1

Ajay Kumar Garg Engineering College, Ghaziabad

Department of EN
NOTES FOR SUBJECT: POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND
CONTROL
SUBJECT CODE: EEE 031
PREPARED BY: Mr. Ravinder Kumar
Mr. Ankit Dixit
Evaluation Scheme
Subject
Code
EEE-031

Name of
Subject
Power System
Operation
Control

L
3

Periods
T P
1

CT
30

Evaluation Scheme
TA TOTAL ESC
20

50

100

Subject
Total

Credit

150

UNIT I:
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.

Structure of power systems,

Power system control center and real time computer control, SCADA system
Level decomposition in power system
Power system security
Various operational stages of power system
Power system voltage stability

UNIT II:
2.1
Concept and problems of unit commitment
2.2
Input-output characteristics of thermal and hydro-plants
2.3
System constraints
2.4
Optimal operation of thermal units without and with transmission losses, Penalty factor
2.6
Incremental transmission loss, transmission loss formula (without derivation)
2.7
Hydrothermal scheduling long and short terms
2.8
Concept of optimal power flow
UNIT III:
3.1
3.2

Load Frequency Control : Concept of load frequency control

Load frequency control of single area system:
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5

3.3

Turbine speed governing system and modeling

Block diagram representation of single area system
Steady state analysis, dynamic response
P-I control, Control area concept,
Load Frequency Control and Economic Dispatch Control.

Load frequency control of two area system: Tie line power modeling, block diagram
representation of two area system, Static response and Dynamic response

UNIT IV:
4.1

Automatic Voltage Control :

4.1.1
4.1.2

Schematic diagram and block diagram representation,

Different types of Excitation systems & their controllers.

4.2

Voltage and Reactive Power control :

4.2.1 Concept of voltage control
4.2.2 Methods of voltage control-control by tap changing transformer.
4.2.3 Shunt Compensation, Series compensation, Phase angle compensation

UNIT V:
5.1

State Estimation: Detection and identification, Linear and non-linear models.

5.2

Flexible AC Transmission Systems:

5.2.1Concept and objectives
5.2.2FACTs controllers: Structures & Characteristics of following FACTs Controllers.
TCR, FC-TCR, TSC, SVC, STATCOM, TSSC, TCSC, SSSC, TC-PAR, UPFC

UNIT-I
1.1 STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEMS

A typical power system can be divided into different parts. These are generation,
transmission and distribution systems.

At present, the vertically integrated utilities (state electricity boards) can import or export a
pre-decided amount of power from neighboring states or generators owned by other entities like
National Thermal Power Corporation or independent power producers(IPP).
Individual power systems are arranged in the form of electrically connected areas known as
power pools or regional grids, which cover a particular region. These regional grids are
interconnected through tie lines to form a national grid. By this arrangement each area is
contractually tied to other areas in respect to generation and scheduling features.

1.2 SCADA SYSTEMIn SCADA system measured values, i.e. analogue (measured value) data (MW, MVAR, V, Hz
Transformer tap position), and Open/Closed status information, i.e. digital data (Circuit
Breakers/Isolators position i.e. on/off status), are transmitted through telecommunication
channels to respective sub-LDCs. Secondary side of Current Transformers (CT) and Potential
Transformer (PT) are connected with 'Transducers'. The output of transducers is available in dc
current form (in the range of 4mA to 20mA). A/D converter converts this current into binary
pulses. Different inputs are interleaved in a sequential form and are fed into the CPU of the RTU.
The output of RTU, containing information in the form of digital pulses, is sent to sub LDC. At
sub LDC end, data received from RTU is fed into the data servers. In general, a SCADA system
consists of a database, displays and supporting programmes. The brief overview of major
'functional areas' of SCADA system is as below:
1. Communications - Sub-LDC's computer communicates with all RTU stations under its
control, through a communication system. RTU polling, message formatting, polynomial
checking and message retransmission on failure are the activities of 'Communications'
functional area.
2. Data Processing - After receipt of data through communication system it is processed.
Data process function has three sub-functions i.e. (i) Measurements, (ii) Counters and
(iii) Indications.
'Measurements' retrieved from a RTU are converted to engineering units and linearised, if
necessary. The measurement are then placed in database and are checked against various
limits which if exceeded generate high or low limit alarms.
The system has been set-up to collect 'Counters' at regular intervals: typically 5 or 10
minutes. At the end of the hour the units is transferred into appropriate hour slot in a 24hour archive/history.
'Indications' are associated with status changes and protection. For those statuses that are
not classified as 'alarms', logs the change on the appropriate printer and also enter it into a
cyclic event list. For those statuses, which are defined as an 'alarms' and the indication
goes into alarm, an entry is made into the appropriate alarm list, as well as in the event
list and an audible alarm is generated in the sub-LDC.
3. Alarm/Event Logging - The alarm and event logging facilities are used by SCADA data
processing system. Alarms are grouped into different categories and are given different
priorities. Quality codes are assigned to the recently received data for any 'limit violation'
and 'status changes'. Alarms are acknowledged from single line diagram (or alarm lists)
on display terminal in LDCs.

4. Manual Entry - There is a provision of manual entry of measured values, counters and
indications for the important sub-station/powerhouse, which are uncovered by an RTU or
some problem is going on in its RTU, equipment, communication path, etc.
5. Averaging of Measured Values - As an option, the SCADA system supports averaging
of all analogue measurements. Typically, the averaging of measured values over a period
of 15 minutes is stored to provide 24 hours trend.
6. Historical Data Recording (HDR) - The HDR, i.e. 'archive', subsystem maintains a
history of selected system parameters over a period of time. These are sampled at a preselected interval and are placed in historical database. At the end of the day, the data is
saved for later analysis and for report generation.
7. Interactive Database Generation - Facilities have been provided in such a way that an
off-line copy of the SCADA database can be modified allowing the addition of new
RTUs, pickup points and communication channels.
8. Supervisory Control/Remote Command - This function enables the issue of 'remote
control' commands to the sub-station/powerhouse equipment e.g. circuit breaker trip
command.
9. Fail-over - A 'Fail-over' subsystem is also provided to secure and maintain a database of
devices and their backups. The state of the device is maintained indicating whether it is
'on-line' or 'failed'. There is a 'backup' system, which maintains database on a backup
computer and the system is duplicated.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS) & REAL TIME COMPUTER-CONTROLFor energy management of the power system, control personnel and application software
engineers use SCADA data available in the database by using EMS software. Important features
are as below:
1. The Data Base Compiler provides a consistent source of data usable for the applications
in an efficient form. The Data Base Compiler does final checking for completeness and
consistency of the entries for a specific application and prepares those special tables
which are needed for the efficiency of specific application programmes.
2. Recording of 'Sequence of Events' (SOEs) is the most innovative feature provided in this
system. A RTU has the ability to accurately time tag status change and report this
information to sub-LDC. All RTUs in the system are 'time synchronized' with the master
station. In the event of any tripping, sequence of events can be well established on time
scale with a resolution of 10 milliseconds.
3. Normally, 'Automatic Generation Control' (AGC) function issues control commands to
generating plants using the concept of Area Control Error (ACE). It is based on
deviations in 'standard frequency (50 Hz)' and 'scheduled area interchanges' from that of
the 'actual frequency' and 'actual area interchanges' In the event of unavailability of
sufficient generation to satisfy the AGC requirement, the System Control Officer can
enforce required quantum of load shedding.
4. For 'Operation Scheduling' the application software has 'short-term' and 'long-term'
'System Load Forecasting' functions to assist dispatching Engineer/control Officer in
estimating the loads that are expected to exist for one to several days in advance. This
function provides a scientific and logical way of scheduling of resources in a very
effective manner.
Under 'Short-term Load Forecasting' function, application software engineers are able to
forecast weekly peak demands and load duration curves for several months into the
future.
Under 'Long-Term Load Forecasting' function, forecasting of monthly peak demands and
load duration curves for several years into the future can done for the use of 'Power
System Planner'.
5. The other functions like economic dispatch, reserve monitoring, production costing, inter
system transactions scheduling, etc. are available to guide System Control Officer to
optimally use available resources.
6. Power System Control Officer/Analyst would be able to use contingency analysis
function to assess the impact of specified contingencies that would cause line (s)
overloads, abnormal voltages, and reactive limit violations.

7. The EMS software system may have many other applications for use, which include
network topology, performing of state estimation, optimal power flow (OPW)
programme, stability programme, power flow displays, help and instructional displays,
tabular displays, single line diagram displays, etc.
1.3 LEVEL DECOMPOSITION IN POWER SYSTEM.A hierarchy of Control centers has been formed--In the diagram National Load Dispatch Centre (NLDC) has been shown at the top. Its
Control Centre has been setup at New Delhi and became operational in January 2014. Below
this, five nos. regional level Load Dispatch Centers have been shown The role of the NRLDC is
to monitor and supervise the grid and power generation of the region. It focuses attention on the
regional interconnected network. By using 'Energy Management System' (EMS) and advanced
application programmes, NRLDC coordinates with all inter-region and inter-state power
exchange.

