9

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Emergency Shut Down Systems (ESD’s) ............................................................................................. 9.1
Pressure Relief Valves ........................................................................................................................... 9.2
Flare System ........................................................................................................................................... 9.7

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9.1 Conventional Relief Valve................................................................................................................... 9.4
9.2 Balanced-Bellows Relief Valve........................................................................................................... 9.4
9.3 Pilot-Operated Relief Valve................................................................................................................. 9.4
9.4 ASME Section VIII — Relief Requirements (Operating Contingencies) ........................................ 9.5
9.5 ASME Section VIII — Relief Requirements (Operating Contingencies) ........................................ 9.5
9.6 ASME Section VIII — Relief Requirements (Fire Contingencies) .................................................. 9.6
9.7 ................................................................................................................................................................. 9.6
9.8 Typical Flare System Layout............................................................................................................... 9.9
9.9 Typical Flare Installation ..................................................................................................................... 9.10

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9.1 Summary of API RP-526 — Flanged Steel Safety Relief Valves .................................................... 9.9

VER: ME41_02-01-2004

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 9
6<1B51>4B5<956CICD5=C
Proper design of production/processing facilities requires that special consideration be given to
safety facilities to prevent catastrophic equipment failure. These facilities are designed to prevent
overpressure of equipment and piping or to provide for the safe disposal of discharged vapors and
liquids during an emergency or normal start-up and shutdown.
Standard pressure-relieving devices most often used are safety and relief valves, rupture disks,
pressure-control valves, and equipment blow-down valves. Direct discharge of process fluids to the
atmosphere is often unacceptable due to environmental restrictions, toxic or explosive fluids, or mete-
orological conditions.
Nonhazardous vapors such as waste or low-pressure steam are usually discharged directly to
the atmosphere. In contrast, hydrocarbon vapors that are discharged on a continuous or intermittent
basis (for example, off-spec product or bypass streams generated during startup) and should not be
directly discharged to the atmosphere should be disposed of through a closed system and burned in a flare.

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Emergency shut-down systems are normally installed to protect personnel, equipment, and sur-
roundings (pollution) during abnormal operating conditions, with a minimum amount of production
stoppages.
A prime requirement of such a system is that it must be reliable. Every effort is made at the
design and specification stage to ensure that the total system functions correctly and is free from
spurious shut-downs. Therefore these systems are often independent from all other systems, except to
give information to a data acquisition system.
Emergency shut-down systems can be manually or automatically initiated, depending on the
operating /safety philosophy established for the facility. A manual system eliminates the problem of
spurious trips by detection devices which cause unwarranted alarms and plant shut-down, but intro-
duces the risk of delayed action or no action at all.
For major production facilities, these systems become complicated. In order to keep them
manageable, several levels of shut-down are introduced: local trip, process train shut-down, production
shut-down, plant shut-down, etc.
Modern ESD systems apply microprocessor based logic, including voting networks for auto-
matic shut-down (e.g. on 2 out of 3 systems detecting abnormal conditions). These systems are
equipped with diagnostic and self-checking procedures and can be made as reliable as the relay solid

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state systems. Manual shut-down is initiated by actuation of switches, located in the control room,
preferably on a separate panel and locally at strategic points.

The actions to be carried out depend on the safety philosophy laid down for the emergency
shut-down and depressuring of a unit or facility.

The usual action items for an ESD and/or EDP (Emergency Depressuring) system are
• Closing isolating valves
• Tripping of non-essential running equipment and fired process equipment
• Depressuring the protected plant section to flare, atmosphere or emptying it into the drain
system waste pit or burn pit
• Closing liquid flows to or from vessels
• Keeping utility systems in operation as long as possible by cutting off non-essential con-
sumers.
Design of the depressuring system is done in close coordination with process, safety and the
instrument engineers and (if used) a HAZOP team.

The emergency shut-down and depressuring system (ESD and EDP) in general should be:
• Fail-safe, reliable and simple
• Independent of normal control and relief systems
• Initiated in the event of operational upsets creating dangerous situations which are outside
the limits of the normal process trips e.g. a major gas release into atmosphere, (threatening)
fire or explosion.

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Pressure relief valves, often called safety relief valves or pressure safety valves (PSV’s), pre-
vent the over pressure of equipment and piping by releasing the fluid in the system to atmosphere or to
a closed flare. Due to the strict environmental and safety requirements at the North Slope virtually all
PSV’s discharge to a closed flare system.

