INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Module Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
SECTION 1 PIPELINE DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Key Pipeline Design Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Determining Loss of Pressure Due to Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Review 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
SECTION 2 PIPE SIZE OPTIMIZATION
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Pipe Sizing & Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Pipeline Capacity Expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Capacity Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Review 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
SECTION 3 PIPE WALL THICKNESS CALCULATIONS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Pipe Wall Thickness Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Design Pressure Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Review 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
SECTION 4 PIPELINE COSTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Cost of Gas Transmission Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Review 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
ANSWERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
PLEASE NOTE
Operations personnel use a combination of skill, knowledge, and
technology to accomplish specific goals. A key objective of the Gas
Controller Training Program is to promote an understanding of
theoretical basis for operational decisions used on the job every day. This
training program enhances job-related skills by providing relevant and
current information with immediate application for employees.
Information contained in the modules is theoretical. A foundation of
basic information facilitates an understanding of technology and its
application. Every effort has been made to reflect pure scientific
principles in the training program. Nevertheless, in some cases, pure
theory conflicts with the practical realities of daily operations.
Usefulness to the employee is our most important priority during the
development of the materials in the Gas Controller Training Program.
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
2002 ENBRIDGE TECHNOLOGY INC.
Reproduction Prohibited
ENBRIDGE TECHNOLOGY INC.
Suite 60, PO Box 398
10201 Jasper Avenue
Edmonton, Alberta
Canada T5J 2J9
Telephone +1 - 780-412-6469
Fax +1 - 780-412-6460
Reference: G0.6 Introduction to Pipeline Design APRIL 2003
STUDY SKILLS
Each of the modules in the Gas Controller Training Program is
designed in a performance based self-instructional format. This
means that you are responsible for your own learning and for
ensuring that you are ready to demonstrate your knowledge and
skills. Our focus is on the performance of the necessary skills and
demonstration of the knowledge needed to perform your job.
1. The modules are designed for short but concentrated periods of
study from ten to forty-five minutes each. Remember that
generally one week of self-study replaces 10 hours of in-class
attendance. For example, if you have a three week self-study
block, then you have to account for 30 hours of study time if you
want to keep pace with most learning programs.
2. When you are studying the module, look for connections between
the information presented and your responsibilities on the job. The
more connections you can make, the better you will be able to
recall.
3. There are self-tests at the end of each section in the module.
Habitually completing these tests will ensure your knowledge of
the information. Use the test to measure your understanding. If you
have an incorrect answer, check the information in the section of
the module to find out why the error was made. Remember, you
are responsible for your own performance.
4. Start studying each section of the module by reading the objectives
and the introduction. This provides both the focus for your
learning and a preview of the test items.
5. Each module is prepared to adapt to a number of different learning
styles. Some learners will proceed directly from the introduction
and objectives to the review questions. Then they will study any
topic that is missed. Most learners, however, work from the
introduction through to the end of the text in a systematic way.
Whichever way you choose to learn, you are free to use the
materials as you see fit.
6. Every module has a performance based test. Each item in the test
is related to an objective for each section. To prepare for the test,
you should ensure that all section reviews are completed and
understood. Many learners review the material in the module
before taking the test.
7. To aid your understanding and enhance your time in the learning
activities, new terms, concepts and principles are printed in bold
face along with their definition highlighted in italics. These are
also listed in the Glossary supplied at the end of the module.
8. Many learners have had success by reading the module Summary
and Glossary. Items in the Glossary are cross-referenced to the
place in the module where they were first introduced. This way, if
there is a topic or a definition that you do not recognize, you can
easily find it in the module.
Introduction to Pipeline Design is an overview of the modules GAS
PIPELINE DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS, HYDRAULICS LEVEL I, and other
modules dealing with gas pipeline design. The detailed modules are
theoretical in nature and provide Controllers with comprehensive and
detailed knowledge of the design issues that affect their ability to
maintain a safe and efficient pipeline operation. Many modules
provide concrete examples of calculations and formulas commonly
used in advanced pipeline design. Because this module is intended as a
general overview, these formulas and calculations are not provided
here. Rather, readers should refer to the specific module in question
for more information.