Below NRLDC, State level SLDCs and Central Project Coordination & Control Centre (CPCC)
have been shown. The primary role of SLDCs is to monitor, control and coordinate the
generation, transmission and distribution of power within the State while ensuring safety and
continuity of its transmission and sub-transmission power networks. CPCC (North) coordinates
with all Central sector projects of northern region such as those of NTPC, NHPC, Power Grid,
Tehri, etc. CPCC gets data from Central Sector projects and that data is added at regional level.
Each RLDC has the ability to exchange data with other RLDCs as well as with NLDC, but direct
data transmission does not take place between SLDC of one State with SLDC of another State.
1.4 POWER SYSTEM SECURITY
Power system security is defined as the probability of the system's operating point
remaining within acceptable ranges, given the probabilities of changes in the system
(contingencies). Normal operating condition usually means that all the apparatus are running
within their prescribed limits, and all the system variables are within acceptable ranges. The
system should also continue to operate `normally' even in the case of credible contingencies. The
operator should `foresee' such contingencies (disturbances) and take preventive control actions
(as economically as possible) such that the system integrity and quality of power supply is
maintained.
Major components of security assessment:
(1) System monitoring (2) Contingency analysis (3) Preventive and corrective actions
(1) System monitoring: Monitoring the system is the first step. Measurement devices dispersed
throughout the system help in getting a picture of the current operating state. The measurements
can be in the form of power injections, power flows, voltage, current, status of circuit breakers,
switches, transformer taps, generator output etc., which are telemetered to the control centre.
Usually a state estimator is used in the control centre to process these telemetered data and
compute the best estimates of the system states. Remote control of the circuit breakers,
disconnector switches, transformer taps etc. is generally possible.
(2) Contingency analysis: Once the current operating state is known, next is the contingency
analysis. Results of contingency analysis allow the system to be operated defensively. Major
components of contingency analysis are:
Contingency definition, Contingency selection and Contingency evaluation
(3) Preventive and corrective actions: Preventive and corrective actions are needed to maintain a
secure operation of a system or to bring it to a secure operating state. Corrective actions such as
switching of VAR compensating devices, changing transformer taps and phase shifters etc. are
mainly automatic in nature, and involve short duration. Preventive actions such as generation
rescheduling involve longer time scales. Security-constrained optimal power flow is an example
of rescheduling the generations in the system in order to ensure a secure system operation.

10

1.5 VARIOUS OPERATIONAL STAGES OF POWER SYSTEM

A normal (secure) state is the ideal operating condition, wherein all the equipment are
operating within their design limits. Also, the power system can withstand a contingency without
violation of any of the constraints. The system is said to be in the alert (insecure) state, if voltage
and frequency are reaching beyond the specified limits. The system is "weaker" and may not be
able to withstand a contingency. Preventive Control actions like shifting generation (rescheduling), load shedding are required to get the system back to the normal state.

If preventive control actions do not succeed, a power system remains insecure (in the alert
state). If a contingency occurs, the system may go into the emergency state where overloading of
equipment (above the short term ratings of the equipment) occurs. The system can still be intact
and can be brought back to the alert state by Emergency Control actions like fault tripping,
generator tripping, load tripping, HVDC power control etc. If these measures do not work,
integrated system operation becomes unviable and a major part of the system may be shutdown
due to equipment outages. Load shedding and islanding is necessary to prevent spreading of
disturbances and a total grid failure. The small power systems (islands) are reconnected to
restore the power system to normal state (Restorative Control).
1.6 POWER SYSTEM VOLTAGE STABILITYVoltage Instability occurs under heavy loading conditions. This problem causes extremely
low voltages below acceptable limits. As the load resistance decreases, the voltage at the load
bus falls while power is expected to increase. However, a point comes beyond which the load
power decreases as resistance falls.
Normally, a power system has connected loads which are lesser than the maximum power
transfer capability of the generation and transmission network. However, loss of lines may
significantly increase transmission reactance. Generators may also hit their reactive capability

11

limits resulting in inability to maintain voltage at key points in the network. A stronger
transmission network and adequate reactive power reserves, to maintain voltages at key points in
the network, are needed to avoid voltage instability.
Small-disturbance Voltage Stability-A power system at a given operating state is smalldisturbance voltage stable if, following any small disturbance, voltages near loads are close to
the pre-disturbance values. The concept of small-disturbance voltage stability is related to
steady-state stability and can be analyzed using small signal (linearized) model of the system.
Voltage Stability-A power system at a given operating state and subjected to a given disturbance
is voltage stable if voltages near loads approach post-disturbance equilibrium values. The
concept of voltage stability is related to transient stability of a power system.
Voltage Collapse-Following voltage instability, a power system undergoes voltage collapse if
the post-disturbance equilibrium voltages near loads are below acceptable limits. Voltage
collapse may be total (blackout) or partial. The absence of voltage stability leads to voltage
instability and results in progressive decrease of voltages. Thus abnormal voltage levels in steady
state may be the result of voltage instability which is a dynamic phenomenon. The voltage
instability and collapse may occur in a time frame of fraction of a second. In this case the term
'transient voltage stability' is used.
Control of Voltage Instability- Voltage instability along with angle instability pose a threat to
the system security. Uncontrolled load rejection due to voltage collapse can cause system
separation and blackouts. Hence the system must be planned in such a way as to reduce the
possibility of voltage instability. Also the system must be operated with adequate margin for
voltage stability. In the event of voltage instability due to unforeseen contingencies, the system control must prevent widespread voltage collapse and restore the loads as quickly as possible.
The incidence of voltage instability increases as the system is operated close to its maximum
load stability limit.
Countermeasures for the problem:
(1) The reactive power compensation close to the load centers as well as at the critical buses in
the network is essential for overcoming voltage instability.
(2) The SVC and STATCON provide fast control and help improve system stability.
(3) The application of under voltage load shedding, controlled system separation and adaptive Q
intelligent control are steps in this direction.
(4) Use of OLTC.

12

UNIT-II
2.1 UNIT COMMITMENTTo commit a generating unit means to turn it on; that is, to bring the unit up to speed,
synchronize it to the system, and connect it so that it can deliver power to the network. The
problem with commit enough units and leave them on line is one of economics. Money can be
saved by turning units off (decommitting them) when they are not needed. Many constraints can
be placed on the unit commitment problem. Constraints are:
Spinning Reserve
Thermal Unit Constraints: In these the different constraints are as:
Minimum up time: once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.
Minimum down time: once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time
before it can be recommitted.
Crew constraints: if a plant consists of two or more units, they cannot both be
turned on at the same time since there are not enough crew members to attend both
units while starting up.
Fuel Constraints
The solution methods of the unit commitment problem are:
Priority-list schemes,
Dynamic programming (DP),
Lagrange relaxation (LR).

13

2.2 INPUT-OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMAL PLANTSInput-Output Curve

Heat Rate Curve

Incremental Fuel Rate Curve

14

Incremental Cost Curve

Input-output characteristics of Hydro Plants:

15

Incremental Water Rate Characteristic

Input-Output characteristic for different head plants

16

2.3 SYSTEM CONSTRAINTS1. Primary constraints (equality constraints):

Power balance equations:
Pi PDi Pl =0; Qi QDi Ql =0; i=buses of the system, real and reactive power flow
are Pl and Ql .
The above constraints arise due to the need for the system to balance the generation and load
demand of the system.
2. Secondary constraints (inequality constraints):
These arise due to physical and operational limitations of the units and components.
Pimin Pi Pimax
Q imin Pi Q imax

i = 1,2,.n, the number of generating units in the system.

3. Spare Capacity Constraints:
These are used to account for the errors in load prediction, any sudden or fast change in load
demand, inadvertent loss of scheduled generation, etc. Here, the total generation available at any
time should be in excess of the total anticipated load demand and any system loss by an amount
not less than a specified minimum spare capacity, PSP (called the Spinning Reserve) given by:

PIG (Generation) Pl (Losses) + PSP + PDj (Load)

4. Bus voltage and Bus angle Constraints:

17

Bus voltage and Bus angle Constraints are needed to maintain a flat bus voltage profile and to
limit the overloading respectively.
Vimin Vi Vimax
i = 1,2,....n
imin i imax

i = 1,2.....n; j = 1,2,......m

Spinning Reserve:
Spinning reserve (SR) is the term used to describe the total amount of generation available from
all the synchronized (spinning) units of the system minus the present load plus the losses being
supplied. i.e.,
PSP = ( Total Generation, PIG ) - ( Pl (losses) + PDj (Load))
The SR must be made available in the system so that the loss of one or more units does not cause
a large drop in system frequency. SR must be allocated to different units. SR must be capable of
making up for the loss of the most heavily loaded unit in the system.
2.4 OPTIMAL OPERATION OF THERMAL UNITS WITHOUT AND WITH
TRANSMISSION LOSSES
When transmission losses are neglected. The model does not consider the system
configuration or line impedances. Since losses are neglected, the total generation is equal to the
total demand PD. Consider a system with ng number of generating plants supplying the total
demand PD. If Fi is the cost of plant i in Rs/h, the mathematical formulation of the problem of
economic scheduling can be stated as follows:
ng

Minimize FT = Fi
i =1

ng

Such that

P
i =1

Gi

= PD

where FT= total cost

PGi= generation of plant i ,

PD= total demand

The augmented cost function is given by,

ng

L = FT + PD - PG i
i =1

Minimum FT is obtained when,

18

L
L
= 0 and
=0
PG i

F
L
= T - =0
PG i PG i
n

g
L
= PD - PG i = 0

i =1
Fi depends only on its own output PGi, hence
FT
F
dF
= i = i
PG i PG i dPG i

Fi
dF
= i = ;
PG i dPG i

i = 1.........n g

For economic generation scheduling to meet a particular load demand, when transmission losses
are neglected and generation limits are not imposed, all plants must operate at equal incremental
production costs, subject to the constraint that the total generation be equal to the demand.