From a practical standpoint it is preferable that relieving of overpressure to a flare system via
PSV’s be kept to a minimum. After popping, PSV’s often do not reseat completely resulting in leak-
age. For this reason pressure control valves are often used in addition to PSV’s. Examples include
compressors, fractionator/stabilizer overheads, separators, etc. The set point on the pressure control
valve is greater than the operating pressure but less than the set pressure of the PSV. These pressure
control valves are used in most emergency and non-emergency situations. Other remotely actuated
valves may be used for depressuring during emergency shutdowns. These are designated ESDV’s.

Overpressure of a piece of equipment, unit, train or entire process can occur for a number of
reasons. These are summarized in API RP 521 and include the following:

r Closed Valve r Loss of reflux

r Inadvertent valve closing r Heat exchanger tube failure
r Inadvertent valve opening r Accumulation of non-condensables
r Check Valve Malfunction r Chemical reaction

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r Utility failure r Hydraulic expansion

— loss of cooling r Fire
— loss of electrical system r Compressor Shutdown
— loss of instrument air (or shutdown of other process equipment)
r Transient Pressure Surges

Relief Valve Sizing — Applicable Codes

API RP-520 Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries
API RP-521 Guide for Pressure Relieving and Depressuring Systems
API RP-526 Flange Steel Safety Relief Valves
ASME Section VIII Div. 1 Pressure Vessel Code

The relief rate required to prevent overpressure of the unit is calculated based on a detailed
review of the failure scenario and its consequences using accepted engineering procedures. Units will
also be protected from fire. Fire relieving rates are estimated based on the amount of vapor generated
due to heat absorption by the vessel exposed to flames.

After relieving loads of individual PSV’s have been calculated, a study is required to determine
the aggregate effect of the relieving situations. The simultaneous occurrence of two or more contin-
gencies (known as double jeopardy) is so unlikely that this situation is not usually considered for
determining maximum system load. Once the relieving rates have been determined, the flare collection
system can be sized.

Design Criteria
r Relieving Pressure and Capacity
r Operating Contingencies
• Single Valve
• Multiple Valves
r Fire Contingencies
• Single Valve
• Multiple Valves

There are four types of PSV’s

• Conventional (Figure 9.1)
• Balanced (Figure 9.2)
— bellows
— piston
• Pilot (Figure 9.3)
In order to better understand the difference in these valves it is necessary to define a few terms.

Set Pressure. The pressure at which the PSV is set to open. It is normally less than or equal
to the maximum allowable working pressure of the protected equipment.

Relieving Pressure = Set Pressure + OverPressure + Atmospheric Pressure

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Bellows

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pressure
normal

normal pressure
applied to pilot

Relief Valve Closed Relief Valve Open

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Accumulation. The pressure increase over the maximum allowable working pressure when a
relief device is discharged. It is expressed as a percentage of the maximum allowable working pres-
sure.

Back Pressure. The pressure on the discharge side of a safety-relief valve. This is of two
types:
1. Super-imposed back pressure: It is the pressure in the discharge header of a safety-relief
valve before it discharges. Thus, if a valve discharges to the atmosphere, back pressure is
atmospheric pressure.
2. Built-up back pressure: It is the back pressure developed as a result of flow after the
safety relief valve opens.
Total Back Pressure = Built−Up Pressure + Superimposed Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure
The relieving capacity of a conventional valve is significantly effected by the backpressure.
Conventional valves should not be used when the built-up backpressure exceeds 10% of set pressure.
Conventional PSV’s are typically used when the discharged vapors vent directly to atmosphere through
a tail pipe.

110% Relieving Pressure

105% One Accumulation

Valve

100% MAWP (Design Pressure)

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116% Relieving Pressure

110%

One
Valve Second
Valve
105%

100% MAWP

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121% Relieving Pressure

One
Valve

100% MAWP
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121% Relieving Pressure

110%

One
Valve Second
Valve
105%

100% MAWP

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Balanced valves (whether piston or bellows) are designed to minimize the effect of backpres-
sure on the valve. Balanced PSV’s can relieve into closed flare headers against a much higher back-
pressure than a conventional valve. A backpressure of 30%-50% of set pressure can be tolerated with-
out a reduction in valve capacity.
Pilot operated PSV’s are balanced valves as well, but use the action of a pilot to open the valve
rather than the ∆P across the valve disk or piston. When the set pressure in a pilot operated valve is
reached a pilot vents the pressure on the back side of the valve piston causing the valve to open. The
backpressure has no effect on the valve capacity (assuming critical flow exists). Another advantage of
a pilot operated PSV’s is that maximum seating pressure exists just below the set pressure.