This module provides information on the following goals.
It provides a general overview of pipeline design.
It explains the relationship between volume and pressure in a
pipeline.
It describes how pipeline size and wall thickness are selected.
It explains the key factors that influence pipeline costs.
None
1
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
MODULE GOALS
INTRODUCTION
PREREQUISITES
3
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
This section of the module provides a general description of how
friction caused by gas flowing in a pipe affects pipeline pressures.
This section also describes how the pressure loss can be determined.
Readers should note that the module PIPELINE DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS
contains an extensive appendix that provides numerous examples
which use the following equations and numbers to solve pipeline
design problems:
the Reynolds Number
the Moody Diagram
the Steady State Equation
the Total Energy Equation.
For more information, readers should refer to the module PIPELINE
DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS.
After this section, you will be able to complete the following
objectives.
Describe the three major gas pipeline design parameters.
Explain which pipe characteristics and gas properties are important
in pipeline design.
Understand how to determine pressure loss due to friction in a gas
pipeline.
PIPELINE DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
SECTION 1
4
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
Pipeline design involves a number of progressive steps using basic
scientific laws and equations for calculations to determine optimum
size and operating characteristics of a pipeline system. It is necessary
to understand the conditions that affect the gas in the pipeline in
order to design it properly. In addition, the following parameters
must be considered in pipeline design: pipeline characteristics,
physical properties of the gas, and the relationship between the pipe
and the gas.
The physical characteristics of the pipe affect how a gas will behave
in a pipeline. Specifically, three pipe parameters must be considered
in design:
pipe inside diameter (ID)
pipe length (L) and
relative roughness of internal pipe wall surface.
Figure 1
Pipe Characteristics
Pipe inside diameter, pipe wall roughness and pipe length affect how a gas
will behave in a pipeline.
Along with the characteristics of the pipe, the physical properties of
the gas affect the design of the pipeline. There are four properties of
gas that must be considered:
natural gas liquids (NGL) or liquefied propane gas (LPG) and
moisture content
density or specific gravity
compressibility, and
temperature.
KEY PIPELINE
DESIGN
PARAMETERS
PIPELINE
CHARACTERISTICS
Length
Wall Roughness
Inside
Diameter
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF THE GAS
Pipe diameter, gas viscosity, and velocity combine to affect flow. The
interdependence between the pipe diameter, liquid viscosity, and flow
viscosity is defined by a mathematical relationship called the
Reynolds number, Re. The Reynolds number is used to describe the
type of flow exhibited by a particular gas flowing through a pipe of a
specific dimension (see Figure 2).
Figure 2
The Reynolds Number
The Reynolds Number is used to describe the type of flow in a pipe.
The first step in determining pressure loss due to friction is to calculate
the Reynolds Number. After the Reynolds number is calculated, there
are two additional steps required to calculate the pressure loss: a
Moody Diagram is used to determine a friction factor; then a Steady
State Flow Equation is used to calculate the pressure loss.
The value of the Reynolds Number determines if the type of flow in
a pipe is laminar, critical, or turbulent. Refer to the module PIPELINE
DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS for detailed instructions on calculating the
Reynolds number.
The friction factor can be read from a Moody Diagram. The Moody
Diagram is a graphical representation of friction factors for a series
of related flow conditions. These curves relate two dimensionless
parameters (the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the
inside pipe wall) to the friction factor (see Figure 4).
Figure 3
Turbulent Flow
The relative roughness and Reynolds Number are used to find the friction
factor.
5
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE PIPE &
THE GAS
Friction, n
Re
D v
n
=
Diameter
Velocity, v
DETERMINING
LOSS OF
PRESSURE DUE
TO FRICTION
STEP 1 CALCULATE
THE REYNOLDS
NUMBER, (R
E
)
STEP 2 DETERMINE
THE FRICTION
FACTOR, (F)
Turbulent
6
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
Flow in vhich the gas in the center of the pipe moves faster than the
gas near the pipe walls is called laminar flow. If there is laminar
flow, minimal mixing of gas occurs and the friction factor can be
read from the Moody Diagram. For laminar flow there is a linear
relationship between the Reynolds Number and the friction factor.