2.6

INCREMENTAL TRANSMISSION LOSS, TRANSMISSION LOSS FORMULA

(WITHOUT DERIVATION) The mathematical formulation is now stated as
ng

Minimize FT = Fi
i =1

ng

Such that

Gi

i =1

= PD + PL ; where PL is the total loss

ng

L = FT - PG i - PD - PL
i =1

Cost function

The minimum point is obtained when,

P
F
L
= T - 1 - L
PG
PG i PG i
i

= 0 ; i = 1.........n g

g
L
= PG i - PD + PL = 0
i =1

FT
dF
= i
PG i dPG i
dFi
P
+ L =
dPG i
PG i

19

The term

1
P
1- L
PG i

is called the penalty factor of plant i, Li. The coordination equation

including losses are given by

dFi
L i ; i = 1..........n g
dPG i

The minimum operation cost is obtained when the product of the incremental fuel cost and the
penalty factor of all units is the same, when losses are considered.
Expression for loss PL is given by, PL = m n PGm Bmn PGn
Bmn = Bnm and can be expanded for a two plant system as
PL = B11 PG12 + 2 B12 PG1 PG2 + B22 PG22

2.7 HYDROTHERMAL SCHEDULING LONG AND SHORT TERMSLong-Range Hydro-Scheduling:

The long-range hydro-scheduling problem involves the long-range forecasting of water
availability and the scheduling of reservoir water releases (i.e., drawdown) for an interval of
time that depends on the reservoir capacities. Typical long-range scheduling goes anywhere from
1 wk to 1 yr or several years. For hydro schemes with a capacity of impounding water over
several seasons, the long-range problem involves meteorological and statistical analyses.
Short-Range Hydro-Scheduling
Short-range hydro-scheduling (1 day to I wk) involves the hour-by-hour scheduling of all
generation on a system to achieve minimum production cost for the given time period. In such a
scheduling problem, the load, hydraulic inflows, and unit availabilities are assumed known. A set
of starting conditions (e.g., reservoir levels) is given, and the optimal hourly schedule that
minimizes a desired objective, while meeting hydraulic steam, and electric system constraints, is
sought.
Hydrothermal systems where the hydroelectric system is by far the largest component may
be scheduled by economically scheduling the system to produce the minimum cost for the
thermal system. The schedules are usually developed to minimize thermal generation production
costs, recognizing all the diverse hydraulic constraints that may exist.

20

The hydroplant can supply the load by itself for a limited time. That is, for any time period j ,
PHjmax Pload j j = 1........jmax
The energy available from the hydroplant is insufficient to meet the load.
jmax

P
j=1

Hj

jmax

n j Pload j n j

n j = number of hours in period j

j=1

jmax

n
j=1

= Tmax = total interval

steam-plant energy required is

jmax

jmax

j=1

j=1

Pload j n j - PHj n j = E
Load
energy
NS

P
j=1

Sj

nj = E

Hydro
energy

Steam
energy

N S = number of periods the steam plant is run

NS

n
j=1

Tmax

So the scheduling problem and the constraint are

NS

Min FT = F(PSj )n j
j=1

subject to

NS

P
j=1

Lagrange function is

Sj

nj - E = 0

NS
NS

L = F(PSj )n j + E - PSj n j
j=1
j=1

L dF(PSj )
=
- = 0
for j = 1.......N S
PSj
dPSj

21

dF(PSj )
dPSj

for j = 1.......N S

So steam plant should be run at constant incremental cost for the entire period it is on. Let this
optimum value of steam-generated power be PS*, which is the same for all time intervals the
steam unit is on.
The total cost over the interval is
NS

NS

j=1

j=1

FT = F(PS* )n j = F(PS* ) n j = F(PS* )TS

NS

TS = n j = the total run time for the steam plant

j=1

Suppose the steam plant cost is F(PS ) = A + BPS + CPS2

then FT (total cost) is FT = (A + BPS* + CPS*2 )TS
also

NS

NS

j=1

j=1

PSj n j = PS* n j = PS*TS = E

so we have TS =

E
PS*

E
FT = (A + BPS* + CPS*2 ) *
PS
dFT - AE
= *2 + CE = 0
Minimizing FT
dPS*
PS
so

PS* =

A
C

So the unit should be operated at its maximum efficiency point (PS*) long enough to
supply the energy needed, E. Optimal hydrothermal schedule is as shown below:

22

2.8 OPTIMAL POWER FLOW PROBLEM:

Basic approach to the solution of this problem is to incorporate the power flow equations as
essential constraints in the formal establishment of the optimization problem. This general
approach is known as the optimal power flow. Another approach is by using loss-formula
method. Different techniques are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

The lambda-iteration method

Gradient methods of economic dispatch
Newton's method
Economic dispatch with piecewise linear cost functions
Economic dispatch using dynamic programming

UNIT-III
3.1 CONCEPT OF LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
Frequency all over a synchronous power grid is the same in steady state. Maintaining a nearconstant frequency (one may allow frequency to vary over a very narrow band) is considered an
important requirement of power system operation. Frequency in a power system is intimately

23

related to the electrical speed of synchronous generators. The difference between mechanical and
electrical torques govern acceleration of a rotor of a generator. Therefore to maintain a constant
speed, mechanical input and electrical output power need to be continually matched. Electrical
load can vary randomly, but the total load versus time roughly follows a trend Modern day
power systems are divided into various areas. For example in India, there are five regional grids,
e.g., Eastern Region, Western Region etc. Each of these areas is generally interconnected to its
neighboring areas. The transmission lines that connect an area to its neighboring area are
called tie-lines . Power sharing between two areas occurs through these tie-lines. Load frequency
control, as the name signifies, regulates the power flow between different areas while holding the
frequency constant.

We can therefore state that the load frequency control (LFC) has the following two objectives:

Hold the frequency constant ( f = 0) against any load change. Each area must contribute
to absorb any load change such that frequency does not deviate.
Each area must maintain the tie-line power flow to its pre-specified value.
The first step in the LFC is to form the area control error (ACE) that is defined as;
----------------------(1)

where Ptie and Psch are tie-line power and scheduled power through tie-line respectively and the
constant Bf is called the frequency bias constant .The change in the reference of the power
setting Pref, i , of the area- i is then obtained by the feedback of the ACE through an integral
controller of the form;
--------------------(2)
where Ki is the integral gain. The ACE is negative if the net power flow out of an area is low or
if the frequency has dropped or both. In this case the generation must be increased. This can be
achieved by increasing Pref, i . This negative sign accounts for this inverse relation
between Pref, i and ACE. The tie-line power flow and frequency of each area are monitored in its

24

control center. Once the ACE is computed and Pref, i is obtained from eq. 2commands are given
to various turbine-generator controls to adjust their reference power settings.
3.2 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF SINGLE AREA SYSTEMLoad frequency control deals with the control mechanism needed to maintain the system
frequency. The topic of maintaining the system frequency constant is commonly known as
AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL (ALFC). It has got other nomenclatures such
as Load Frequency Control, Power Frequency Control, Real Power Frequency Control and
Automatic Generation Control.
The basic role of ALFC is:

To maintain the desired megawatt output power of a generator matching with the
changing load.
To assist in controlling the frequency of larger interconnection.
To keep the net interchange power between pool members, at the predetermined values.

The ALFC loop will maintain control only during small and slow changes in load and frequency.
It will not provide adequate control during emergency situation when large megawatt imbalances
occur. We shall first study ALFC as it applies to a single generator supplying power to a local
service area. The real power control mechanism of a generator is shown in above Fig. The main
parts are:
1) Speed changer
2) Speed governor
3) Hydraulic amplifier
4) Control valve

25

They are connected by linkage mechanism. Their incremental movements are in vertical
direction. In reality these movements are measured in millimeters; but in our analysis we shall
rather express them as power increments expressed in MW or p.u. MW as the case may be. The
movements are assumed positive in the directions of arrows.
Corresponding to raise command, linkage movements will be:
A moves downwards;

C moves upwards;

D moves upwards;

E moves downwards.

