low impedance plays a crucial role in reducing voltage distortion.
New low impedance phase-shifting transformers have thus been designed. They
allow the treatment of harmonic currents while providing a path of low
impedance. Moreover, these transformers have been designed to withstand the
additional overheating caused by harmonic currents and therefore are K- rated.
The quality and reliability of the electrical system can be considerably improved
through the use of a single piece of equipment.


HOME & BUILDING AUTOMATION

Home automation (part of domotics) is the residential extension of "building
automation". It is automation of the home, housework or household activity.
Home automation may include centralized control of lighting, HVAC (heating,
ventilation and air conditioning), appliances, and other systems, to provide
improved convenience, comfort, energy efficiency and security. Home
automation for the elderly and disabled can provide increased quality of life for
persons who might otherwise require caregivers or institutional care.

A home automation system integrates electrical devices in a house with each
other. The techniques employed in home automation include those in building
automation as well as the control of domestic activities, such as home
entertainment systems, houseplant and yard watering, pet feeding, changing the
ambiance "scenes" for different events (such as dinners or parties), and the use of
domestic robots. Devices may be connected through a computer network to allow
control by a personal computer, and may allow remote access from the internet.
Through the integration of information technologies with the home environment,
systems and appliances are able to communicate in an integrated manner which
results in convenience, energy efficiency, and safety benefits.

Typically, a new home is outfitted for home automation during construction, due
to the accessibility of the walls, outlets, and storage rooms, and the ability to
make design changes specifically to accommodate certain technologies. Wireless
systems are commonly installed when outfitting a pre-existing house, as they
reduce wiring changes. These communicate through the existing power wiring,
radio, or infrared signals with a central controller. Network sockets may be
installed in every room like AC power receptacles.

Although automated homes of the future have been staple exhibits for World's
Fairs and popular backgrounds in science fiction, complexity, competition
between vendors, multiple incompatible standards [1] and the resulting expense
have limited the penetration of home automation to homes of the wealthy or
ambitious hobbyists. Possibly the first "home computer" was an experimental
system in 1966.
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Building automation describes the functionality provided by the control system
of a building. A building automation system (BAS) is an example of a
distributed control system. The control system is a computerized, intelligent
network of electronic devices designed to monitor and control the mechanical
and lighting systems in a building.

BAS core functionality keeps the building climate within a specified range,
provides lighting based on an occupancy schedule, and monitors system
performance and device failures and provides email and/or text notifications to
building engineering staff. The BAS functionality reduces building energy and
maintenance costs when compared to a non-controlled building. A building
controlled by a BAS is often referred to as an intelligent building system.

A Building Management System (BMS) is a computer-based control system
installed in buildings that controls and monitors the buildings mechanical and
electrical equipment such as ventilation, lighting, power systems, fire systems,
and security systems. A BMS consists of software and hardware; the software
program, usually configured in a hierarchical manner, can be proprietary, using
such protocols as C-bus, Profibus, and so on. Vendors are also producing BMSs
that integrate using Internet protocols and open standards such as DeviceNet,
SOAP, XML, BACnet, LonWorks and Modbus.