If flow is turbulent, the friction factor is also found using the Moody
Diagram. However, with turbulent flow, the relative roughness must
also be taken into account so that the correct curve is used (see
Figure 4). Under normal pipeline operating conditions, the flow is
turbulent.
Figure 4
Moody Diagram
A general steady-state flow equation has been developed from an
energy balance over a pipeline. Steady State is a state or condition of
a system, such as a pipeline, that stays constant or does not change
over time. This equation and its derivation is defined in most texts on
fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.
Several pipeline flow equations have been developed for different flow
conditions and pipeline diameters. Some examples are Weymouth,
Panhandle A& B, and AGAflow formulas. These formulas contain
adjustment factors that are found in practice and are specific to local
field conditions. These flow formulas are used to predict pressure
drops at differing flow rates with various sizes of pipe.
STEP 3 CALCULATE
THE PRESSURE LOSS
USING FLOW
EQUATIONS
7
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
1. What are the three pipe characteristics that must be
considered in pipeline design?
a) Inside diameter, wall thickness, and relative roughness of
internal wall surface
b) Outside diameter, wall thickness, and relative roughness of
internal wall surface
c) Inside diameter, length, relative roughness of internal wall
surface
d) Outside diameter, length, relative roughness of internal wall
surface
2. The Reynolds number describes which of the following?
a) It relates the characteristics of the pipe and the fluid flowing
through it
b) It is dimensionless (i.e., has no units of measurement)
c) It describes the type of flow for a gas flowing through a
specific pipe
d) All of the above
3. For laminar flow, there is a linear relationship between the
Reynolds Number and the friction factor.
a) True
b) False
4. What is the flow under normal gas transmission pipeline
operating conditions called?
a) It is laminar
b) It is turbulent
c) It is critical
d) All of the above
Answers are at the end of this module.
SECTION 2
REVIEW 1
9
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
SECTION 2
Most pipelines are designed using computer programs to process the
basic pipeline flow equations. Computers allow us to look quickly at
many different alternatives with respect to pipeline size, temperature,
pressure, and volumes. However, in order to understand computer
calculations, a basic understanding of universal gas laws is required.
This section of the module provides an overview of the concepts of
energy conservation in relation to the practice of pipeline design.
This section also discusses the importance of determining optimum
pipe size, volume capacity, line pressure, and other related criteria for
pipeline design.
The module PIPELINE DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS provides numerous
practical examples of typical problems related to the application of
universal gas theory as well as pipe design pressure calculations. To
see these examples and calculations, readers should refer to those
modules and also to the WORKBOOK, which is a collection of
problems designed to show the application of universal gas laws to
pipeline design.
After this section, you will be able to complete the following
objectives.
Identify the main factors affecting pipeline design.
Describe different methods of capacity expansion.
Recognize the relationship between present and future capacity
requirements.
PIPE SIZE OPTIMIZATION
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
10
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
Pipelines are designed not only to meet present needs, but also to
accommodate future demands. In addition, economic factors such as
the high cost of equipment and component parts also affect pipeline
design. The design engineer is faced with the dilemma of satisfying
the capacity requirements for all foreseeable demands while at the
same time minimizing the economic burden of building and
operating the pipeline. Selection of the most desirable combination
of design factors to maximize capacity and minimize cost is called
optimization.
The selection of the size of the pipe is a crucial factor in designing a
pipeline (see Figure 5). The pipe size, wall thickness, and strength
determine the operating conditions of the pipeline. The diameter
determines the compression requirement for a given volume.
Figure 5
Pipe Sizing
Optimum pipe size satisfies capacity requirements at a reasonable cost. An
oversized pipeline results in overspent funds, while an undersized pipeline
restricts capacity.
The pipe size selection process is not complete without considering
the cost of all the factors. Smaller pipe limits the volume and flow
but costs less. Larger pipe has lower pressure loss and operating
pressures, but costs more. All factors (cost of materials, cost of
operation) must be determined to identify the most effective pipeline
design.