This allows more steam or water flow into the turbine resulting incremental increase in
generator output power. When the speed drops, linkage point B moves upwards and again
generator output power will increase.
3.2.1 Speed Governor
The output commend of speed governor is Pg which corresponds to movement xC. The speed
governor has two inputs:
1) Change in the reference power setting, Pref

26

2) Change in the speed of the generator, f, as measured by xB.

It is to be noted that a positive Pref will result in positive Pg A positive f will result in
linkage points B and C to come down causing negative Pg.
Thus Pg = Pref f/R

(1)

Here the constant R has dimension hertz per MW and is referred as speed regulation of the
governor.Taking Laplace transform of eq. 1 yields
Pg (s) = Pref (s) -f (s)/R

(2)

The block diagram corresponding to the above equation is shown in Fig. .

Hydraulic Valve Actuator

The output of the hydraulic actuator is Pv. This depends on the position of main piston, which
in turn depends on the quantity of oil flow in the piston. For a small change xD in the pilot
valve position, we have
Pv = kH

xD dt

(3)

The constant kH depends on the orifice, cylinder geometries and fluid pressure. The input to
xD are Pg and Pv. It is to be noted that for a positive Pg, the change xD is positive.
Further, for a positive Pv, more fuel is admitted, speed increases, linkage point B moves
downwards causing linkage points C and D to move downwards resulting the change xD as
negative. Thus
xD = Pg - Pv

(4)

27

Laplace transformation of the last two equations are:

Pv(s) = kH xD (s)/s
xD(s) = Pg(s) - Pv(s)
Eliminating xD and writing Pv (s) in terms of Pg (s), we get
Pv (s) = Pg (s) 1/1+ s TH
where TH is the hydraulic time constant given by;

(5)

TH = 1/ kH

(6)

In terms of the hydraulic valve actuators transfer function GH (s), eq. 5 can be written as;
GH (s) = Py (s)/Pg (s)=

1/ 1+ s TH

(7)

Hydraulic time constant TH typically assumes values around 0.1 sec. The block diagram of the
speed governor together with the hydraulic valve actuator is shown in Fig.

3.2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF SINGLE AREA SYSTEM

In normal steady state, the turbine power PT keeps balance with the electromechanical air-gap
power PG resulting in zero acceleration and a constant speed and frequency. During transient
state, let the change in turbine power be PT and the corresponding change in generator power
be PG .
The accelerating power in turbine generator unit = PT - PG
Thus accelerating power = PT (s) - PG (s)
If PT - PG is negative, it will decelerate.

(8)

28

The turbine power increment PT depends entirely upon the valve power increment Pv and
the characteristic of the turbine. Different type of turbines will have different characteristics.
Taking transfer function with single time constant for the turbine, we can write
PT(s) = GT Pv(s) = Pv (s) 1/1+ s TT

(9)

The generator power increment PG depends entirely upon the change PD in the load PD
being fed from the generator. The generator always adjusts its output so as to meet the demand
changes PD. These adjustments are essentially instantaneous, certainly in comparison with the
slow changes in PT. We can therefore set
PG = PD i.e. PG (s) = PD (s)

(10)

In view of equations 8,9 and 10,

Accelerating power = PT (s) - PG (s)

(8)

PT(s) = GT Pv(s) = Pv (s) 1/1+ s TT

(9)

PG (s) = PD (s)

(10)

The block diagram developed is updated as shown in Fig. This corresponds to the linear model
of primary ALFC loop excluding the power system response;

3.2.3 STATIC PERFORMANCE OF SPEED GOVERNOR

The present control loop shown in Fig. 4 is open. We can nevertheless obtain some interesting
information about the static performance of the speed governor. The relationship between the
static signals (subscript 0) is obtained by letting s
0. As GH(0) = GT(0) = 1 we obtain
directly from Fig.

29

PT 0 = Pref 0 -f 0/R

(11)

Note that at steady state, PT is equal to PG. i.e. PT 0 = PG 0

We consider the following three cases.

PT 0 = Pref 0 -f 0/R
Case A
The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size, so large in fact, that its frequency
will be essentially independent of any changes in the power output of this individual generator
(infinite network). Since f0 = 0, the above eq. becomes
PT 0 = Pref 0

(12)

Thus for a generator operating at constant speed,(or frequency) there exists a direct
proportionality between turbine power and reference power setting.
Case B
Now we consider the network as finite. i.e. its frequency is variable. We do, however, keep
the speed changer at constant setting. i.e. Pref = 0.
From eq. (11)

we obtain

PT 0 = Pref 0 - f 0/R

(11)

PT 0 = - f 0/R

(13)

The above eq. shows that for a constant speed changer setting, the static increase in turbine
power output is directly proportional to the static frequency drop.
DYNAMIC RESPONSE --

Finding the dynamic response, for a step load, is quite straight forward. Eq. upon inverse
Laplace transformation yields an expression for f (t). However, as GH, GT and Gp contain at
least one time constant each, the denominator will be a third order polynomial resulting in
unwieldy algebra.

30

We can simply the analysis considerably by making the reasonable assumption that the action of
speed governor plus the turbine generator is instantaneous compared with the rest of the
power system. The latter, as demonstrated in Example has a time constant of 20 sec, and since
the other two time constants are of the order of 1 sec, we will perform an approximate analysis
by setting TH = TT = 0.

Dividing numerator and denominator by R Tp we get

Using the fact

31

Making use of previous numerical values: M = 0.01 p.u. MW; R = 2.0 Hz / p.u. MW; Kp = 100
Hz / p.u. MW; Tp = 20 sec.

The approximate time response is purely exponential and is given by

Fig. shows this response. For comparison, the response with the inclusion of the time constants
TH and TT is also shown. It is to be observed that the primary loop of ALFC does not give the
desired objective of maintaining the frequency constant. We need to do something more to
bring the frequency error to zero. Before discussing the necessary control which can make the
frequency error to zero, we shall shed some light on to the physical mechanism in the primary
loop of ALFC.

Dynamic Response

32

3.2.4 PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROLIt is seen from the previous discussion that with the speed governing system installed in each
area, for a given speed changer setting, there is considerable frequency drop for increased
system load. In the example seen, the frequency drop is 0.01961 Hz for 20 MW. Then the steady
state drop in frequency from no load to full load ( 2000 MW ) will be 1.961 Hz. System
frequency specification is rather stringent and therefore, so much change in frequency cannot be
tolerated. In fact, it is expected that the steady state frequency change must be zero. In order to
maintain the frequency at the scheduled value, the speed changer setting must be adjusted
automatically by monitoring the frequency changes.
For this purpose, INTEGRAL CONTROLLER is included. In the integral controller the
frequency error is first amplified and then integrated. Further, a negative polarity is also
included so that a NEGATIVE frequency deviation will give rise to RAISE command. The
signal fed into the integrator is referred as Area Controlled Error (ACE) = f . Thus

Taking Laplace transformation

The gain constant KI controls the rate of integration and thus the speed of response of the loop.

For this signal f (s) is fed to an integrator whose output controls the speed changer position
resulting in the block diagram configuration shown in Fig. below.
As long as an error remains, the integrator output will increase, causing the speed changer to
move. When the frequency error has been reduced to zero, the integrator output ceases and the
speed changer position attains a constant value. Integral controller will give rise to ZERO
STEADY STATE FREQUENCY ERROR following a step load change because of the reason
stated above.

33

Therefore;

3.2.5 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH CONTROL

Economic dispatch control determines the power output of each power plant, and power output
of each generating unit within a power plant , which will minimize the overall cost of fuel
needed to serve the system load.

We study first the most economical distribution of the output of a power plant between
the generating units in that plant. The method we develop also applies to economic

34

scheduling of plant outputs for a given system load without considering the transmission
loss.
Next, we express the transmission loss as a function of output of the various plants.
Then, we determine how the output of each of the plants of a system is scheduled to
achieve the total cost of generation minimum, simultaneously meeting the system load
plus transmission loss
Both the load frequency control and the economic dispatch issue commands to change the power
setting of each turbine-governor unit. At a first glance it may seem that these two commands can
be conflicting. This however is not true. A typical automatic generation control strategy is shown
in Fig. in which both the objective are coordinated. First we compute the area control error. A
share of this ACE, proportional to i , is allocated to each of the turbine-generator unit of an area.
Also the share of unit- i , i X ( PDK - Pk ), for the deviation of total generation from actual
generation is computed. Also the error between the economic power setting and actual power
setting of unit- i is computed. All these signals are then combined and passed through a
proportional gain Ki to obtain the turbine-governor control signal.