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There are basically two types of flare systems, namely elevated flares and ground flares.
In an elevated flare system, combustion takes place at the top of a pipe or stack where the
burner and igniter are located. A ground flare is similarly equipped except that the combustion takes
place at or near ground level.
Flares are not intended to operate continuously under normal process conditions. However,
during facility startups there may be continuous flaring for several days particularly if equipment prob-
lems are experienced.
Flares are provided with a number of pilot burners at the top. These burn continuously. Also,
the flare system is continuously purged with natural gas in order to keep the system free of air.
Ground flares are more simple than elevated flares as structural support is required, erection is
simple and maintenance is less complicated. The primary drawback of ground flares is that they must
be further removed from equipment and personnel due to radiant heat transfer and possible accumula-
tion of toxic or explosive vapors.
Elevated flares are more expensive to purchase and install. Maintenance is more difficult and
tedious. Noise levels also tend to be higher. On the other hand, elevated flares can be installed closer
to the process units reducing piping costs and the backpressure imposed on relieving devices. In some
cases, ground flares are used in conjunction with elevated flares. The ground flare is designed to
handle normal flaring and the elevated flare is designed to handle an emergency blowdown.
A typical flare system is made up of the following components.
1. PSV’s, PCV’s and ESDV’s
2. Headers which convey the discharges from the valves in the process units to the flare
3. Flare Knockout Drum to remove any liquid from the vapors prior to flaring
4. Flare stack consisting of the riser structure, molecular seal, pilot and burner tip.
Flare headers are designed to handle the released fluids under all emergency situations without
imposing excessive backpressure on the relief valve. Theoretically a pilot operated valve can operate
(under critical flow conditions) at full capacity with a backpressure of 50% of set pressure. In most
cases, however, the flare headers are designed so that the backpressure does not exceed 30-40% of set
pressure. Many facilities use separate HP and LP flare systems so that backpressure induced by open-
ing a HP relief valve does not affect a LP valve. Most flare headers are also designed to limit veloci-
ties to less than 50% of sonic velocity.
The flare knockout drum is designed to remove liquids which are entrained in the vapor at the
PSV, or condense in the flare header. In general, particles larger than 300 µm should be removed in
the knockout drum. Liquid collected in the drum is pumped to a liquid burn pit or to a slop tank for
reuse. Most knockout drums are horizontal. Knockout drums should have minimal internals and no
mist extractor.
The location of the flare stack is a safety-related issue. Normally, it is located on the lee side
of the plant (downwind of prevailing winds) and remote from operating and traffic areas.
The height of the flare stack and distance from the facility depends upon the following:
1. Heat released by the flare gas.
2. Characteristics of the flame and the flame length.

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3. Emissivity of the flame.

4. Radiation intensity of the flame.
5. Ground level concentration of toxic gases present in the flare stream in the event of a flame
blowout.
The primary consideration is radiant heat transfer from the flame to adjacent equipment and
personnel. API RP 521 recommends the following values.

Recommended Design Flare Radiation Levels Excluding Solar Radiation

Permissible Design Level (K)
British Thermal Kilowatts
Units per Hour per Square
per Square Foot meter Conditions
5000 15.77 Heat intensity on structures and in areas where operators are not likely to
be performing duties and where shelter from radiant heat is available (for
example, behind equipment)
3000 9.46 Value of K at design flare release at any location to which people have
access (for example, at grade below the flare or a service platform of a
nearby tower); exposure should be limited to a few seconds, sufficient for
escape only
2000 6.31 Heat intensity in areas where emergency actions lasting up to 1 minute
may be required by personnel without shielding but with appropriate
clothing
1500 4.73 Heat intensity in areas where emergency actions lasting several minutes
may be required by personnel without shielding but with appropriate
clothing
500 1.58 Value of K at design flare release at any location where personnel are
continuously exposed
Note: On towers or other elevated structures where rapid escape is not possible, ladders must be provided on
the side away from the flare, so the structure can provide some shielding when K is greater than 2000 British
thermal units per hour per square foot (6.31 kilowatts per square meter).