PIPE SIZING &
SELECTION
PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
OF THE GAS
ELAPSED TIME
OVER
CAPACITY
Capacity =
Volume
Elapsed Time
$
$
LIMITED
CAPACITY
VOLUME
11
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
The selection of pipeline size involves calculating the annual costs,
which are the costs incurred every year in the operation of a pipeline
system. These annual costs are divided into two categories:
fixed (capital) costs, and
variable (operating) costs.
Fixed costs are costs which do not depend on the capacity of the
pipeline. An example of a fixed cost is property tax. Variable costs,
unlike fixed costs, are dependent on the capacity of the pipeline. An
example of a variable cost is the cost of compressor fuel.
Total annual costs are approximately 20% of the capital costs for a
typical pipeline.
A pipeline has reached its capacity when there is no more physical
room to increase the throughput under any conditions. Consequently,
the discharge pressures of the existing compressor stations cannot be
increased nor can suction pressures be decreased. Capacity expansion
is the process of safely increasing the volume capacity of an existing
pipeline. Methods of achieving increased capacity include adding:
parallel line (looping)
adding more compression at existing stations.
The decisions on what measures to take for increasing pipeline
capacity depend upon the increased volume requirements. If the
pipeline capacity needs to be doubled, normally the solution would
be to loop the pipeline completely. For increases between 10% and
50%, the pipeline company has the choice of installing a combination
of loops and additional compression, depending on design
requirements.
ECONOMIC FACTORS
PIPELINE
CAPACITY
EXPANSION
12
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
Pipeline loops are similar to parallel electric circuits as described in
Figure 6. In Figure 6, the flow in both the main and looped lines
between Points A and B depends on the relative size of each lines
inside diameter. However, the pressure drop in each line is identical,
since the two lines are connected to the same two end points.
Looping is the installation of sections of pipe of different sizes that
run parallel to the existing pipeline to change the capacity of the
pipeline. Looping is usually added to the downstream segment of a
section between two compressor stations to reduce the pressure loss
between stations.
Figure 6
Looped Pipeline
A pipeline loop is similar to an electrical circuit. As the gas flow (current)
reaches Point A, it separates into two streams. The sum of the flows
(currents) in each stream is equal to the flow (current) before and after Points
A and B.
The capacity of a pipeline can be increased by installing more
compression at stations along the pipeline. The additional
compression is required to compensate for pressure loss at the higher
flow rates.
The pipeline designer must know the expected capacity of the
proposed pipeline. However, it is often difficult to forecast future
capacity requirements. For example, future capacity requirements
may increase with the addition of more production from newly
drilled wells or newly discovered fields. New customers may be
added to the system, such as gas fired power plants. In contrast,
future capacity may decrease as gas field productivity decreases due
to reservoir depletion.
PIPELINE LOOPS
A B
A
B
ADDITIONAL
COMPRESSOR
STATIONS
CAPACITY
REQUIREMENTS
13
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
Nevertheless, estimates of pipeline input and delivery volumes are
required. Often, compromises are made between building a pipeline
capable of handling future requirements and one capable of handling
only current requirements. Economics is the key consideration. If
excessive capacity exists for an extended period of time, the
systems profitability is reduced. Conversely, if the pipelines
capacity is smaller than the volume demand requirements, profits are
not being maximized and the system must be expanded.
Generally, pipelines are either designed with some excess capacity or
so that capacity can be increased with the addition of compression
limited by the Maximum Operating Pressure (MOP) of the system.
MOP is the highest pressure at which a given segment of a pipeline
can be safely operated. MOP is determined by regulations governing
pipe size, weight, material composition, and geographic area in
which the pipeline is located.
14
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
1. What does pipeline design consider?
a) Future capacity demand only
b) Right of way as highest priority
c) Present and future capacity requirements
d) All of these
2. How is the annual cost of operating a pipeline divided ?
a) Into short term and long term costs
b) Into fixed and variable costs
c) Into gross and capital costs
d) Into gross and net costs
3. Which of the following is NOT an option for increasing the
capacity of a pipeline?
a) Looping portions of the pipeline
b) Adding compressor stations
c) Adding compression at existing stations
d) Operating above the MOP
4. What are the key considerations in sizing a pipeline?
a) Economics
b) Gas supply
c) Customer demand
d) All of these
Answers are at the end of this module.
REVIEW 2
15
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
PIPE WALL THICKNESS
CALCULATIONS
SECTION 3
Pipeline regulations set out the standards that must be followed in
designing a pipeline. In the United States, all gas pipelines must be
designed according to the Department of Transportation Regulation,
DOT 49 CFR Part 192 Transportation of Natural and other Gas by
Pipeline. The international standard for pipeline design is
ANSI/ASME B31.8 Standard for Gas Transmission Piping
Systems.
This section of the module describes how the nominal wall thickness
is determined for a design pressure. This calculation is done after the
pipe size has been determined through an optimization process.
The module PIPELINE DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS gives numerical
examples of pipe stress and wall thickness calculations.
After this section, you will be able to complete the following
objectives.
Identify the factors involved in selecting the pipe wall thickness.
Recognize the causes of pipe stress.
Understand the application of wall thickness/design pressure
formulas.
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
16
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
Once the optimum pipe size (diameter) is determined, the wall
thickness and design pressure must be calculated in order to
establish the pipe specifications. These calculations are set out in
detail in ANSI/ASME B31.8 Standard for Gas Transmission Piping
Systems. Some jurisdictions have special or supplementary
requirements that go beyond B31.8
The initial selection of a pipe wall thickness for a specific
application is based on the following factors:
design pressure
pipe diameter
pipe material grade
class location
pipeline operating temperature
longitudinal pipe joint factor.
Figure 7
Gas pipeline in
Northern
Canada
Additional factors may influence the final selection of pipe wall
thickness. Factors that may require consideration include:
foreign crossing requirements
external forces
corrosion allowance
transportation and handling during construction
other non-typical loadings.
Figure 8
Pipes being
transported during
construciton
PIPE WALL
THICKNESS
CALCULATIONS
SELECTING PIPE WALL
THICKNESS
CAUSES OF PIPE
STRESS
17
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
The design pressure for gas pipeline steel piping or the nominal wall
thickness for a given design pressure is determined by using the
following ASME B31.8 formula:
where: t = nominal wall thickness (in.)
OD = nominal outside diameter of pipe (in.)
P = design pressure (psig)
S = specified minimum yield strength (psi)
F = design factor
E = longitudinal joint factor
T = temperature derating factor
The outside diameter of the pipe (OD) and the design pressure are
determined by the design optimization process. The pipe minimum
yield strength (S) and the longitudinal joint factor (E) are established
from the pipe manufacturer design specifications .
The design factor (F) changes, depending on the final location of the
pipe within the pipeline system. The ANSI/ASME B31.8 code sets
out a procedure for dividing the pipeline into class locations (1, 2, 3
or 4) based on the number of buildings or population in proximity to
the pipeline. There is a different design factor for each class location
and within each class location there may be additional increases in
design safety factors to account for added stress on the pipeline, e.g.
road crossing or compressor station piping.
A temperature derating factor is applied if the pipeline will operate
above 150 F (65 C). Natural gas transmission pipelines are
normally limited to a maximum operating temperature of 120 F
(49 C). Above this temperature, the external coating will have the
potential to disbond, exposing the pipe and creating the possibility
of corrosion.
The final pipe wall thickness can be determined once all pipeline
design factors are known. Typically, a gas transmission pipeline will
have a thin wall pipe in remote, sparsely populated areas. Heavy wall
pipe is installed at road, river and rail crossings, throughout
populated areas, in cities and towns, and at compressor stations.
P =
2 S F t E T
OD
DESIGN
PRESSURE
FORMULA
18
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
1. What is the international standard for pipeline design?
a) API 6D
b) ANSI/ASME B31.8
c) ASME Section VIII
d) All of these
2. Which of the following factors is not used to select pipe
wall thickness?
a) Pipe diameter
b) Class location
c) Gas quality
d) Design pressure
3. What are determined by the design optimization process?
a) Outside diameter (OD) and design pressure (P)
b) Longitudinal joint factor (E) and specified minimum yield
strength (S)
c) Class location and design factor
d) All of these
4. Where is heavier wall pipe usually installed?
a) At road crossings
b) At river crossings
c) At compressor stations
d) All of these
Answers are at the end of this module
REVIEW 3
19
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
PIPELINE COSTS
SECTION 4
This section describes the main components that make up the cost of
a gas pipeline. These costs can be grouped as follows:
Right-of-way costs
Material costs
Construction costs
Engineering and contingency costs.