35

3.3.TWO AREA CONTROL-

Two area control

Under steady state the power transferred over the tieline is given by
P12 =

E1 E 2 sin12
X12

Where X12 = X1 + Xtie + X2 and 12 = 1 2. For a small deviation P12 of the tie line power
flow,
P
P = 12 |
= P
12 12 12 12
S 12

36

P
12 |
= P is the slope of the power angle curve evaluated at the initial operating

12 12
point and is the synchronizing power coefficient.
E1 E 2 cos 12
P
P = 12 |
=
S

X12
12 12

where

A positive P12 occurs when 1 > 2 and indicates a flow of real power from area 1 to area 2.
This has the effect of increasing load on area 1 and decreasing load on area 2. Hence P12 has
negative sign for area 1 and positive sign for area 2.
Tieline bias control:
If the areas are equipped only with primary control of the ALFC, a change in load in one
area met is with change in generation in both areas, change in tieline power and a change in the
frequency. Hence, a supplementary control is necessary to maintain
Frequency at the nominal value
Maintain net interchange power with other areas at the scheduled values
Let each area absorb its own load
Hence, the supplementary control should act only for the areas where there is a change in
load. To achieve this, the control signal should be made up of the tieline flow deviation plus a
signal proportional to the frequency deviation. A suitable proportional weight for the frequency
deviation is the frequency response characteristic . This is the reason why is also called the
frequency bias factor. This control signal is called the area control error (ACE). In a two area
system
ACE1 = P12 + B1 f ;
B1 = 1
ACE2 = P21 + B2 f ;
B2 = 2
The ACE represents the required change in area generation and its unit is MW. ACEs are
used as control signals to activate changes in the reference set points. Under steady state P12
and f will be zero. An increase in load of area 1,which leads to a decrease in system frequency.
The primary ALFC loop limits the frequency deviation to
- PL
1
f =
1 + 2
The tieline power has a deviation P12 = 2f. Supplementary control of area 1 responds
to PL1 and the generation changed so that ACE becomes zero.

37

Block diagram of two area system with supplementary control

38

UNIT-IV
4.1 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROL 4.1. 1 Schematic diagram and block diagram representation
The voltage of the generator is proportional to the speed and excitation (flux) of the generator.
The speed being constant, the excitation is used to control the voltage. Therefore, the voltage
control system is also called as excitation control system or automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
For the alternators, the excitation is provided by a device (another machine or a static device)
called exciter. For a large alternator the exciter may be required to supply a field current of as
large as 6500A at 500V and hence the exciter is a fairly large machine. Depending on the way
the dc supply is given to the field winding of the alternator (which is on the rotor), the exciters
are classified as: i) DC Exciters; ii) AC Exciters; and iii) Static Exciters.
Accordingly, several standard block diagrams are developed by the IEEE working group to
represent the excitation system. A schematic of an excitation control system is shown in Fig2.1.

39

A simplified block diagram of the generator voltage control system is shown in Fig.

The generator terminal voltage Vt is compared with a voltage reference Vref to obtain a voltage
error signal V. This signal is applied to the voltage regulator shown as a block with transfer
function KA/(1+TAs). The output of the regulator is then applied to exciter shown with a block of
transfer function Ke/(1+Tes). The output of the exciter Efd is then applied to the field winding
which adjusts the generator terminal voltage. The generator field can be represented by a block
with a transfer function KF/(1+sTF).

The total transfer function is

4.1.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEMS & THEIR CONTROLLERSThe basic function o f an excitation system is to provide n e c e s s a r y direct current to
the field winding of the synchronous generator. The excitation system must be able to
automatically adjust the field current to maintain the required terminal voltage. The
DC field current is obtained from a separate source called an exciter. The excitation
systems h a v e taken many forms over the years of their evolution. The following are
the different types of excitation systems.
a.
b.
c.
d.

DC excitation systems
AC excitation systems
Brushless AC excitation systems
Static excitation systems

40

DC Excitation Systems---In DC excitation system, the field of the main synchronous generator is fed from a DC
generator, called exciter. Since the field of the synchronous generator is in the rotor, the
required field current is supplied to it through slip rings and brushes. The DC generator
is driven from the same turbine shaft as the generator itself. One form of simple DC excitation
system is shown in Fig. This type of DC excitation system has slow response. Normally
for 10 MVA synchronous generator, the exciter power rating should be 20 to 35 KW for
which we require huge the DC generator. For these reasons, DC excitation systems are
gradually disappearing.

AC Excitation Systems--In AC excitation system, the DC generator is replaced by an alternator of sufficient rating, so
that it can supply the required field current to the field of the main synchronous generator. In
this scheme, three phase alternator voltage is rectified and the necessary DC supply is
obtained. Generally, two sets of slip rings, one to feed the rotating field of the alternator and the
other to supply the rotating field of the synchronous generator, are required. Basic blocks of
AC excitation system are shown in Fig.

41

Brushless AC Excitation Systems--Old type AC excitation system has been replaced by brushless AC excitation system wherein,
inverted alternator (with field at the stator and armature at the rotor) is used as exciter. A full
wave rectifier converts the exciter AC voltage to DC voltage. The armature of the exciter, the
full wave rectifier and the field of the synchronous generator form the rotating components.
The rotating components are mounted on a common shaft. This kind of brushless AC excitation
system is shown in Fig.

42

Static Excitation Systems-In static excitation system, a portion of the AC from each phase of synchronous generator
output is fed back to the field windings, as DC excitations, through a system of transformers,
rectifiers, and reactors. An external source of DC is necessary for initial excitation of the field
windings. On engine driven generators, the initial excitation may be obtained from the storage
batteries used to start the engine.
4.2.1 CONCEPT OF VOLTAGE CONTROLThe control of voltage and reactive power is a major issue in power system operation. This is
because of the topological differences between distribution and transmission systems, different
strategies have evolved. This paper contains contributions of novel reactive power control and
voltage stability schemes for distribution and transmission systems. A particular interest is taken
to the development of control schemes to avoid so-called voltage collapse, which can result in
widespread outages. In order to achieve efficient and reliable operation of
power system, the control of voltage and reactive power should satisfy the following objectives:
o

Voltages at all terminals of all equipment in the system are within acceptable limits

System stability is enhanced to maximize utilization of the transmission system

The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce RI2 and XI2 losses.

Almost all power transported or consumed in alternating current (AC) networks, supply or
consume two of powers: real power and reactive power. Real power accomplishes useful work
while reactive power supports the voltage that must be controlled for system reliability. Reactive
power is essential to move active power through the transmission and distribution system to the
customer. For AC systems voltage and current pulsate at the system frequency. Although AC
voltage and current pulsate at same frequency, they peak at different time power is the algebraic
product of voltage and current. Real power is the average of power over cycle and measured by
volt-amperes or watt. The portion of power with zero average value called reactive power
measured in volt-amperes reactive or vars.
4.2.2 VOLTAGE CONTROL USING TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS Voltage control using tap changing transformers is the basic and easiest way of controlling
voltages in transmission, sub-transmission and distribution systems. In high voltage and extrahigh voltage lines On Load Tap Changing (OLTC) transformers are used while ordinary off-load
tap changers prevail in distribution circuits. It is to be noted that tap changing transformers do
not generate reactive power. Consider the operation of transmission line with tap changing
transformers at both the ends as shown in Fig..

43

Let ts and tr be the off-nominal tap settings of the transformers at the sending end and receiving
end respectively. For example, a transformer of nominal ratio 6.6 kV to 33 kV when tapped to
give 6.6 kV to 36 kV, it is set to have off-nominal tap setting of 36 / 33 = 1.09. The above
transformer is equivalent to transformer with nominal ratio of 6.6 kV to 33 kV, in series with an
auto transformer of ratio 33:36 i.e 1: 1.09.
In the following discussion, magnitudes of voltages are referred as V1 and V2.It is to be noted
that V1 and V2 are the nominal voltages (Transmission line voltages such as 33 kV, 66 kV, 132
kV and 400 kV) at the ends of the line and the actual voltages being ts V1 and tr V2. It is
required to determine the tap changing ratios required to completely compensate for voltage drop
in the line. The product ts tr will be made unity; this ensures that the overall voltage level
remains in the same order and that the minimum range of taps on both sides is used. The total
impedance of line and transformers referred to high voltage side is (R + j X)
4.2.3 Shunt Compensation, Series compensation, Phase angle compensation/ Reactive
Power Control in Electrical Systems
During the daily operation, power systems may experience both over-voltage and under-voltage
violations that can be overcome by voltage/Var control .Through controlling the production,
adsorption, and flow of reactive power at all levels in the system, voltage/Var control can
maintain the voltage profile within acceptable limit and reduce the transmission losses.
Transmission connected generators are generally required to support reactive power flow. For
example, Transmission system generators are required by the Grid Code Requirements to supply
their rated power between the limits of 0.85 power factor lagging and 0.90 power factor leading
at the designated terminals. The system operator will perform switching actions to maintain a
secure and economical voltage profile while maintaining a reactive power balance equation.For
most of power circuit, resistance R will be much less as compared to reactance X. Neglecting the
resistance of the transmission line, we get Voltage drop; V = QX/V
From eq. we can state that the voltage drop in the transmission line is directly proportional to the
reactive power flow (Q-flow) in the transmission line. Most of the electric load is inductive in
nature. In a day, during the peak hours, Q-flow will be heavy, resulting more voltage drop.
However, during off-peak hours, the load will be very small and the distributed shunt
capacitances throughout the transmission line become predominant making the receiving-end

44

voltage greater than the sending-end voltage (Ferranti effect). Thus during off-peak hours there
may be voltage rise in the transmission line from sending-end to receiving-end. Thus the sending
end will experience large voltage drop during peak load condition and even voltage rise during
off-peak load condition.
Reactive power control is necessary in order to maintain the voltage drop in the transmission line
within the specified limits. During peak hours, voltage drop can be reduced by decreasing the Qflow in the transmission line. This is possible by externally injecting a portion of load reactive
power at the receiving-end. Fig. illustrates the effect of injecting the reactive power.