API values for radiation intensity should be used as guidelines only. The actual equilibrium
surface temperature can be estimated from a heat balance. This, in turn, determines the distance from
the flare.
Smokeless flares may be required by governmental bodies. Prevention of smoke in flares is
normally accomplished in three different ways:
1. By the addition of steam.
2. By making a pre-mix of fuel and air before combustion so as to provide sufficient oxygen
for efficient combustion (similar to fired boilers and furnaces).
3. By distribution of the flow of raw gases through a number of small burners.
4. By sonic mixing of raw gas and air to provide sufficient oxygen to completely combust all
hydrocarbons.
Among these methods, the addition of steam is most commonly used to produce a smokeless
flare for economy and superior performance.

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Orifice Area
cm2 in2
D 000.710 00.110 • • •
E 001.265 00.196 • • •
F 001.981 00.307 • • •
Standard orifice Designation

G 003.245 00.503 • • •
H 005.065 00.785 • •
J 008.303 01.287 • • •
K 011.858 01.838 •
L 018.406 02.853 • •
M 023.226 03.600 •
N 028.000 04.340 •
P 041.161 06.380 •
Q 071.290 11.050 •
R 103.226 16.000 • •
T 167.742 26.000 •
mm 25™50 3850 38™62 38™75 50™75 38™100 75™100 100™150 150™200 150™250 200™250
in. 1™2 1.5™2 1.5™2.5 1.5™3 2™3 2.5™4 3 ™4 4 ™6 6 ™8 6™10 8™10

From 3000 Area

PSV3001

PSV3002

PSV3003

PSV3004
Flare Stack

Main Flare Header

Flare
Knock-Out Sub-Headers
Drum

PSV1001 PSV2003

PSV1003 PSV2002

PSV1002 PSV2001
Discharge lines
from PSV's

From 1000 Area From 2000 Area

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Mol. Seal
Igniter
Purge Line
Gas

Power Supply
for Spark Igniter

Slope Toward Flame Front PI

Drum Generator
From Relief PI
Vent
or Vent Air
LAH
Header System Supply

LG LSH Fuel Gas

TI to Pilots

Knockout PI PSL PAL

Drum LG LC Flare Stack

To Oil Recovery
Facilities or Slop
Flare Knockout
Drum Liquids Pump

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Sizing Procedures
r Critical Flow Behavior
r Sizing for Critical Flow
r Sizing for Sub-Critical Flow — Vapor Other than Steam
r Sizing Rupture Disk Devices
r Sizing for Liquid Relief
• Certified Liquid Capacity
• Non-Certified Liquid Capacity

 3+).'4/)'2
 

Relief Valve Sizing

Vapor Critical Flow: A =

W
√TMZ
C Kd P1 Kb

735 F K √

W TZ
Subcritical Flow: A =
2 M P (P − P )
d 1 1 2

Liquid A =
Q
38 Kd Kw Kv 
√ P 
G
−P1 2
Where: W = mass flow rate, lb/hr
C = constant which depends on (Cp/Cv) for the gas
Kd = discharge coefficient ≈ 0.975 for vapor and ≈ 0.6 for liquid
P1 = upstream relieving pressure, psia
Kb = backpressure correction for balanced belows valves = 1 unless backpressure
exceeds 50% of relieving pressure
T = relieving temperature, °R
Z = compressibility factor
M = vapor molecular weight
F2 = coefficient of subcritical flow ≈ 0.7 to 1 depending on P2/P1
Kw = backpressure correction = 1 if backpressure is atmospheric
Q = flowrate, US gpm
G = specific gravity of liquid

Flares/Relief Systems

Relieving Rates: Blowdown Emergency Shutdown

Relief Valve Discharge
Selective Depressurization for Operational/Maintenance
Line Sizing: Backpressure on Relieving Devices
— generally < 30% of relieving pressure for balanced valves
Velocity
— generally <50% sonic velocity
Radiation: Radiant heat transfer from flare tip to surrounding personnel/equipment
— this sets distance from facilities and/or flare stack height
Flare Knock Out Drum: Sized to minimize liquid entrainment to flare tip
Flare Stack: Velocity generally < 50% sonic velocity
— sonic flares are available and can be used
Other: Smokeless Operation — state limit: 20% opacity
Seals/Purge Gas
Wind Direction/Speed

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NOTES:

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