For information on compressor station costs, readers should refer to
the module COMPRESSOR STATIONS.
After this section, you will be able to complete the following objective.
Identify the major components of transmission pipeline costs.
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
20
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
The cost of a gas transmission pipeline is made up of the following
components:
Right-of-way (ROW) cost
Material cost
Construction cost
Engineering and contingency.
Material and construction costs are the major cost components.
Together, they make up 60% to 70% of the total project cost. A
discussion of each component follows.
Right-of-way costs consist of payment for land rights as well as
compensation for work related damages. These include damages to
crops, trees, and fences.
The key factors affecting ROWcosts are:
Population density
Higher density means higher costs
Figure 9
ROW through high density area
Environmental sensitivity
Environmentally sensitive areas can be bypassed but this results
in increased pipe and pipeline costs
Figure 10
ROW through environmentally sensitive terrain.
RIGHT-OF-WAY (ROW)
COSTS
COST OF GAS
TRANSMISSION
PIPELINES
21
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
Time urgency
If negotiation time is short, ROWcosts may increase
Surveying requirements
Surveys for easements across federal and state lands can be more
expensive than private property
Material costs include the pipe, coating, valves, and fittings. These
costs increase significantly as the pipe diameter increases.
The pipe is the most costly item. The wall thickness establishes the
weight of the pipe, which determines the cost.
Factors that affect the cost of materials are:
Design flow rate and MOP of pipe
These establish the size of pipe, valves, and fittings
Population density along ROW
This establishes the wall thickness of pipe
Availability of material
Some sizes and specifications of pipe material may be in short
supply, driving up costs. This will depend on the number
of similar pipeline projects happening concurrently.
In addition to material costs, construction costs are a major component
of total pipeline costs. The key factors that influence construction
costs are:
Population density
Urban areas present more obstacles to pipeline construction
than rural areas
Environmental constraints
Construction costs will increase with directional drilling,
terrain restoration, and archaeological sites
MATERIAL COSTS
CONSTRUCTION
COSTS
22
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
Rough terrain
Rocky areas, wetlands, and mountainous terrain can increase
construction costs greatly
Figure 11
Pipeline construction through mountains
Weather factors
Winter construction in cold climates, summer construction in hot
climates, or rainy season construction can increase labour costs
considerably
Availability of contractors
If contractors are busy, bid prices will increase.
Engineering costs are dependent on the complexity of the project.
They could be significant if there are several complicated engineering
designs such as water crossings, unstable slope areas, and
mountainous terrain.
Contingency costs are included to cover unknown project costs.
These include material price escalation, unexpected construction
difficulties, ROWacquisition problems, or unusually bad weather.
The more the estimators know about a project, the lower the
contingency cost should be.
ENGINEERING &
CONTINGENCY COSTS
23
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
1. What are the major cost components of a gas pipeline?
a) Engineering and contingency
b) Material and construction
c) Right-of-Way and engineering
d) Construction and engineering
2. Population density is a key factor in the cost of a pipeline.
a) True
b) False
3. What are the main factors that affect the cost of pipeline
materials?
a) Design flowrate
b) Population density along ROW
c) Availability of materials
d) All of these
4. Which is not a key factor in the construction costs of a
pipeline?
a) Population density along ROW
b) Environmental constraints
c) Survey requirements
d) Rough terrain
5. What is the result when the estimators know more about a
pipeline project ?
a) It should lower engineering cost
b) It should lower contingency cost
c) It should lower ROWcost
d) It should lower population density
Answers are at the end of this module
REVIEW 4
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GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
SECTION 1 PIPELINE DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS
To design a pipeline, it is necessary to understand the pipe
characteristics, physical properties of the gas, and the relationship
between the pipe and the gas.
The main pipe characteristics in pipeline design are inside
diameter, length, and relative roughness.
The physical properties of the gas that are considered in pipe
design are viscosity, specific gravity, compressibility, and
temperature.
The three steps to determining pressure loss due to friction in a
pipeline are:
Calculate the Reynolds Number (Re).
Determine the Friction Factor (f) from the Moody diagram.
Calculate the pressure loss using an industry flow formula.
SECTION 2 PIPE SIZE OPTIMIZATION
Optimization is the selection of the most desirable pipeline design
that maximizes throughput capacity at a minimum cost.
The annual costs of a pipeline are made up of fixed costs (which
do not depend on capacity) and variable costs (which are capacity
dependent).
The methods for increasing capacity of a pipeline are looping and
adding more compression at existing stations. Optimization is used
to select the best expansion method.
Pipeline capacity design is often a compromise between meeting
projected future requirements and meeting current demands.
Generally, pipelines are designed with expansion capability at
reasonably low cost.
SECTION 3 PIPE WALL THICKNESS CALCULATIONS
The pipe wall thickness is calculated once the optimum pipe
diameter and design pressure (MOP) are determined. These
calculations are done according to formulas set out in government
regulations, such as DOT 49 CFR Part 192 in the U.S.
SUMMARY
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INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN
The factors that determine pipe wall thickness are:
design pressure
pipe diameter
pipe material grade
class location
pipeline operating temperature
longitudinal pipe joint factor.
Each pipeline is divided into class location, depending on the
proximity to buildings and population. A design factor is assigned
to each class with increases to account for added stress on the
pipeline due to unusual loads (e.g. road crossings) or external
forces (e.g. unstable slopes).
The final pipe wall thickness is calculated for the different
locations once all the factors are known. Typically, gas pipelines
have thin-walled pipe in remote areas and heavy-walled pipe at
river, road and rail crossings and through populated areas.
SECTION 4 PIPELINE COSTS
The total cost of a gas pipeline can be broken up into the following
four components: Right-of-way, Material, Construction, and
engineering and contingency. The largest cost areas are material
and construction.
Right-of-way costs increase with population density, environmental
sensitivity, short negotiation timeframes and increased survey
requirements.
Material costs are a function of the pipe diameter, pipe wall
thickness, and current availability of pipe.
Construction costs are driven by ROWpopulation density,
environmental obstacles, rough terrain, weather, and contractor
availability.
Engineering costs increase with the number of specific unusual
pipeline designs required. Contingency costs decrease as more
detailed information is known about the project.
26
annual costs
the costs incurred every year in the operation of a pipeline system.
(p. 11)
fixed costs
operational costs that do not depend on the capacity of the pipeline.
(p. 11)
laminar flow
a flow in which the gas in the center of the pipe moves faster
than the gas near the pipe walls. (p.6)
looping
the installation of additional sections of different sizes of pipe that
run in parallel and are connected to the original pipeline to change
the capacity of the pipeline. (p.12)
Maximum Operating Pressure (MOP)
the highest pressure at which a given segment of a pipeline can be
safely operated. (p.13)
Moody Diagram
a graphical representation of friction factors for a series of related
flow conditions, whose curves relate two dimensionless parameters
(the Reynolds Number and the relative roughness of the inside pipe
wall) to the friction factor. (p. 5)
optimization
selection of the most desirable combination of pipeline design factors
to maximize capacity and minimize cost. (p.10)
Reynolds Number
mathematical relationship that defines the interdependence between
the pipe diameter, liquid viscosity, and flow viscosity. (p.5)
steady state
operating condition of a system, such as a pipeline, that stays
constant or does not change over time. (p. 6)
variable costs
costs of pipeline operation that change with increases or decreases in
pipeline operational capacity. (p.11)
GAS CONTROLLER TRAINING PROGRAM
GLOSSARY
REVIEW 1 REVIEW 2 REVIEW 3 REVIEW 4
1. a 1. c 1. b 1. b
2. d 2. b 2. c 2. a
3. a 3. d 3. a 3. d
4. b 4. d 4. d 4. c
5. b
ANSWERS
INTRODUCTION TO PIPELINE DESIGN