Reactive power can be injected into the power network by connecting

1. Shunt capacitors
2. Synchronous compensator ( Synchronous phase modifier)
3. Static VAR compensator (SVC)
During off-peak period, voltage rise can be reduced by absorbing the reactive power. This is
possible by connecting
1. Shunt reactor

45

2. Synchronous compensator ( Synchronous phase modifier)

3. Static VAR compensator (SVC)
Shunt Capacitors Shunt capacitor are used in circuit with lagging power factors such as the one created by peak
load condition. Capacitors are connected either directly to a bus bar or to the tertiary winding of
a main transformer. Reactive power supplied by the capacitor is given by ;

where |V| is the phase voltage and C is the capacitance / phase. Unfortunately, as the voltage
falls, the VARs produced by a shunt capacitor reduce. Thus when needed most, their
effectiveness falls.
Shunt capacitors and reactors and series capacitors provide passive compensation. They are
either permanently connected to the transmission and distribution system or switched. They
contribute to voltage control by modifying the network characteristics. Synchronous condensers,
SVC and STATCOM provide active compensation . The voltages of the buses to which they are
connected. Together with the generating units, they establish voltages at specific points in the
system. Voltages at other locations in the system are determined by active and reactive power
flows through various elements, including the passive compensating devices.
The primary purposes of transmission system shunt compensation near load areas are voltage
control and load stabilization. Mechanically switched shunt capacitor banks are installed at major
substations in load areas for producing reactive power and keeping voltage within required
limits. For voltage stability shunt capacitor banks are very useful in allowing nearby generators
to operate near unity power factor. This maximizes fast acting reactive reserve. Compared to
SVCs, mechanically switched capacitor banks have the advantage of much lower cost. Switching
speeds can be quite fast. Current limiting reactors are used to minimize switching transients.
There are several disadvantages to mechanically switched capacitors. For voltage emergencies
the shortcoming of shunt capacitor banks is that the reactive power output drops with the voltage
squared. For transient voltage instability the switching may not be fast enough to prevent
induction motor stalling. Precise and rapid control of voltage is not possible. Like inductors,
capacitor banks are discrete devices, but they are often configured with several steps to provide a
limited amount of variable control. If voltage collapse results in a system, the stable parts of the
system may experience damaging over voltages immediately following separation. Shunt

46

capacitors banks are always connected to the bus rather than to the line. They are connected
either directly to the high voltage bus or to the tertiary winding of the main transformer. Shunt
capacitor banks are breaker-switched either automatically by a voltage relays or manually

Figure :Typical capacitor bank

The primary purpose of transmission system shunt compensation near load areas is voltage
control and load stabilization. In other words, shunt capacitors are used to compensate for X I 2
losses in transmission system and to ensure satisfactory voltage levels during heavy load
conditions. Shunt capacitors are used in power system for power factor correction. The objective
of power factor correction is to provide reactive power close to point.
Shunt Reactors
Shunt reactors are used in circuit with leading power factors such as the one created by lightly
loaded cables. The inductors are usually coreless type and possess linear type characteristics. If
XL is the inductive reactance per phase and |V| is the phase voltage, reactive power absorbed by
the inductor is given by;

Synchronous CompensatorsA synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running without a mechanical load.
Depending on the value of excitation, it can either inject or absorb reactive power. When used
with a voltage regulator, the compensator can automatically run over-excited at times of high
load and supply the required reactive power. It will be under-excited at light load to absorb the
reactive power.

47

Static VAR Compensator

Shunt capacitor compensation is required to enhance the system voltage during heavy load
condition while shunt reactors are needed to reduce the over-voltage occurring during light load
conditions. Static VAR Compensator (SVC) can perform these two tasks together utilizing the
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR). SVC is basically a parallel combination of controlled
reactor and a fixed capacitor as shown in Fig.

The reactor control is done by an anti-parallel thyristor switch assembly. The firing angle of the
thyristors governs the voltage across the inductor, thus controlling the reactor current. Thereby
the reactive power absorption by the inductor can be controlled. The capacitor, in parallel with
the reactor, supplies the reactive power of QC VAR to the system. If QL is the reactive power
absorbed by the reactor, the net reactive power injection to the bus becomes;

In SVC, reactive power QL can be varied and thus reactive power Qnet is controllable. During
heavy load period, QL is lesser than QC while during light load condition, QL is greater than QC.
SVC has got high application in transmission bus voltage control. Being static this equipment, it
is more advantageous than synchronous compensator.
.

48

UNIT-V
.

5.1 STATE ESTIMATIONState estimation technique is the process of estimating a value of the system state variable, which
is a phasor of the voltage magnitudes and angles at different nodes or buses of the system.
Various measured quantities-power, voltage and current are analog quantities which are passed
through A/D converters, and then digital outputs are telemetered to energy control center over
various communication links, where these are processed to find present state of the power
system. The process involves imperfect (bad) measurements and estimation process of the
system states is based on a statistical method that estimates the true value of the state variables to
minimize or maximize the selected criterion. Though errors (imperfect measurement) should be
reduced by the state estimation, the reliability of estimated data will reduce when some bad
measurements are present in the system. Available output states at energy control center are then
used to find the system performance in real time for system security and conditions of economic
dispatch.
The system gets information about the power system from remote terminal units (RTU) that
encode measurement transducer outputs and opened/closed status information into digital signals
that are transmitted to the operation control center over communication circuits. The information
coming into the energy control center is broken down as breaker/switch, transformer tap status
indications and analog measurements. The analog measurements of generator output must be
used directly by the AGC.
Data received at energy control centers through telemetry link contain errors due to various
reasons such as metering error, communication error and error due to changes in the system.
Static-state estimator processes the data received and filters out the errors present in the
telemetered data. For obtaining reliability in estimated system states, redundant measurements
are taken i.e. the number of equations to be solved are more than the number of unknown state
variables. The estimator is designed to produce the best estimate of the system states. Existing
operating conditions of the system are determined by state estimation.
Measurement equations can be written as:
Zi=hi(x)+ei
where

Zi= ith measurement

x= state variable

hi(x) represents non linear function of measured quantity in terms of state variable. ei represents
measurement error , this is also known as Gaussian random variable noise term or bad data, with
zero mean and respective variances s 1 2 , s 2 2 ,..... .If there are n measurements and m state
variables then m < n, this represents redundancy in measurement, this is necessary in order to
get reliable estimated system states .
Now weighted least square estimation is done in which the objective function is formed by
taking weighted sum of squares of errors.

49

ei

si

Objective function f =
i =1

where s i 2 =error variance,

= w i weight

The objective function f is minimized. Assuming there are four measurements so n=4 and the
objective function f is
f=
+

{Z

- h1 (x1, x 2 )}

{Z

s1

- h1 (x1, x 2 )}

{Z

s3

- h 2 (x1, x 2 )}

{Z

s2

following equation

- h1 (x1, x 2 )}

s4

must be satisfied for minimizing the objective function f by estimates x 1 and x 2 ,(here by
assuming two state variables and four measurements)

Z1

Z
2
T
H x R -1
Z3

Z 4

- h1 x1 , x 2

- h 2 x 1 , x 2

= 0

0
- h 3 x1 , x 2

- h 4 x 1 , x 2

h1
x
1
h2
x
where H x = 1
h
3
x1
h4

x1

h1
x2

h2
x2
Jacobian Matrix
h3

x2
h4

x2

H x Transpose of H x

1
0
0
0
s 2
1

1
0
0
0
2

s2
R -1 =

1
0

0
0
2

s3

1
0
0

0
2
s 4

R -1 weighting matrix W

To solve the above equation for state estimates x 1 and x 2 ,same procedure is followed as in
Newton-Raphson power flow, h1(x1,x2) is linearized about initial point (x1(0),x2(0)) which gives

50

(0)

h 1 (x 1 , x 2 ) = h 1 x 1 , x 2

(0)

)+ Dx

( 0)
1

h1
x1

+ x 2

(0)

h1
x 2

where Dx i ( 0 ) = x i (1) - x i ( 0 ) represents the typical state-variable correction and xi(1) is the first
calculated value of xi. Similarly h2(x1,x2), h3(x1,x2) and h4(x1,x2) can be expanded. Substituting
these expansions in the equation we get

Z1

(0)T
-1 Z 2
Hx R
Z
3
Z 4

(
- h (x
- h (x
- h (x

( 0)

(0)

( 0)

( 0)

- h1 x1 , x 2
2

, x2

(0)

(0)

,x2
( 0)
( 0)
, x2
1

)
) = H
)
)

(0)T
x

-1

R Hx

( 0)

Dx 1 ( 0)

(0)
Dx 2

all quantities with superscripts (0) are computed at the initial values x 1( 0 ) and x 2 ( 0) .Corrections
x1 and x2 should be approx. zero to satisfy Equation, so similar calculations are continued by
using D x i ( k ) = x i ( k +1) - x i ( k ) to form more general iterative equation.

Z1 - h 1

x 1 ( k +1) x 1 ( k )
-1
T
T
-1 Z 2 - h 2
-1
( k +1) - ( k ) = H x R H x H x R
Z - h3
x 2
x 2
3
Z 4 - h 4

(x
(x
(x
(x

(k )

, x2

(k )

, x2

1
1
(k )

(k )
(k )
(k )

, x2
(k )
(k )
, x2
1

)
)
)
)

at each iteration the elements of Jacobian Hx and quantities Zj-hj(x1(k),x2(k)) are evaluated from
latest available values of the state variables until two successive solutions have converged to
within a specified precision index, that is, until
xi

( k +1)

- xi

(k )

e for every i.

At convergence the solution x(k+1) corresponds to the weighted least-squares estimates of the
state variables, which is denoted by
x

= x = x 1 , x 2

(k+1)

For detecting bad data from measurements Chi-Square test is carried out. Steps for detecting
bad data are as follows:

Get the raw measurements zi from the system to determine the weighted least square

estimates x i of the system states.

51

Substitute the estimates x i in the equation z = H x to calculate the estimated values zi

of the measurements and hence the estimated errors e i = z i - z i .

Find the weighted sum of squares f =

Nm

ei

s
i =1

2
2

For number of degrees of freedom k=Nm-NS and a specified probability , check the

inequality f c k ,a 2 is satisfied. If inequality is satisfied, then the measured raw data and
state estimates are accepted as being accurate. =area under the curve to the right of

ck ,a

When the requirement of last step is not satisfied then there may be presence of at least
one bad measurement. In such case omit the measurement corresponding to the largest
standardized error and reevaluate the state estimates along with sum of squares. If the

new value of f satisfies the Chi-Square test of inequality then the omitted measurement
is identified as the bad data point.

5.2 FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS-5.2.1 Concept and ObjectivesThe large interconnected transmission networks are susceptible to faults caused by lightning
discharges and decrease in insulation clearances. The power flow in a transmission line is
determined by Kirchhoffs laws for specified power injections (both active and reactive) at
various nodes. While the loads in a power system vary by the time of the day in general, they are
also subject to variations caused by the weather (ambient temperature) and other unpredictable
factors. The generation pattern in a deregulated environment also tends to be variable (and hence
less predictable).

52

Thus, the power flow in a transmission line can vary even under normal, steady state conditions.
The occurrence of a contingency (due to the tripping of a line, generator) can result in a sudden
increase/decrease in the power flow. This can result in overloading of some lines and consequent
threat to system security. A major disturbance can also result in the swinging of generator rotors
which contribute to power swings in transmission lines. It is possible that the system is subjected
to transient instability and cascading outages as individual components (lines and generators) trip
due to the action of protective relays. If the system is operating close to the boundary of the
small signal stability region, even a small disturbance can lead to large power swings and
blackouts. The increase in the loading of the transmission lines sometimes can lead to voltage
collapse due to the shortage of reactive power delivered at the load centers. This is due to the
increased consumption of the reactive power in the transmission network and the characteristics
of the load (such as induction motors supplying constant torque).
The factors mentioned in the above paragraph point to the problems faced in maintaining
economic and secure operation of large interconnected systems. The problems are eased if
sufficient margins (in power transformer) can be maintained. The required safe operating margin
can be substantially reduced by the introduction of fast dynamic control over reactive and active
power by high power electronic controllers. This can make the AC transmission network
flexible' to adapt to the changing conditions caused by contingencies and load variations.
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) is used as Alternating current transmission systems
incorporating power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and
increase power transfer capability. The FACTS controller is used as a power electronic based
system and other static equipment that provide control of one or more AC transmission system
parameters like voltage, current, power, impedance etc.
Benefits of utilizing FACTS devices: The benefits of utilizing FACTS devices in electrical
transmission systems can be summarized as follows:

Better utilization of existing transmission system assets.

Increased transmission system reliability and availability.
Increased dynamic and transient grid stability and reduction of loop flows.
Increased quality of supply for sensitive industries.

5.2.2 FACTs controllers: Structures & Characteristics of following FACTs Controllers

The FACTS controllers can be classified as

Shunt connected controllers

Series connected controllers
Combined series-series controllers
Combined shunt-series controllers

53

Depending on the power electronic devices used in the control, the FACTS controllers can be
classified asA-Variable Impedance type controllers include:

Static VAR Compensator (SVC), (shunt connected)

Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor or compensator (TCSC), (series connected)
Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST)
Static PST (combined shunt and series)

B-VSC based FACTS controllers are;

Static synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) (shunt connected)

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) (series connected)
Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) (combined series-series)
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) (combined shunt-series)

Some of the special purpose FACTS controllers are:

Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR)

Thyristor Controlled Voltage Limiter (TCVL)
Thyristor Controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR)
Interphase Power Controller (IPC)

TCR
A shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled inductor whose effective reactance is varied in a
continuous manner by partial-conduction control of the thyristor value. An elementary singlephase thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is shown in Fig. The current in the reactor can be
controlled from maximum to zero by the method of firing delay angle control. That is the
duration of the current conduction intervals is controlled by delaying the closure of the
thyristor valve with respect to the peak of the applied voltage in each half-cycle For = 0 the
amplitude is at its maximum and for = 90 the amplitude is zero and no current is flowing
during the corresponding half-cycle. Like this the same effect is provided as with an inductance
of changing value.

54

A thyristor switched reactor (TSR) has similar equipment to a TCR, but is used only at fixed
angles of 90 and 180, i.e. full conduction or no conduction. The reactive current is(t) will
be proportional to the applied voltage. Several TSRs can provide a reactive admittance
controllable in a step-like manner.
Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC)
A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched capacitor whose eective reactance is varied in a
stepwise manner by full- or zero-conduction operation of the thyristor value.

A single-phase thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) is shown in fig. The TSC branch can be
switched out at a zero crossing of the current. At this time instance the capacitor value has
reached its peak value. The disconnected capacitor ideally stays charged at this peak value and
the voltage across the non-conducting thyristor varies in phase with the applied ac voltage.
Normally, the voltage across the capacitor does not remain constant during the time when the
thyristor is switched out, but it is discharged after disconnection. To minimize transient
disturbances when switching the TSC on, the reconnection has to take place at an instance
where the AC voltage and the voltage across the conductor1 Static Shunt Compensators are
equal, that is when the voltage across the thyristor valve is zero. However, there will still be
transients caused by the nonzero ds/dt at the instant of switching, which without the reactor,
would result an instant current in the capacitor (is = C.ds/dt). The interaction between the
capacitor and the current (and ds/dt) limiting reactor produces oscillatory transients on
current and voltage. From these elaborations it follows that ring delay angle control is not
applicable to capacitors; the capacitor switching must take place at that specic instant in
each cycle at which the conditions for minimum transients are satised. For this reason, a
TSC branch can provide only a step-like change in the reactive current it draws (maximum or
zero).

55

Thus, the TSC is a single capacitive admittance which is either connected to or

disconnected from the AC system. The current through the capacitor varies with the applied
voltage. To approximate continuous current variations, several TSC branches in parallel may be
used.
TCSC- Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor
A TCSC is a capacitive reactance compensator, which consists of a series capacitor bank
shunted by a thyristor controlled reactor in order to provide a smoothly variable series
capacitive reactance.

Even through a TCSC in the normal operating range in mainly capacitive, but it can also be
used in an inductive mode. The power flow over a transmission line can be increased by
controlled series compensation with minimum risk of sub-synchronous resonance (SSR).
TCSC is a second generation FACTS controller, which controls the impedance of the line in
which it is connected by varying the firing angle of the thyristors. A TCSC module comprises a
series fixed capacitor that is connected in parallel to a thyristor controlled reactor (TCR). A
TCR includes a pair of anti-parallel thyristors that are connected in series with an inductor. In
a TCSC, a Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) along with a bypass breaker is connected in
parallel to the fixed capacitor for overvoltage protection. A complete compensation system
may be made up of several of these modules.
TCSC controllers use thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) in parallel with capacitor segments of
series capacitor bank. The combination of TCR and capacitor allow the capacitive reactance to
be smoothly controlled over a wide range and switched upon command to a condition where
the bi-directional thyristor pairs conduct continuously and insert an inductive reactance into the
line. TCSC is an effective and economical means of solving problems of transient stability,
dynamic stability, steady state stability and voltage stability in long transmission lines. A
TCSC is a series controlled capacitive reactance that can provide continuous control of power
on the ac line over a wide range.

56

Thyristor Controlled Phase Angle Regulators (TCPAR) The TCPAR is equipment that can control power flow in transmission lines of power system
by regulating the phase angle of the bus voltage. Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)
controllers such as TCPAR play an important role in increasing load ability of the existing
system and controlling the congestion in the network.
FACTS device like TCPAR can be used to regulate the power flow in the tie-lines of
interconnected power system. When TCPAR is equipped with power regulator and frequency
based stabilizer it can also significantly influence the power flow in the transient states
occurring after power disturbances. In the case of simple interconnected power system,
consisting of two power systems the control of TCPAR can force a good damping of both
power swings and oscillations of local frequency. In the case of larger interconnected power
system consisting of more than two power systems the influence of the control of TCPAR
on damping can be more complicated.
Static Var Compensator (SVC)
Static var compensator is a static var generator whose output is varied so as to maintain or
control specific parameters (e.g. voltage or reactive power of bus) of the electric power
system.
In its simplest form it uses a thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) in conjunction with a fixed
capacitor (FC) or thyristor switched capacitor (TSC). A pair of anti parallel thyristors is
connected in series with a fixed inductor to form a TCR module while the thyristors are
connected in series with a capacitor to form a TSC module. An SVC can control the voltage
magnitude at the required bus thereby improving the voltage profile of the system. The
primary task of an SVC is to maintain the voltage of a particular bus by means of reactive
power compensation (obtained by varying the firing angle of the thyristors). It can also
provide increased damping to power oscillations and enhance power flow over a line by
using auxiliary signals such as line active power, line reactive power, line current, and
computed internal frequency.
Static VAR Compensator (SVC) is a shunt connected FACTS controller whose main
functionality is to regulate the voltage at a given bus by controlling its equivalent reactance.
Basically it consists of a fixed capacitor (FC) and a thyristor controlled reactor (TCR).

57

SVC firing angle model & SVC total susceptance model

Steady-state and dynamic voltage/current Characteristics of the SVC

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
A SSSC is a static synchronous generator operated without an external electric energy source
as a series compensator whose output voltage is in quadrature with, and controllable
independently of the line current for the purpose of increasing or decreasing the overall
reactive voltage drop across the line and thereby controlling the transmitted electric power. The
SSSC may include transiently rated energy source or energy absorbing device to enhance the
dynamic behaviour of the power system by additional temporary real power
compensation, to increase or decrease momentarily, the overall real voltage drop across the
line.
A SSSC incorporates a solid state voltage source inverter that injects an almost sinusoidal
voltage of variable magnitude in series with a transmission line. The SSSC has the same
structure as that of a STATCOM except that the coupling transformer of an SSSC is connected
in series with the transmission line. The injected voltage is mainly in quadrature with the line
current. A small part of injected voltage, which is in phase with the line current, provides the
losses in the inverter. Most of injected voltage, which is in quadrature with the line current,
emulates a series inductance or a series capacitance thereby altering the transmission line series
reactance. This reactance, which can be altered by varying the magnitude of injected voltage,

58

favourably influences the electric power flow in the transmission line. SSSC is a solid-state
synchronous voltage source employing an appropriate DC to AC inverter with gate turn- off
thyristor. It is similar to the STATCOM, as it is based on a DC capacitor fed VSI that
generates a three - phase voltage, which is then injected in a transmission line through a
transformer connected in series with the system. In SSSC, the resonance phenomenon has been
removed. So SSSC is having more superior performance as compare to TCSC. The main control
objective of the SSSC is to directly control the current, and indirectly the power, flowing
through the line by controlling the reactive power exchange between the SSSC and the AC
system. The main advantage of this controller over a TCSC is that it does not significantly
affect the impedance of the transmission system and, therefore, there is no danger of having
resonance problem.

SSSC is a solid-state synchronous voltage source employing an appropriate DC to AC

inverter with gate turn- off thyristor. It is similar to the STATCOM, as it is based on a DC
capacitor fed VSI that generates a three - phase voltage, which is then injected in a
transmission line through a transformer connected in series with the system. In SSSC, the
resonance phenomenon has been removed. So SSSC is having more superior performance as
compare to TCSC. The main control objective of the SSSC is to directly control the current,
and indirectly the power, flowing through the line by controlling the reactive power exchange
between the SSSC and the AC system. The main advantage of this controller over a TCSC is
that it does not significantly affect the impedance of the transmission system and, therefore,
there is no danger of having resonance problem.
Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
A STATCOM is a static synchronous generator operated as a shunt connected static var
compensator whose capacitive or inductive output current can be controlled independent of the
ac system voltage.
A STATCOM is a solid state switching converter capable of generating or absorbing
independently controllable real and reactive power at its output terminals, when it is fed from
an energy source or an energy storage device of appropriate rating. A STATCOM incorporate
a voltage source inverter (VSI) that produces a set of three phase ac output voltages, each of

59

which is in phase with, and coupled to the corresponding ac system voltage via a relatively
small reactance. This small reactance is usually provided by the per phase leakage reactance
of the coupling transformer. The VSI is driven by a dc storage capacitor. By regulating the
magnitude of the output voltage produced, the reactive power exchange between STATCOM
and the ac system can be controlled. The Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is a
power electronic-based Synchronous Voltage Generator (SVG) that generates a three-phase
voltage from a dc capacitor in synchronism with the transmission line voltage and is
connected to it by a coupling transformer.

By controlling the magnitude of the STATCOM voltage the reactive power exchange
between the STATCOM and the transmission line and hence the amount of shunt
compensation can be controlled. The following mode of operation of STATCOM given as:
1.Over excited mode of operation
2.Under excited mode of operation
3. Normal (floating) mode of operation
In STATCOM, the resonance phenomenon has been removed. So STATCOM is
having more superior performance as compared to SVC.

Unified Power Flow Controller(UPFC)The UPFC, by means of angularly unconstrained series voltage injection, is able to control,
concurrently or selectively, the transmission line voltage, impedance, and angle or,
alternatively, the real and reactive power flow in the line. The UPFC may also provide
independently controllable shunt reactive compensation.

60

The UPFC is the most versatile and powerful FACTS device. UPFC is also known as the
most comprehensive multivariable flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) controller.
Simultaneous control of multiple power system variables with UPFC poses enormous
difficulties. In addition, the complexity of the UPFC control increases due to the fact that
the controlled and the variables interact with each other. The Unified Power Flow Controller
(UPFC) is used to control the power flow in the transmission systems by controlling the
impedance, voltage magnitude and phase angle. This controller offers advantages in terms of
static and dynamic operation of the power system. The basic structure of the UPFC consists
of two voltage source inverter (VSI); where one converter is connected in parallel to the
transmission line while the other is in series with the transmission line. The UPFC consists of
two voltage source converters; series and shunt converter, which are connected to each other
with a common dc link. Series converter or Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is
used to add controlled voltage magnitude and phase angle in series with the line, while shunt
converter or Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is used to provide reactive power
to the ac system, beside that, it will provide the dc power required for both inverter. Each of
the branch consists of a transformer and power electronic converter. These two voltage
source converters share a common dc capacitor. The energy storing capacity of this dc
capacitor is generally small. Therefore, active power drawn by the shunt converter should be
equal to the active power generated by the series converter. The reactive power in the shunt or
series converter can be chosen independently, giving greater flexibility to the power flow
control. The coupling transformer is used to connect the device to the system.
Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)
The basic element of a TSSC is a capacitor shunted by bypass valve. The capacitor is inserted
into the line if the corresponding thyristor valve is turned off, otherwise it is bypassed.

61

A thyristor valve is turned off at the instance when the current crosses zero. Thus, the
capacitor can be inserted into the line by the thyristor valve only at the zero crossings of the
line current. On the other hand, the thyristor valve should be turned on for bypass only when
the capacitor voltage is zero in order to minimize the initial surge current in the valve, and the
corresponding circuit transient. This results in a possible delay up to one full cycle to turn the
valve on. Therefore, if the capacitor is once inserted into the line, it will be charged by the line
current from zero to maximum during the first half-cycle and discharged from maximum to
zero during the successive half-cycle until it can be bypassed again.
A Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor is built from several of these basic elements in series.
The degree of series compensation is controlled in a step-like manner by increasing or
decreasing the number of series capacitors inserted. Thus, a TSSC can only provide discrete
capacitor values for series compensation. A TSSC can be applied for power flow control and
for damping power oscillations.

Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor