Pipe Fitting
Pipe Fitting
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Contributing Editors
Joseph Camerata has a BS in Management with honors (magna cum laude). He retired as
a Chemist in 2006 having worked in the field of chemical, environmental, and industrial
hygiene sampling and analysis for 40 years. He has been a professional presenter at an
EPA analytical conference at the Biosphere in Arizona and a presenter at an AWWA
conference in Mesa, Arizona. He also taught safety classes at the Honeywell and City of
Phoenix, and is a motivational/inspirational speaker nationally and internationally.
Dr. Eric Pearce S.M.E., chemistry and biological review.
Dr. Pete Greer S.M.E., retired biology instructor.
Jack White, Environmental, Health, Safety expert. Art Credits.
Check with your State to see if this course has been accepted.
Basic Plumbing www.abctlc.com 7/8/2002 All plastic piping photos are used by permission
from Spears MFG. Co, All backflow materials are used by permission from CMB Industries, Inc
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COURSE DESCRIPTION
PIPE-FITTING CEU TRAINING COURSE
Review of various pipe jointing procedures, water distribution/collection pipefitting, light
plumbing, water main and service connections jointing and detailed valve information. This
course will cover the basics of piping, pipe joining/solvent cementing, valves, backflow
prevention, water quality and hydraulic fundamentals. You will not need any other materials
for this course.
Audience
Water Distribution, Well Drillers, Pump Installers, Water Treatment Operators, Wastewater
Treatment Operators, Wastewater Collection Operators, Industrial Wastewater Operators
and General Backflow Assembly Testers, and Plumbers--the target audience for this course
is the person interested in working in a water, wastewater treatment, distribution or
collection facility, performing basic or light plumbing, wishing to maintain CEUs for a
certification license, wanting to learn how to do the job safely and effectively, and/or to meet
education needs for promotion.
Course Procedures for Registration and Support
All of Technical Learning Colleges correspondence courses have complete registration and
support services offered. Delivery of services will include e-mail, web site, telephone, fax
and mail support. TLC will attempt immediate and prompt service. When a student
registers for a distance or correspondence course, he/she is assigned a start date and an
end date. It is the student's responsibility to note dates for assignments and keep up with
the course work. All students will be tracked by a unique number assigned to the student.
Instructions for Written Assignments
The Pipe-fitting CEU Training course will be a Fill-in-the-Blank and/or True or False type of
an exam. TLC will require that the document is typed and preferably e-mailed or faxed to
TLC. You can find complete course support on TLCs website under the Assignment Page.
Feedback Mechanism (examination procedures)
Each student will receive a feedback form as part of their study packet. You will be able to
find this form in the rear of the course or lesson.
Security and Integrity
All students are required to do their own work. All lesson sheets and final exams are not
returned to the student to discourage sharing of answers. Any fraud or deceit and the
student will forfeit all fees and the appropriate agency will be notified.
Grading Criteria
In order to successfully pass this course, you will need to have 70% or better on the final
exam.
Required Texts
The Pipe-fitting CEU Training course does not require any course materials. Course comes
complete.
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We teach this class in a conventional classroom setting. Call for group pricing.
Educational Mission
The educational mission of TLC is:
To provide TLC students with comprehensive and ongoing training in the theory and
skills needed for the environmental education field,
To provide TLC students with opportunities to apply and understand the theory and
skills needed for operator certification,
To provide opportunities for TLC students to learn and practice environmental
educational skills with members of the community for the purpose of sharing diverse
perspectives and experience,
To provide a forum in which students can exchange experiences and ideas related
to environmental education,
To provide a forum for the collection and dissemination of current information
related to environmental education, and to maintain an environment that nurtures
academic and personal growth.
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Copyright Notice
2005 Technical Learning College (TLC) No part of this work may be reproduced or
distributed in any form or by any means without TLCs prior written approval. Permission
has been sought for all images and text where we believe copyright exists and where the
copyright holder is traceable and contactable. All material that is not credited or
acknowledged is the copyright of Technical Learning College. This information is intended
for educational purposes only. Most uncredited photographs have been taken by TLC
instructors or TLC students. We will be pleased to hear from any copyright holder and will
make good on your work if any unintentional copyright infringements were made as soon as
these issues are brought to the editor's attention.
Every possible effort is made to ensure that all information provided in this course is
accurate. All written, graphic, photographic or other material is provided for information
only. Therefore, Technical Learning College accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever
for the application or misuse of any information included herein. Requests for permission to
make copies should be made to the following address:
TLC
P.O. Box 3060
Chino Valley, AZ 86323
Information in this document is subject to change without notice. TLC is not liable for errors
or omissions appearing in this document.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Basic Plumbing.................. 13
Chapter 2 Hydraulic Principles........... 17
Pascal's Law ........................................... 21
Volume/Velocity...................................... 23
Chapter 3 Backflow.............................. 25
Backflow Responsibilities....................... 31
Types of Backflow Preventers................. 35
Chapter 4 Pathogens........................... 49
Hippocrates............................................. 51
Black Plague........................................... 55
Viral Diseases......................................... 63
Waterborne Diseases............................. 65
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Commonly found materials used for sweating (Soldering) copper pipe and gluing
(Cementing) PVC. Plumbers like to utilize 5-gallon buckets as a tool box of sorts.
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Water Closet or Urinal? Crappers have been here much longer than we may think.
Much longer and that is a good thing.
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Top, new and incredible, low VOC Volatile Organic Chemical is used in the
production of this ball valve for water quality and Laboratory applications.
Below, Trap Primer to maintain the seal inside a floor drain so that sewer odors do
not come inside the building, Trap Primers are usually inside access panels in walls.
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Licensing
Plumbers must demonstrate their competence as installers of plumbing systems to an
official executing board prior to being issued a license. A plumbing code which is technically
perfect is valueless if its provisions are not observed and enforced. The issuance of a
license by a community specifies that the license holder is qualified both theoretically and
practically and that their technical knowledge
is sufficient to maintain the standards of the
code.
Is licensing intended to prevent anyone but a
plumber from doing sanitation work? NO...
Licensing prohibits the irresponsible,
incapable person from endangering the health
of your family, neighbors and community. Any
person may do the work that has sufficient
knowledge to do it in a safe manner, so long
as the Rules and Regulations of the plumbing
and sanitation code are observed. However,
those wishing to do such work must
demonstrate their ability by taking out a license and passing an examination. Most States
require that, like a doctor, nurse, dentist or pharmacist, anyone whose work affects the
public health and safety shall have adequate knowledge and training.
No one wants a "quack doctor" to treat his family or a "soda clerk" to fill his prescriptions.
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For precisely the same reasons, one does not want a "handyman" to do work in his home,
office or factory which can adversely affect the health of his family, his employees or his
neighbors. Done improperly, this work would probably need to be rectified at the time the
property changed hands, which means paying twice for the same work.
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Pressure may be referred to using an absolute scale, pounds per square inch absolute
(psia), or gauge scale, (psiag). Absolute pressure and gauge pressure are related.
Absolute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus the atmospheric pressure. At sea level,
the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psai.
Absolute pressure is the total pressure. Gauge pressure is simply the pressure read on the
gauge. If there is no pressure on the gauge other than atmospheric, the gauge will read
zero. Then the absolute pressure would be equal to 14.7 psi, which is the atmospheric
pressure.
Vacuum
The term vacuum indicates that the absolute pressure is less than the atmospheric
pressure and that the gauge pressure is negative. A complete or total vacuum would mean
a pressure of 0 psia or 14.7 psig.
Since it is impossible to produce a total vacuum, the term vacuum, as used in this
document, will mean all degrees of partial vacuum.
In a partial vacuum, the pressure would range from slightly less than 14.7 psia (0 psig) to
slightly greater than 0 psia (-14.7 psig).
Backsiphonage results from atmospheric pressure exerted on a liquid, forcing it toward a
supply system that is under a vacuum.
Water Pressure
The weight of a cubic foot of water is 62.4 pounds per square foot. The base can be
subdivided into 144-square inches with each subdivision being subjected to a pressure of
0.433 psig.
Suppose you placed another cubic foot of water on top of the first cubic foot. The pressure
on the top surface of the first cube which was originally atmospheric, or 0 psig, would now
be 0.4333 psig as a result of the additional cubic foot of water. The pressure of the base of
the first cubic foot would be increased by the same amount of 0.866 psig or two times the
original pressure.
Hydraulics
The word hydraulics is based on the Greek word for water, and originally covered the study
of the physical behavior of water at rest and in motion.
Use has broadened its meaning to include the behavior of all liquids, although it is primarily
concerned with the motion of liquids. Hydraulics include the manner in which liquids act in
tanks and pipes, deals with their properties, and explores ways to take advantage of these
properties.
Hydraulics is a branch of engineering concerned mainly with moving liquids. The term is
applied commonly to the study of the mechanical properties of water, other liquids, and
even gases when the effects of compressibility are small.
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Hydraulics can be divided into two areas, hydrostatics and hydrokinetics. Hydrostatics, the
consideration of liquids at rest, involves problems of buoyancy and flotation, pressure on
dams and submerged devices, and hydraulic presses.
Hydrodynamics
The relative incompressibility of liquids is one of its basic principles. Hydrodynamics, the
study of liquids in motion, is concerned with such matters as friction and turbulence
generated in pipes by flowing liquids, the flow of water over weirs and through nozzles, and
the use of hydraulic pressure in machinery.
Development of Hydraulics
Although the modern development of hydraulics is comparatively recent, the ancients were
familiar with many hydraulic principles and their applications. The Egyptians and the ancient
people of Persia, India, and China conveyed water along channels for irrigation and
domestic purposes, using dams and sluice gates to control the flow. The ancient Cretans
had an elaborate plumbing system. Archimedes studied the laws of floating and submerged
bodies. The Romans constructed aqueducts to carry water to their cities.
After the breakup of the ancient world, there were few new developments for many
centuries. Then, over a comparatively short period, beginning near the end of the
seventeenth century, Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelle, French physicist Edme
Mariotte and, later, Daniel Bernoulli conducted experiments to study the elements of force
in the discharge of water through small openings in the sides of tanks and through short
pipes.
During the same period, Blaise Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the fundamental law
for the science of hydraulics. Pascals law states that increase in pressure on the surface of
a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the confining vessel or system. For
Pascals law to be made effective for practical applications, it was necessary to have a
piston that "fit exactly." It was not until the latter part of the eighteenth century that methods
were found to make these snugly fitted parts required in hydraulic systems.
This was accomplished by the invention of machines that were used to cut and shape the
necessary closely fitted parts and, particularly, by the development of gaskets and
packings. Since that time, components such as valves, pumps, actuating cylinders, and
motors have been developed and refined to make hydraulics one of the leading methods of
transmitting power.
Liquids are almost incompressible. For example, if a pressure of 100 pounds per square
inch (psi) is applied to a given volume of water that is at atmospheric pressure, the volume
will decrease by only 0.03 percent. It would take a force of approximately 32 tons to reduce
its volume by 10 percent; however, when this force is removed, the water immediately
returns to its original volume. Other liquids behave in about the same manner as water.
Another characteristic of a liquid is the tendency to keep its free surface level. If the surface
is not level, liquids will flow in the direction which will tend to make the surface level.
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Liquids at Rest
In studying fluids at rest, we are concerned with the transmission of force and the factors
which affect the forces in liquids. Additionally, pressure in and on liquids and factors
affecting pressure are of great importance.
Pressure and Force
Pressure is the force that pushes water through pipes. Water pressure determines the flow
of water from the tap. If pressure is not sufficient then the flow can reduce to a trickle and it
will take a long time to fill a kettle or a cistern.
The terms force and pressure are used extensively in the study of fluid power. It is
essential that we distinguish between the terms.
Force means a total push or pull. It is the push or pull exerted against the total area of a
particular surface and is expressed in pounds or grams. Pressure means the amount of
push or pull (force) applied to each unit area of the surface and is expressed in pounds per
square inch (lb/in2) or grams per square centimeter (gm/cm2 ). Pressure may be exerted in
one direction, in several directions, or in all directions.
Computing Force, Pressure, and Area
A formula is used in computing force, pressure, and area in fluid power systems. In this
formula, P refers to pressure, F indicates force, and A represents area. Force equals
pressure times area. Thus, the formula is written:
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Pascals Law
The foundation of modern hydraulics was established when Pascal discovered that
pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions. This pressure acts at right angles to the
containing surfaces. If some type of pressure gauge, with an exposed face, is placed
beneath the surface of a liquid at a specific depth and pointed in different directions, the
pressure will read the same. Thus, we can say that pressure in a liquid is independent of
direction.
Pressure due to the weight of a liquid, at any level, depends on the depth of the fluid from
the surface. If the exposed face of the pressure gauges are moved closer to the surface of
the liquid, the indicated pressure will be less. When the depth is doubled, the indicated
pressure is doubled. Thus the pressure in a liquid is directly proportional to the depth.
Consider a container with vertical sides that is 1 foot long and 1 foot wide. Let it be filled
with water 1 foot deep, providing 1 cubic foot of water. 1 cubic foot of water weighs 62.4
pounds. Using this information and equation, P = F/A, we can calculate the pressure on the
bottom of the container.
Since there are 144 square inches in 1 square foot, this can be stated as follows: the weight
of a column of water 1 foot high, having a cross-sectional area of 1 square inch, is 0.433
pound. If the depth of the column is tripled, the weight of the column will be 3 x 0.433, or
1.299 pounds, and the pressure at the bottom will be 1.299 lb/in2 (psi), since pressure
equals the force divided by the area.
Thus, the pressure at any depth in a liquid is equal to the weight of the column of liquid at
that depth divided by the cross-sectional area of the column at that depth.
The volume of a liquid that produces the pressure is referred to as the fluid head of the
liquid. The pressure of a liquid due to its fluid head is also dependent on the density of the
liquid.
Gravity
Gravity is one of the four forces of nature. The strength of the gravitational force between
two objects depends on their masses. The more massive the objects are, the stronger the
gravitational attraction.
When you pour water out of a container, the earth's gravity pulls the water towards the
ground. The same thing happens when you put two buckets of water, with a tube between
them, at two different heights. You must do work to start the flow of water from one bucket
to the other, but then gravity takes over and the process will continue on its own.
Gravity, applied forces, and atmospheric pressure are static factors that apply equally to
fluids at rest or in motion, while inertia and friction are dynamic factors that apply only to
fluids in motion. The mathematical sum of gravity, applied force, and atmospheric pressure
is the static pressure obtained at any one point in a fluid at any given time.
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Static Pressure
Static pressure exists in addition to any dynamic factors that may also be present at the
same time.
Pascals law states that a pressure set up in a fluid acts equally in all directions and at right
angles to the containing surfaces.
This covers the situation only for fluids at rest or practically at rest. It is true only for the
factors making up static head. Obviously, when velocity becomes a factor it must have a
direction, and as previously explained, the force related to the velocity must also have a
direction, so that Pascals law alone does not apply to the dynamic factors of fluid power.
The dynamic factors of inertia and friction are related to the static factors. Velocity head and
friction head are obtained at the expense of static head. However, a portion of the velocity
head can always be reconverted to static head.
Force, which can be produced by pressure or head when dealing with fluids, is necessary
to start a body moving if it is at rest, and is present in some form when the motion of the
body is arrested; therefore, whenever a fluid is given velocity, some part of its original static
head is used to impart this velocity, which then exists as velocity head.
Cooling Tower
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Bernoulli's Principle
Bernoulli's principle thus says that a rise (fall) in pressure in a flowing fluid must always be
accompanied by a decrease (increase) in the speed; and conversely, an increase
(decrease) in the speed of the fluid results in a decrease (increase) in the pressure.
This is at the heart of a number of everyday phenomena. As a very trivial example,
Bernoullis principle is responsible for the fact that a shower curtain gets ``sucked inwards''
when the water is first turned on. What happens is that the increased water/air velocity
inside the curtain (relative to the still air on the other side) causes a pressure drop.
The pressure difference between the outside and inside causes a net force on the shower
curtain which sucks it inward. A more useful example is provided by the functioning of a
perfume bottle: squeezing the bulb over the fluid creates a low-pressure area due to the
higher speed of the air, which subsequently draws the fluid up. This is illustrated in the
following figure.
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Bernoullis Principle
Bernoullis principle also tells us why windows tend to explode, rather than implode in
hurricanes: the very high speed of the air just outside the window causes the pressure just
outside to be much less than the pressure inside, where the air is still. The difference in
force pushes the windows outward, and hence they explode. If you know that a hurricane is
coming it is therefore better to open as many windows as possible, to equalize the pressure
inside and out.
Another example of Bernoulli's principle at work is in the lift of aircraft wings and the motion
of curve balls'' in baseball. In both cases, the design is such as to create a speed
differential of the flowing air past the object on the top and the bottom - for aircraft wings
this comes from the movement of the flaps, and for the baseball it is the presence of ridges.
Such a speed differential leads to a pressure difference between the top and bottom of the
object, resulting in a net force being exerted, either upwards or downwards.
Properties of Water
Specific gravity of water at 60F = 1.00
Weight per gallon is based on 7.48052 gallons per cubic foot.
Suds producing fixture 2 inch VTR Vent through Roof and Trap.
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Backflow Chapter 3
Cross-Connection Terms
Cross-connection
A cross-connection is any temporary or
permanent connection between a public water
system or consumers potable (i.e., drinking)
water system and any source or system
containing nonpotable water or other substances.
An example is the piping between a public water
system or consumers potable water system and
an auxiliary water system, cooling system, or
irrigation system.
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Common Cross-connections
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Backflow
Backflow is the undesirable reversal of flow of nonpotable water or other substances
through a cross-connection and into the piping of a public water system or consumers
potable water system. There are two types of backflow--backpressure and
backsiphonage.
Backsiphonage
Backpressure
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Backsiphonage
Backsiphonage is backflow caused by a negative pressure (i.e., a vacuum or partial
vacuum) in a public water system or consumers potable water system. The effect is similar
to drinking water through a straw.
Backsiphonage can occur when there is a stoppage of water supply due to nearby
firefighting, a break in a water main, etc.
All backflow materials are used by permission from CMB Industries, Inc
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Backpressure
Backpressure backflow is backflow caused by a downstream pressure that is greater than
the upstream or supply pressure in a public water system or consumers potable water
system. Backpressure (i.e., downstream pressure that is greater than the potable water
supply pressure) can result from an increase in downstream pressure, a reduction in the
potable water supply pressure, or a combination of both. Increases in downstream pressure
can be created by pumps, temperature increases in boilers, etc.
Reductions in potable water supply pressure occur whenever the amount of water being
used exceeds the amount of water being supplied, such as during water line flushing,
firefighting, or breaks in water mains.
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Backpressure example:
Booster pumps, pressure vessels
All backflow materials are used by permission from CMB Industries, Inc
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Backflow Responsibility
The Public Water Purveyor
The primary responsibility of the water purveyor is to develop and maintain a program to
prevent or control contamination from water sources of lesser quality or other contamination
sources from entering into the public water system.
Under the provisions of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, (SDWA) and current
Groundwater Protection rules the Federal Government through the EPA, (Environmental
Protection Agency), national standards of safe drinking water. The separate states are
responsible for the enforcement of these standards as well as the supervision of public
water systems and the sources of drinking water.
The water purveyor (or supplier) is held responsible for compliance to the provisions of the
Safe Drinking Water Act, to provide a warranty that water quality by their operation is in
conformance with the EPA standards at the source, and is delivered to the customer
without the quality being compromised as its delivery through the distribution system.
This is specified in the Code of Federal Regulations (Volume 40, Para. 141.2 Section
c ): Maximum contaminant level means the permissible level of a contaminant in water
which is delivered to the free flowing outlet of the ultimate user of a public water system,
except in the case of turbidity where the maximum permissible level is measured at the
point of entry (POE) to the distribution system.
Contaminants added to the water under
circumstances controlled by the user, except those
resulting from corrosion of piping and plumbing
caused by water quality, are excluded from this
definition.
The Water Consumer
Has the responsibility to prevent contaminants from
entering into the public water system by way of their
individual plumbing system, and retain the expenses
of installation, maintenance, and testing of the
approved backflow prevention assemblies installed
on their individual water service line.
The Certified General Backflow Tester
Has the responsibility to test, maintain, inspect,
repair, and report/notify on approved backflow
prevention assemblies as authorized by the persons
that have jurisdiction over those assemblies.
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Why do water suppliers need to control cross-connections and protect their public
water systems against backflow?
Backflow into a public water system can pollute or contaminate the water in that system
(i.e., backflow into a public water system can make the water in that system unusable or
unsafe to drink), and each water supplier has a responsibility to provide water that is usable
and safe to drink under all foreseeable circumstances.
Furthermore, consumers generally have absolute faith that water delivered to them through
a public water system is always safe to drink. For these reasons, each water supplier must
take reasonable precautions to protect its public water system against backflow.
What should water suppliers do to control cross-connections and protect their public
water systems against backflow?
Water suppliers usually do not have the authority or capability to repeatedly inspect every
consumers premises for cross-connections and backflow protection. Alternatively, each
water supplier should ensure that a proper backflow preventer is installed and maintained at
the water service connection to each system or premises that poses a significant hazard to
the public water system.
Generally, this would include the water service connection to each dedicated fire protection
system or irrigation piping system and the water service connection to each of the following
types of premises: (1) premises with an auxiliary or reclaimed water system; (2) industrial,
medical, laboratory, marine or other facilities where objectionable substances are handled
in a way that could cause pollution or contamination of the public water system; (3)
premises exempt from the State Plumbing Code and premises where an internal backflow
preventer required under the State Plumbing Code is not properly installed or maintained;
(4) classified or restricted facilities; and (5) tall buildings.
Each water supplier should also ensure that a proper backflow preventer is installed and
maintained at each water loading station owned or operated by the water supplier.
What is a backflow preventer?
A backflow preventer is a means or mechanism to prevent backflow. The basic means of
preventing backflow is an air gap, which either eliminates a cross-connection or provides a
barrier to backflow. The basic mechanism for preventing backflow is a mechanical backflow
preventer, which provides a physical barrier to backflow.
The principal types of mechanical backflow preventer are the reduced-pressure principle
assembly, the pressure vacuum breaker assembly, and the double check valve assembly.
A secondary type of mechanical backflow preventer is the residential dual check valve.
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Have you ever heard the saying, The wrong end of the stick ?
Ancient public toilets commonly found in Roman arenas from the time of Christ..
These are friendly toilets in which you can hold hands with your neighbor. Notice
the small wash trough in front of the seat. This wash trough was to wash the stick.
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Notice the larger pipe is an approved air gap, but what about the smaller drain in the
rear?
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All backflow materials are used by permission from CMB Industries, Inc
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All backflow materials are used by permission from CMB Industries, Inc.
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Typical RP Installation
Some Water Purveyors will require the assembly to be a minimum of 12 inches between
the bottom of the discharge port and the surface or ground level.
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RP Manifold Installation
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Leaky RP, probably has some debris in the pressure differential area or in the
hydraulic relief valve area.
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If you ever need to prove for a need for backflow protection, visit your local fair
grounds or trailer park. I guarantee that youll find all you need at the concession
stand and most health departments and plumbing officials could care less. Here is
a photograph of a drinking water and sewer connection in the same meter box with
the sewer backing up. The white hose is for drinking water and it is back siphoning
the sewage water, the sheen is a reflection of the water pulsating in and out of the
meter box.
What is backflow? Reverse flow condition.
Backflow is the undesirable reversal of flow of nonpotable water or other
substances through a cross-connection and into the piping of a public water system
or consumers potable water system. There are two types of backflow-backpressure and backsiphonage.
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Pathogens Chapter 4
Pathogens
Bacteria, viruses and protozoans that cause disease are known as pathogens. Most
pathogens are generally associated with diseases that cause intestinal illness and affect
people in a relatively short amount of time, generally a few days to two weeks. They can
cause illness through exposure to small quantities of contaminated water or food or from
direct contact with infected people or animals.
How Diseases are Transmitted
Pathogens that may cause waterborne outbreaks through drinking water have one thing in
common: they are spread by the fecal-oral, or feces-to-mouth, route.
Pathogens may get into water and spread when infected humans or animals pass the
bacteria, viruses and protozoa in their stool. For another person to become infected, he or
she must take that pathogen in through the mouth.
Waterborne pathogens are different from other types of pathogens such as the viruses that
cause influenza (the flu) or the bacteria that cause tuberculosis. Influenza virus and
tuberculosis bacteria are spread by secretions that are coughed or sneezed into the air by
an infected person.
Human or animal wastes in watersheds, failing septic systems, failing sewage treatment
plants or cross-connections of water lines with sewage lines provide the potential for
contaminating water with pathogens. The water may not appear to be contaminated
because feces has been broken up, dispersed and diluted into microscopic particles.
These particles, containing pathogens, may remain in the water and be passed to humans
or animals unless adequately treated.
Only proper treatment will ensure eliminating the spread of disease. In addition to water,
other methods exist for spreading pathogens by the fecal-oral route. The foodborne route is
one of the more common methods. A frequent source is a food handler who does not wash
his hands after a bowel movement and then handles food with unclean hands. The
individual who eats feces-contaminated food may become infected and ill. It is interesting to
note the majority of foodborne diseases occur in the home, not restaurants.
Day care centers are another common source for spreading pathogens by the fecal-oral
route. Here, infected children in diapers may get feces on their fingers, then put their fingers
in a friends mouth or handle toys that other children put into their mouths.
The general public and some of the medical community usually refer to diarrhea symptoms
as stomach flu. Technically, influenza is an upper respiratory illness and rarely has
diarrhea associated with it; therefore, stomach flu is a misleading description for foodborne
or waterborne illnesses, yet is accepted by the general public.
So the next time you get the stomach flu, you may want to think twice about what youve
digested within the past few days.
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Chain of Transmission
Water is contaminated with feces. This contamination may be of human or animal origin.
The feces must contain pathogens (disease-causing bacteria, viruses or protozoa). If the
human or animal source is not infected with a pathogen, no disease will result.
The pathogens must survive in the water. This depends on the temperature of the water
and the length of time the pathogens are in the water. Some pathogens will survive for only
a short time in water, others, such as Giardia or Cryptosporidium, may survive for months.
The pathogens in the water must enter the water systems intake and in numbers sufficient
to infect people. The water is either not treated or inadequately treated for the pathogens
present.
A susceptible person must drink the water that contains the pathogen. Illness (disease) will
occur. This chain lists the events that must occur for the transmission of disease via
drinking water. By breaking the chain at any point, the transmission of disease will be
prevented.
Bacterial Diseases
Campylobacteriosis is the most common diarrheal illness caused by bacteria. Symptoms
include abdominal pain, malaise, fever, nausea and vomiting; and usually begin three to
five days after exposure. The illness is frequently over within two to five days and usually
lasts no more than 10 days. Campylobacteriosis outbreaks have most often been
associated with food, especially chicken and unpasteurized milk as well as unchlorinated
water. These organisms are also an important cause of travelers diarrhea. Medical
treatment generally is not prescribed for campylobacteriosis because recovery is usually
rapid.
Cholera, Legionellosis, salmonellosis, shigellosis, and yersiniosis, are other bacterial
diseases that can be transmitted through water. All bacteria in water are readily killed or
inactivated with chlorine or other disinfectants.
Waterborne Diseases
The first epidemic of a waterborne disease probably was caused by an infected caveman
relieving himself in waters upstream of his neighbors. Perhaps the entire clan was
decimated, or maybe the panicky survivors packed up their gourds and fled from the "evil
spirits" inhabiting their camp to some other place.
As long as people lived in small groups, isolated from each other, such incidents were
sporadic. But as civilization progressed, people began clustering into cities. They shared
communal water, handled unwashed food, stepped in excrement from casual discharge or
spread as manure, used urine for dyes, bleaches, and even as an antiseptic.
As cities became crowded, they also became the nesting places of waterborne, insect
borne and skin-to-skin infectious diseases that spurted out unchecked and seemingly at
will. Typhus was most common, reported Thomas Sydenham, England's first great
physician, who lived in the 17th century and studied early history. Next came typhoid and
relapsing fever, plague and other pestilential fever, smallpox and dysenterys-the latter a
generic class of disease that includes what's known as dysentery, as well as cholera.
The ancients had no inkling as to the true cause of their misery. People believed divine
retribution caused plagues and epidemics, or else bad air, or conjunction of the planets and
stars, any and all of these things.
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Hippocrates
Hippocrates, the "Father of Medicine" who lived around 350 B.C., recommended boiling
water to filter out impurities - those particles that pollute its
sweet taste, mar its clarity or poison the palate.
He was onto something, but his advice pertained only to
what the observer could taste, touch, smell or see with the
naked eye. The "what you see is what you get" approach
was about the extent of scientific water analysis until the
late 1800s.
That invisible organisms also thrive and swim around in a
watery environment was beyond imagination until a few
centuries ago, and their connection with disease wasn't
established till a scant 100 years ago. Although the
microscope was invented in 1674, it took 200 years more
for scientists to discover its use in isolating and identifying specific microbes of particular
disease. Only then could public health campaigns and sanitary engineering join forces in
eradicating ancient and recurring enteric diseases, at least in developed countries of the
world.
Cleaning Up
From archeology we learn that various ancient civilizations began to develop rudimentary
plumbing. Evidence has turned up of a positive flushing water closet used by the fabled
King Minus of Crete back around 1700 B.C.
The Sea Kings of Crete were renowned for their extravagant bathrooms, running hot and
cold water systems, and fountains constructed with fabulous jewels and workings of gold
and silver.
Just a few months ago, a colorful public latrine dating to the 4th century B.C. was unearthed
on the Aegean island of Amorgos.
The 7'x 5' structure resembles a little Greek temple. Topped with a stone roof, the interior
walls decorated in red, yellow and green plaster, it served a gymnasium a short distance
away. The building accommodated four people seated on two marble benches. Running
water flushed the wastes away, probably along an open ditch at the users' feet.
Ancient water supply and sewerage systems - along with various kinds of luxury plumbing
for the nobility - also have been discovered in early centers of civilization such as Cartage,
Athens and Jerusalem. But it was the Roman Empire of biblical times that reigns supreme,
by historical standards, in cleanliness, sanitation and water supply.
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The Romans
The Romans built huge aqueducts conveying millions of gallons of water daily, magnificent
public baths and remarkable sewer systems-one of which, the Cloaca Maxmia, is still in
use. Rome spread its plumbing technology
throughout many of its far-flung territories as well.
Yet, while we may rightfully marvel at the Roman
legacy in plumbing, it should be noted that they were
motivated by concerns of esthetics, comfort and
convenience. They understood very well that bringing
fresh water to the masses and disposing of waste
made for a more pleasant way of life, but there is little
evidence they understood the connection with
disease control.
Bursting Rome's Bubble: In fact, the magnificence
great city-state diminishes quite a bit when its
plumbing systems come under closer scrutiny. Rome
sprang up in haphazard fashion, a town of crooked,
narrow streets and squalid houses. In its heyday,
Rome had a population of over one million, and
waste disposal was a definite problem.
The water supply of Rome was obtained from ground water and rain water, and in many
cases these mixed together. The lowlands of the countryside were swampy marshes which
developed into malarial wastelands.
The Romans developed underground channels to drain the natural swamps and secure
water for irrigation and drinking. Nonetheless, a particular region known as the Pontine
Marshes were all but inhabitable during the summertime, until drained during the regime of
Benito Mussolini. (Some 40,000 Italians died in a 16th century malaria epidemic.)
A luxury toilet in the private houses of the well-to-do was a small, oblong hole in the floor,
without a seat - similar to toilets that prevailed in the Far East and other sections of the
world even today. A vertical drain connected the toilet to a cesspool below.
The great Roman spas accommodated hundreds and even thousands of bathers at a time.
But without filtration or circulation systems, the bathers basked in germ-ridden water and
the huge pools had to be emptied and refilled daily.
In public latrines, a communal bucket of salt water stood close by in which rested a long
stick with a sponge tied to one end. The user would cleanse his person with the spongy end
and return the stick to the water for the next one to use.
The stick later evolved into the shape of a hockey stick, and the source for the expression
"getting hold of the wrong end of the stick." It also provided an excellent medium for
passing along bacteria and the assorted diseases they engendered.
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One of the characteristic Imperial Roman building types is the giant bath complex which
could house not only bathing facilities but lecture halls, gymnasia, libraries and gardens.
Roman bathing establishments usually provided three kinds of baths, i.e., hot, tepid and
cold. The room pictured above was kept warm by hot air circulating through pipes in the
walls and floor.
Examples of Roman water pipe and Latrine and below is a hand washing station.
Running water for the latrine either was supplied by stone water tanks or else by an
aqueduct patterned after the graceful, curved arches made famous by the Roman
engineers. Those water experts knew that covering water keeps it cool from the sun
and helps prevent the spread of algae.
Imperfect though their plumbing knowledge may have been, the Roman Empire still did an
admirable job assuring public cleanliness and, inadvertently, health.
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Rome employed administrators known as aediles to oversee various public works, including
coliseum games and the police. They also were in charge of seeing that streets got swept
of garbage and streams cleared of visible pollution and debris.
Lead pipes that carried both hot and cold water under pressure were in use in
Rome over 4,000 years ago and can be clearly seen in the ancient city of Pompeii.
Below is a steam vent that was used in a bath house over 5,000 years ago.
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This fountain inside a bathhouse in Pompeii had brass fittings to carry the water
under pressure to create a fountain in the center for washing your hands. This sink
was solid alabaster and was engineered for this application. There is an inscription
on the basin that explains the cost and the person that purchased the basin for the
bath house.
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Black Plague
These are the conditions which spawned the infamous Black Plague, killing an estimated
one third of the European population. Although not directly related to bad plumbing, the
plague serves as the most striking example of misery caused by poor sanitation in general,
and the ignorance of people in controlling the outbreak.
The first of several waves hit England in 1348, caused by flea bites spread by lice that dwelt
on host black rats. They, in turn, fed on the garbage and excrement of the masses. London
became largely deserted. The King and Queen and other rich people fled to the
countryside. The poor were the greatest sufferers.
Panic, death and despair followed the abandonment of farms and towns. Wrote William of
Dene, a monk of Rochester in Kent, England, Men and women carried their own children
on their shoulders to the church and threw them into a common pit. From these pits such an
appalling stench was given off that scarcely anyone dared to walk beside the cemeteries,
so marked a deficiency of labors and workmen that more than a third of the land in the
whole realm was left to."
So bad was the "Black Death," the Great Fire of London in I666 can be viewed as a
blessing in disguise. Though it killed thousands of people, the holocaust also consumed
garbage, muck and black rats, effectively ending the plague.
Dysentery
Bad plumbing was merely one of many sanitation factors that gave rise to the Black Death.
Other scourges are more directly related to human waste. Dysentery is one that has left an
indelible mark on history.
Characterized by painful diarrhea, dysentery is often called an armys "fifth column."
Identified as far back as the time of Hippocrates and before, it comes in various forms of
infectious disorders and is said to have contributed to the defeat of the Crusaders. Wrote
the eminent English historian, Charles Creighton: "The Crusaders of the IIth - I3th centuries
were not defeated so much by the scimitars of the Saracens as by the hostile bacteria of
dysentery and other epidemics.
The summer of the first Crusade in 1090 was extraordinarily hot as the ill-prepared and ragtag "army" of men and camp followers went to war with little more than the clothes on their
backs-confident that the Lord would provide for their needs in such a holy cause. They
denuded the land of trees and bushes in the quest for nourishment.
Hampered by lack of fresh water and contaminated containers, they trudged along to their
destiny, relieving themselves along the wayside or in the fields.
Dysentery hit the women and children first, and then the troops. More than 100,000 died
plus almost 2,500 German reinforcements whose bodies remained unburied.
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Typhus Fever
Typhus fever is another disease born of bad sanitation. It has come under many headings,
including "jail fever" or "ship fever," because it is so common among men in pent-up, putrid
surroundings. Transmitted by lice that dwell in human feces, the disease is highly
contagious.
Napoleon lost thousands of his men to typhus in Russia - as did the
Russians who caught it from the enemy. Many historians believe that
Napoleon would have won were it not for the might of his opponents
"General Winter, General Famine and General Typhus."
French ships were notorious for their filthy and fever-ridden sailors.
One such French squadron left its soiled clothing and blankets behind
near Halifax, Nova Scotia, when they returned to Europe in 1746,
thinking they could dispel their own plague. Their infected blankets
wiped out a nation of Indians.
Typhoid fever, a slightly different ailment than typhus, involves a Salmonella bacillus that is
found in the feces and urine of man. The symptoms are so similar to typhus that the two
were not differentiated until 1837. Prince Albert died from typhoid in 1861.
His wife, Queen Victoria, had built-in in-immunity because of a previous siege. Good thing,
because she is said to have prostrated herself in grief across the dead body of her beloved
husband.
Ten years later, Victoria's son, Edward, almost died from the disease. A plumber traced the
contamination to the lines of a newly-installed water closet and fixed the problem. Edward,
the Prince of Wales, was very grateful to the plumber. Word spread of this episode and is
thought to have hastened the acceptance of the indoor water closet in England.
By the time of the Boer War in 1899-1901, anti-typhoid inoculation was available. By then,
typhoid fever was recognized as a waterborne disease, and that the germ could be killed by
filtering and boiling water. Far from home in South Africa, the undisciplined British troops
succumbed to the hot climate and drank straight from the rivers.
Of 400,000 troops, 43,000 contracted typhoid.
Closer to home, typhoid raged on in colonial New York and
Massachusetts. It reappeared for the last time in epidemic form
in America in the early 1900s, compliments of the celebrated
Typhoid Mary.
Typhoid Mary
Mary Maflon was a cook for the moneyed set of New York
State; her specialty was homemade ice cream. Officially, she
infected 53 people - with three deaths - before she was tracked
down. Unofficially, she is blamed for some 1,400 cases that
occurred in 1903 in Ithaca, where she worked for several
families. Never sick herself, it took a lot of persuasion by
authorities to convince her that she was a carrier of the disease. Health authorities
quarantined her once, let her go, and then quarantined her for the rest of her life when
another outbreak occurred.
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Laughter died out, dancing ceased and in a short while carriage-loads of people hurried
from the Hotel Dieu to die, and to prevent a panic among the patients were thrust into rude
graves in their dominoes [long, hooded capes worn with a half-mask). Soon the public halls
were filled with dead bodies, sewed in sacks for want of coffins ... long lines of hearses
stood in queue..."
Industrial Revolution
The worldwide cholera epidemic was aided by the Industrial Revolution and the
accompanying growth of urban tenements and slums. There was little or no provision at all
for cesspools or fresh water supplies.
Tenements rose several stories high, but cesspools were only on the ground floor with no
clear access to sewers or indoor running water. It didn't make much difference, because
until the 1840s a sewer was simply an elongated cesspool with an overflow at one end.
"Night men" had to climb into the morass and shovel the filth and mire out by hand. In most
cases, barrels filled with excrement were discharged outside, or contents of chamber pots
flung from open windows - if there were any - to the streets below.
Water hydrants or street pumps provided the only source of water, but they opened
infrequently and not always as scheduled. They ran only a few minutes a day in some of
the poor districts. A near riot ensued in Westminster one Sunday when a water pipe that
supplied 16 packed houses was turned on for only five minutes that week.
Cholera
Cholera first hit England through the town of Sunderland, on October 26, 1831. One William
Sproat died that day from the disease, though nobody wanted to admit it. Merchants and
officials found plenty of reasons to rationalize away a prospective 40 day maritime
quarantine of the ports.
England was reaping the profits of the Industrial Revolution. and a quarantine of ships
would be catastrophic for the textile industry. At any rate, the medical profession held that
cholera wasn't contagious.
Public health administration was in its infancy, and so disorganized that the leading doctor
didn't know there were two infected houses only a short distance away from each other. He
learned of the "coincidence" three months later.
North America
American hygiene and sanitation were not much better. Cholera spread through immigrants
from the infected countries, Ireland in particular, whose masses were fleeing the poverty
and despair of the potato famine. Those who could scrape together three pounds for
passage left for North America. Life aboard an immigrant ship was appalling, as ship
owners crowded 500 passengers in space intended for 150. Infected passengers shared
slop buckets and rancid water.
The contagion spread as soon as the immigrants landed. In one month, 1,220 new arrivals
were dead in Montreal. Another 2,200 died in Quebec over the summer of 1832. Detroit
became another focal point of cholera. Instead of drawing fresh water from the Detroit
River, people used well water.
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The land was low and it was much more convenient. But outhouses placed at odd locations
soon contaminated those wells, and cholera spread quickly. Cholera entered New York
through infected ships. City people started clogging the roads in an exit to the countryside.
On June 29, 1832, the governor ordered a day of fasting and prayers - the traditional
response by government to treating the disease. After July 4, there was a daily cholera
report.
Epidemic
Quarantine regulations which sought to contain towns and cities in upper New York,
Vermont and along the Erie Canal met with little success. Immigrants leaped from halted
canal boats and passed through locks on foot, despite the efforts by contingents of armed
militia to stop them.
Some doctors flatly declared that cholera was indeed epidemic in New York, but more
people sided with banker John Pintard that this "officious report was an "impertinent
interference" with the Board of Health.
The banker incredulously asked if the physicians had any idea what such an announcement
would do to the city's business.
Visitors were struck by the silence of New York's streets, with their unaccustomed
cleanliness and the fact they were strewn with chloride of lime (the usual remedy for foulsmelling garbage). Even on Broadway, passersby were so few that a man on horseback
was a curiosity. One young woman recalled seeing tufts of grass growing in the little-used
thoroughfares. Big news was unfolding in England then, but no one realized the
significance.
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In Milwaukee, efforts to apply basic health measures were thwarted by rag-pickers and
"swill children" who saw the removal of offal and garbage from the streets as a threat to
their livelihood. As one newspaper editorialized, "It is a great pity if our stomachs must
suffer to save the noses of the rich."
The immunity enjoyed by the wealthy was short-lived, however. The open sewers of the
poor sections eventually leached into the ground and seeped into wells, or ran along
channels into the rivers that supplied drinking water for whole towns and cities. Once the
rich and the movers and shakers of society began to get sick, government reform began.
Thus it happened that most municipal water mains and sewer systems were built in the late
19th century in America. Public health agencies were formed and funded. Building codes
and ordinances were passed and enforced.
The superstitions of the ages had finally run their course. Mankind began to understand that
the evil spirits causing its woes were microscopic creatures that could be defeated by
plumbers and sanitary engineers.
Plumbers finally got to show their stuff in a way that had not been seen since the days of
the Roman Empire.
Here is a public water fountain in downtown Rome still in operation from the time of
Caesar. Something to think about, He revolutionized government.
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Viral-Caused Diseases
Hepatitis A is an example of a common viral disease that may be transmitted through water.
The onset is usually abrupt with fever, malaise, loss of appetite, nausea and abdominal
discomfort, followed within a few days by jaundice. The disease varies in severity from a
mild illness lasting one to two weeks, to a severely disabling disease lasting several months
(rare).
The incubation period is 15-50 days and averages 28-30 days. Hepatitis A outbreaks have
been related to fecally contaminated water; food contaminated by infected food handlers,
including sandwiches and salads that are not cooked or are handled after cooking; and raw
or undercooked mollusks harvested from contaminated waters. Aseptic meningitis, polio
and viral gastroenteritis (Norwalk agent) are other viral diseases that can be transmitted
through water. Most viruses in drinking water can be inactivated by chlorine or other
disinfectants.
Protozoan Caused Diseases
Protozoan pathogens are larger than bacteria and viruses but still microscopic. They invade
and inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Some parasites enter the environment in a dormant
form, with a protective cell wall, called a cyst. The cyst can survive in the environment for
long periods of time and is extremely resistant to conventional disinfectants such as
chlorine. Effective filtration treatment is therefore critical to removing these organisms from
water sources.
Giardiasis
Giardiasis is a commonly reported protozoan-caused disease. It has also been referred to
as backpackers disease and beaver fever because of the many cases reported among
hikers and others who consume untreated surface water. Symptoms include chronic
diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, frequent loose and pale greasy stools, fatigue and
weight loss. The incubation period is 5-25 days or longer, with an average of 7-10 days.
Giardia lamblia
Many infections are asymptomatic (no symptoms). Giardiasis occurs worldwide.
Waterborne outbreaks in the United States occur most often in communities receiving their
drinking water from streams or rivers without adequate disinfection or a filtration system.
The organism, Giardia lamblia, has been responsible for more community-wide outbreaks
of disease in the U.S. than any other pathogen. Drugs are available for treatment but are
not 100% effective.
Cryptosporidiosis is an example of a protozoan disease that is common worldwide but was
only recently recognized as causing human disease. The major symptom in humans is
diarrhea, which may be profuse and watery. The diarrhea is associated with cramping
abdominal pain. General malaise, fever, anorexia, nausea and vomiting occur less often.
Symptoms usually come and go, and end in fewer than 30 days in most cases. The
incubation period is 1-12 days, with an average of about seven days.
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Cryptosporidium organisms have been identified in human fecal specimens from more
than 50 countries on six continents. The mode of transmission is fecal-oral, either by
person-to-person or animal-to-person. There is no specific treatment for Cryptosporidium
infections.
Diarrhea
All of these diseases, with the exception of hepatitis A, have one symptom in common:
diarrhea. They also have the same mode of transmission, fecal-oral, whether through
person-to-person or animal-to-person contact, and the same routes of transmission, being
either foodborne or waterborne. Although most pathogens cause mild, self-limiting disease,
on occasion, they can cause serious, even life threatening illness.
Particularly vulnerable are persons with weak immune systems such as those with HIV
infections or cancer.
By understanding the nature of waterborne diseases, the importance of properly
constructed, operated and maintained public water systems becomes obvious. While water
treatment cannot achieve sterile water (no microorganisms), the goal of treatment must
clearly be to produce drinking water that is as pathogen-free as possible at all times.
For those who operate water systems with inadequate source protection or treatment
facilities, the potential risk of a waterborne disease outbreak is real. For those operating
systems that currently provide adequate source protection and treatment, operating and
maintaining the system at a high level on a continuing basis is critical to prevent disease.
Cryptosporidium
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Waterborne Diseases
Name
Causative organism
Source of organism
Disease
Entamoeba histolytica
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2-Way Cleanout DWV Soil Pipe, needs to be within 2 feet of the house,
perpendicular (not parallel) to the footing and the end or grade level needs to be
painted to protect from sunlight.
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Soldering pipe, there are several types of copper pipe. Soft and rigid, K-Green, LBlue, M-Red, and DWV-yellow. You can no longer use lead solder for potable
water. Copper lines fit together with lead-free, solid-core solder. The soldering
process involves heating the pipe and is commonly called "sweating."
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Lavatory or bathroom set-up with a Dirty Arm and possible water softener loop.
Various copper fittings. I predict that we will no longer see copper fittings utilized in
plumbing by the year 2015. The price of copper is going sky high.
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The
Considering that the majority of piping installation failures are the result of improper
cementing techniques, an understanding of the proper techniques required for joining saves
both time and money. A quality solvent cement joint furnishes strength to the entire
system. Likewise, no system is fully effective when even a single joint is poorly cemented.
Obviously, a fair amount of time devoted to preparation will pay off upon completion.
The first step in solvent cementing consists of inspecting the pipe and fittings for overall
appearance and compatibility. Obvious defects such as cracks, burrs and incompatible
materials must be addressed as required. The joining surfaces must be clean and dry. In
addition, the proper cement for the type and size of pipe and fittings should be determined.
Also, remember both temperature and humidity may be issues to consider. Another detail
that is often overlooked is the need to have the correct size applicator for the size of pipe.
The general rule is to have an applicator about half the size of the pipe diameter in order to
assure proper and timely solvent cement coverage.
Next, proper technique requires that the pipe be cut square with a fine-toothed saw or tube
cutters. The use of ratcheting cutters, which grip and shear pipe like strong scissors, can
generate cracks in the ends of pipe. A square cut promotes proper beveling and full
contact between the pipe and the pipe stop in a fitting.
Following the cutting of the pipe, beveling should be accomplished by using a file or a
chamfering tool. A slight beveling of 1/16th inch removes burrs and debris and promotes
the formation of a bead of cement at the base of the socket. While beveling the pipe, one
should also clear any debris from the waterway of the pipe and clean the area to be
primered. A dry fit of the pipe and fittings is recommended in order to check for proper fit,
depth and alignment.
Moving on to the actual assembly of the components, the first order of business is to apply
the appropriate primer. Primer is used to clean, dissolve and penetrate the surfaces of the
pipe and fittings. It is important to consider the use of a properly sized applicator,
preferably a brush at least one-half the size of the pipe being primed. The primer should be
liberally applied to the fitting socket and to that portion of the pipe, which will fit into the
socket. Repeated applications of primer may be required.
Immediately after the application of the primer, the solvent cement should be freely applied
to both the fitting and the pipe. Again, not only may repeated applications be required but
an appropriately sized applicator should be used. With the surfaces still wet, the pipe
should be inserted into the fitting socket with a quarter turn twisting motion, bottoming out
the pipe.
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The importance of assembling fittings and pipe while the solvent cement is still wet cannot
be underestimated. If the job requires it, two people should be involved in the priming and
cementing process. Finally, the cemented joint should be held together for at least thirty
seconds to prevent the parts from separating and the parts should be allowed to set an
appropriate period of time before further work or pressurization is attempted.
If the preceding steps are followed, the confidence in the level of durability and strength of
the solvent-cemented joints should be very high.
Tee Slip
Reducer Tee
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3. Apply a heavy, even coat of CPVC primer (if necessary) to the fitting. Remember, Ladies
first. Use the right applicator for the size of pipe or fittings being joined. The applicator size
should be equal to 1/2 the pipe diameter. It is important that a satisfactory size applicator
be used to help ensure that sufficient layers of cement are applied.
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4. Apply a heavy, even coat of primer (if necessary) to the pipe end. The purpose of a
primer is to penetrate and soften the surfaces so they can fuse together. The proper use of
a primer and checking its softening effect provides assurance that the surfaces are
prepared for fusion in a wide variety of conditions. Check the penetration or softening on a
piece of scrap before you start the installation or if the weather changes during the day.
Using a knife or other sharp object, drag the edge over the coated surface.
Proper penetration has been made if you can scratch or scrape a few thousandths of the
primed surfaces away. Because weather conditions do affect priming and cementing action,
repeated applications to either or both surfaces may be necessary. In cold weather, more
time is required for proper penetration.
5. Apply a heavy, even coat of CPVC cement (if necessary) to the fitting. Remember,
Ladies first; then apply to the pipe end. Stir the cement or shake can before using. Using
the proper size applicator for the pipe size, aggressively work a full even layer of cement
onto the pipe end equal to the depth of the fitting socket -do not brush it out to a thin paint
type layer, as this will dry within a few seconds.
6. Insert the pipe into the fitting socket, rotating to turn. Hold the pipe for 10 seconds,
allowing the joint to set-up. A nice thing about plastic pipe is that if you make a mistake, you
can cut the section out and re-do it.
7. The joining is finished. Cure time depends on pipe size, temperature and relative
humidity. If local codes permit, successful joints can be made without a primer using
cement alone, but extra care must be given to the installation. It is important that a good
interference fit exists between the pipe and fittings. It is for this reason we recommend that
joints being made without a primer be limited to systems 2" and smaller for pressure
applications (water systems only) or 6" and smaller for DWV or non-pressure applications.
Extra care must also be given in applying the cements to make sure proper penetration and
softening of the pipe and fitting surfaces is achieved.
8. Joint strength develops as the cement dries. In the tight part of the joint the surfaces will
tend to fuse together; in the loose part, the cement will bond to both surfaces. These areas
must be softened and penetrated. Penetration and softening can be achieved by the
cement itself, by using a suitable primer or by the use of both primer and cement. For
certain materials and in certain situations, it is necessary to use a primer. A suitable primer
will usually penetrate and soften the surfaces more quickly than cement alone.
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Plumbing Fittings
Fittings (faucets and valves) are used more often than any other part of the plumbing
system. They get plenty of use but are built to take it, under normal conditions.
The best modern fittings are all chrome plated brass and will last a lifetime under everyday
use. They clean easily with soap and warm water.
Caution: The metal chromium is easily dissolved in hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid.
Muriatic acid has for years been considered a good tile cleaner, but only where there are
nickel plated plumbing fittings. Where chrome plating is present, clean bathroom tile with
warm oxalic acid, never with Muriatic or sulfuric acids. Even covering the chromium
surfaces with cloths will not prevent the acid fumes from inflicting permanent damage.
Gaining in popularity are polished brass fittings and trim. These will hold up well, as long as
certain precautions are observed. NEVER use any abrasive cleaner on polished brass. This
can scratch the protective coating on the brass finish resulting in a deterioration or pitting of
the brass plating. Also avoid use of solvent based cleaners because they can be
deleterious to the polished brass finish.
New technologies have brought about the development of improved finishes that can
withstand more wear, but check the manufacturer's warranty to determine whether or not
you have the "new and improved" lifetime warranty finish.
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Gate Valve
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Reducer
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Chapter Summary
By understanding the nature of waterborne diseases, the importance of properly
constructed, operated and maintained public water systems becomes obvious. While water
treatment cannot achieve sterile water (no microorganisms), the goal of treatment must
clearly be to produce drinking water that is as pathogen-free as possible at all times.
"Sweating" pipes and plumbing fixtures in summer-time or during seasonal changes are not
a sign of faulty plumbing. Due to condensation of water vapor in the air, beads of moisture
will form in warm weather on any pipes and fixtures containing cold water.
Normally, when not in use, the water and fixtures will worm rapidly to room temperature and
the condensation will stop. When a closet tank or other fixture continues to sweat for hours
after it has been used, it is a sign that cold water is continuing to flow through it, possibly
due to an improper adjustment of the tank valve or a leak.
Sweating pipes can be wrapped with an insulation material which prevents the
condensation and formation of moisture.
There are several types of copper pipe. Soft and rigid,
K-Green, L-Blue, M-Red, and DWV-yellow.
You cannot use lead solder for potable water.
Cut plastic pipe to length with a hacksaw, or abrasive
disk of a miter saw/chop saw. After each cut, clean out
the small burrs/shavings that remain inside the pipe
with a knife, rag or emery cloth.
Check small pipes and fittings for plumb/level with a
torpedo level. Also, double check the drain flow; about 1/4" per 1' as a general guide.
A fitting that's glued crooked can sometimes throw off the whole run and/or won't fit properly
with the next piece. Discover these problems during the dry fit rather than after the pipe is
glued.
To glue ABS pipe, check that any cut ends are fairly straight. Remove any burrs with a knife
or emery cloth and clean both pieces with a rag. Apply ABS glue to both the pipe and fitting.
Push the joints together with a twisting motion to spread the glue. Hold the joints together
for a few seconds so they won't push apart while the fast-drying glue sets.
Gluing PVC pipe is a similar process, but a cleaning chemical (primer) that prepares the
plastic goes on before the glue. CPVC pipe also has its own type of glue so be sure to
purchase the glue that matches the plastic you're working with. Once the joint is primed,
apply the glue to the joints, push and twist the pipe or fitting and hold them in place for a
few minutes.
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Next, clean out the washer seat or compartment. When this is done, insert the new washer
of the correct size and composition for hot or cold water.
Some of the newer, soft neoprene washers are for both hot and cold water and have a long
life. The washer should fit snugly without having to be forced into position. After inserting,
replace the screw and tighten.
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Worn Faucet
It is usually just as expensive to renew a seat as it is to buy a new faucet, unless it has
been made with a renewable seat. Check with your plumbing supply store about a badly
worn faucet.
With cloth over finger, clean the valve seat inside the faucet. The edge should be smooth
and free from deep nicks. If you find it badly worn, you will probably need to replace the
seat or have the entire faucet replaced by the plumber. Otherwise, it will leak again.
Next, replace the faucet stem and turn it in. Tighten the packing nut. Be careful not to
tighten the nut more than necessary to stop seepage around the faucet stem.
A faucet leaking 60 drops a minute (not unusual) will waste 2,299 gallons of water every
year. Homeowners should repair leaky faucets at once. You pay twice - once for the water
going through the meter, and then again on your sewer bill, which is based on water usage.
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Pry off the handle's decorative cap to access the knob screw. Unscrew and remove the
knob to expose the stem. Make sure the water is turned off. For a compression handle,
loosen the "packing" nut holding the stem. Remove the stem, flip it over and check the
condition of the washer and O-ring. Replace the washer and O-ring if they show any wear
or fraying. A cartridge handle is repaired about the same way. Lift out the cartridge, check
the O-rings and replace them as needed. As a last resort, replace the cartridge if the leak
persists. Re-install the assembly, turn on the water and check for drips. If a compression
faucet still leaks, the seat where the valve seals may need to be cleaned, or re-cut with a
seat cutter tool.
To stop a leak around the handle, add a packing washer over the stem. If an old
compression type handle still leaks, remove the packing nut and wind packing (a string
gauze) around the nut to seal the assembly.
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Locate the leak and shut off the water. Remove the set screw holding the handle. Using the
kit's wrench, snug down the adjusting ring if it's loose and slowly turn the water back on to
see if the leak has stopped.
If the ring is already tight or the leak persists, turn off the water and remove the adjusting
ring.
Take off the plastic or ceramic cam piece and its seal that sets on the ball valve. Replace
the seal if needed. Make a note of how the ball valve slot lines up with its small alignment
pin then remove the ball.
Most models have two rubber seals and springs that set under the ball. Remove them,
clean out any deposits and replace with new seals and springs.
On the outside of the housing, cut off the rubber O-rings and roll on new ones and re-install
the faucet.
Repairing A Single-Handle Cartridge Faucet
After locating the leak and shutting off the water, pry off the faucet's top cap, remove the
screw and lift off the handle piece.
Remove the lock nut and retaining clip holding the cartridge in place. Lift out the cartridge
and inspect its seals. In most cases, the cartridge piece doesn't need replacing, but any
worn or frayed seals should be replaced.
While the cartridge is out, inspect and replace the O-rings on the outside of the housing.
Just cut them off and roll on new ones.
Re-insert the cartridge, align it as removed, and pop on the retaining clip. Fit the faucet
back on and tighten down the lock nut. Re-position the handle, screw it down and put the
cap back on.
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Types of Toilets
Water Closet Tanks
If water continues to run into the closet bowl after the toilet is flushed, it is obvious that
some part of the mechanism is out of order.
When the tank has refilled, if water continues to seep into the bowl or if there is a low
humming noise, this indicates leakage from the tank. This leakage can occur from either the
supply valve or the improper seating of the rubber tank ball or (flapper) on the discharge
opening.
A small amount of food coloring added to the tank water will help you determine whether
the tank ball in the bottom of the tank is leaking. Add it to the water after the tank is filled.
Watch for the coloring to seep into the toilet bowl, and if it does, the ball or flapper over the
discharge opening is not water tight If the rubber tank ball does not fit tightly over the
discharge opening, a defective ball, irregular seat or bent lift wires may be responsible. If
the ball is worn out, miss-shapen or has lost its elasticity and fails to drop tightly into the
hollowed seat, it should be replaced with a new one. Sometimes the ball is covered with a
slimy coating which can easily be wiped off.
To replace the ball, shut off the water supply (a stop is installed underneath the tank where
the water may be conveniently shut off at this point) and empty the tank or place a stick
under the ball float lever-arm to hold it up, thereby shutting off the intake cock and
preventing the tank from refilling. Then unscrew the ball from the lower lift wire and attach a
new ball of the same diameter as the old one. (Note: some old tank balls swell from age
and absorption of water.)
If the collar or seat of the discharge opening is corroded or grit-covered, it should be
scraped and sand-papered until it is smooth and forms a uniform bearing for the stopper.
Straighten or replace bent lift wires so that the ball drops squarely into the hollowed seat.
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A leaky, waterlogged float ball holds the supply valve open and does not completely shut off
the water. If the rod which connects the tank float to the supply valve has become bent, it
may prevent the float from reaching its full height, thus leaving the valve open and allowing
leakage. This rod should be straightened and a little oil applied to the lever joints to insure
smooth action.
Sometimes the tank will not fill sufficiently or will fill to overflowing. These difficulties may be
corrected without disturbing the supply valve by bending the rod attached to the tank float
upward or downward. If the rod is bent upward, the water will rise higher in the tank, and if
downward, the water level will be lowered.
An overflow tube or pipe is provided in the closet tank to take care of the water in case it
should rise above its accustomed level which should be at least 3/4 of an inch below the top
of the overflow. While there is not much danger of its becoming stopped up, it might be well
to examine it occasionally to see that it is in working order.
If water rises to the top of the overflow pipe an adjustment or new fill-valve assembly is
necessary.
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When we press the handle on the tank (not shown here), the flapper valve is opened and
the water stored in the tank is released into the bowl at a very fast rate causing the water
level in the bowl to rise and overflow rapidly. The rising water seeks its own level and
overflows down the trap creating a siphon that literally sucks the water out of the bowl.
The siphoning continues until the water level in the bowl falls below the lip at the bottom of
the bowl.
When this happens air enters the drain path and
"breaks" the siphon and the flush stops. But since
the siphon created such momentum in the moving
water the new level in the bowl is considerably lower
than before the flush.
This is where the standpipe comes in. With the
flapper valve closed, the tank starts to fill again and
a separate tube directs water down into the
standpipe directly into the bowl through a bypass
under the flapper valve. This filling of the bowl will
stop automatically when the tank is filled.
If for some reason the tank float valve (not shown here) fails to shut off the water filling the
tank, the water will continue to rise until it reaches the top of the standpipe which will drain
the overflow from the tank into the bowl of the toilet.
Under these circumstances though, the toilet will not flush because the volume of water
being discharged into it is minimal. It merely overflows in
a trickle down the back end of the (trap) of the toilet.
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These are European style toilets. Notice the device that keeps the lid up for men
and the gravity water tank. Below is also a common toilet in other parts of the
world. It is a floor mounted device that flushes and is still being made and installed.
It is difficult for Americans to figure out how to use it properly. It is best to squat and
not sit or lay on the toilet. Believe it or not, most countries that utilize these holes in
the ground also charge about 50 cents to use it and may not provide toilet paper.
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Common and worn out kitchen Grease Trap. The grease contains lots of acid and
this acid will eat metal as with this grease trap.
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Press Release
Town Installs Waterless Urinals
We havent had much rain lately and need to think of ways to conserve water. Because of the current
drought and social responsibility of saving our natural resources, the Town of Sunflowers Water
Department is excited to announce the Waterless Urinal Retro-fit Pilot Program has begun. The
Water Department has implemented this along with several other new water conservation methods
and technologies to help reduce our daily water demand.
The Town has installed 17 of these completely waterless urinals in public facilities throughout the
Town. These urinals are expected to save 750,000 gallons per year. This type of urinal replacement
program is successful in 30 cities throughout Arizona.
Waterless urinals work completely without water. Waterless urinals can be
easily installed to all restroom applications. This fixture saves up to 45,000
gallons of water and more per year per fixture. It greatly reduces typical urinal
maintenance and improves restroom sanitation.
Waterless urinals eliminate and/or minimize these common problems:
Urinal Odors
Vandalism
Flush Valve Repairs
Line Encrustations
Low Water Pressure
Leaking Flush Valves
Costly Flush Sensors
Water & Sewer Costs
Stoppages and Overflows
Rest Room Shut Downs
High Demand on Septic Tanks
Mitigation for Water Usage
The Water Department will closely analyze and test these and other water
conservation devices and hopefully install more devices throughout public
facilities. Water saving devices, along with water conservation awareness are
major components of the Towns Water Conservation Program.
HOW THEY WORK:
No-Flush urinals resemble conventional fixtures, and easily replace them. They install to the regular
waste lines, but eliminate the flush water supply lines. Flush valves are eliminated as well; there are
no handles to touch, no sensors, and no moving parts! The urinal bowl surfaces are urine repellent;
urine is 99% liquid and its drainage is affected without flush water. Daily cleaning procedures are the
same as for flushed urinals.
Bill Fields, Water Resource Specialist, "After a balanced consideration the Waterless urinal
seems to be a water conservation fixture whose time has come. It clearly reduces
maintenance costs, and may do so dramatically and immediately for some installations.
The best part is an automatic savings of 1 - 3 gallons of water per usage, depending on the model of
flush urinal you're replacing." "In any new construction, or whenever you plan to replace a flush
urinal, Waterless urinals should be given serious consideration and possibly be required in
the near future."
You can come and see this new technology in action and get a free water saving kit at the Water
Department.
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Prepare for extensive wall damage when retrofitting to a waterless urinal. You may
need to replace tiles and drywall. Notice the square box on the right hand side, this
is a trap primer for the floor drain. The trap primer keep a small amount of water to
keep the drains trap wet to prevent sewer odors from coming up.
Shower Equipment
Some Plumbing Codes require the use of pressure balanced bath/shower valves to prevent
scalding in new homes and during remodeling.
There is more potential for the scalding of a person showering if the pressure fluctuates.
Most people aren't aware that young children and older persons can be scalded much
sooner than adults. Lowering the water temperature at the water heater will minimize the
potential danger at the tub spout or shower head and is the best preventive action which
can be taken to prevent scalding. A small child doesn't have to soak in overly hot tap water
to get scalded. Tragically, injury can happen literally in the blink of an eye. 150 degree
water can scald in just 1/2 second, 140 degrees scalds in just 1 second, but it takes four
minutes for water at 120 degrees to scald.
POINT OF CAUTION - - Never let a child bathe unattended, because of the danger of
scalding and injury. In addition, always turn cold water on first, followed by the hot water
until the desired temperature is achieved. That way, no one is exposed to straight hot
water.
You need not rush to buy another shower head if the one you have suddenly gives off an
uneven spray. It's probably clogged with mineral deposits which build up in the shower
head and distort the shower stream. If the shower head holes are clogged, remove the face
of the shower head, clean the back surface and free holes with a coarse needle. The latest
shower heads on the market are all self-cleaning and need no such attention. The only
positive preventive measure is investing in a water softener. When changing shower heads,
wrap adhesive tape around the packing nut or pad the wrench jaws with a cloth so you
won't mar the finish.
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Chrome Plating
Chrome plating is a hard and durable finish that requires little attention except for the
occasional washing with soap and water.
Salt air or other corrosive atmospheres have a destructive effect on chrome. Where
chromium-plated fittings are exposed to these agents, it is important to wash them
frequently. After they are washed and dried, it is advisable to apply a protective coating
such as ordinary furniture wax.
Green spots may appear on chromium plating. If this happens, prevent the rust from
spreading by scouring the spots with the same kind of powder which manufacturers
recommend for enameled, cast iron fixtures. When the spots have been removed, apply a
finish of wax.
Thawing Frozen Pipes
Frozen plumbing pipes, although inconvenient, do not constitute a calamity. The calamity
may come if the pipes are thawed with a blow torch, and if the open flame or the torch is
allowed to come too close to combustible material, such as insulation, wooden joists or
flooring.
Another danger from the use of a torch arises when both ends of a pipe are clogged with
ice and when the heat is applied in the center. The application of the heat of the torch at the
center of the pipe is likely to cause the water to flash into steam, potentially causing an
explosion with disastrous results for the user of the torch.
It is far better to adopt the slower and more conservative procedure of melting ice by the
use of a blow dryer, or heat gun.
Preventing Frozen Pipes
Before the cold freezing weather sets in, make sure that all the garden hoses outside your
home are disconnected. Failing to do so can cause not only the hose but also the hose bib
to which it is connected, to freeze and be damaged.
This is especially important with anti-freeze hydrants. The hose must be disconnected to
make the faucet freeze-proof. Failure to do so will trap water in the faucet body, which then
can freeze. If the hose is disconnected, the anti-freeze faucet can properly drain, and this
will prevent freezing.
Water pipes which are exposed to freezing temperatures or drafts should be covered with
insulation. Whenever possible it is best to drain systems not being used in severely cold
weather. Small water pipes will freeze quicker than will waste or sewer pipes.
Never leave a garage door open in severely cold weather if there is plumbing in the garage.
The cold and draft can freeze water lines in minutes. Pipes located in unheated basements
or garages should be insulated with a commercial covering. When pipes are laid
underground they should be below the frost line to prevent freezing.
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Top photograph, no trap needed when you have a long flex hose.
Bottom, this is a new side trapper. NOT!
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Top photograph, I am not sure how you mix the plumbing and the electrical system
together, but this guy did it. Bottom, I guessed it worked.
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Sink Stoppages
Sink stoppages are usually caused by liquid fats, emulsified by warm dishwater and carried
through the pipes. The water cools as it proceeds to the main sewer and leaves the fatty
deposits along the way. A film of grease forms on the pipe wall, then another and another.
Coffee grounds and bits of food add to this accumulation layer until the pipe becomes
impassible.
Pour excess grease into a tin can and throw it out with the garbage, not down the sink
drain. When using a food disposer, always let sufficient cold water run to carry the particles
down and into the main line to prevent buildup in the smaller waste lines.
In the event of a stoppage, you should have a "plumber's friend," or plunger - a large rubber
suction cup with a wooden handle. Cup it tightly over the drain and plunge it vigorously
several times. If it is a double drain sink, make sure you seal the other drain, so water will
not splash out into the other bowl or on you. Drain piping can also be cleaned by removing
the J-bend on the trap below the fixture. First place adhesive tape around the packing nut
or wrap the wrench jaws with cloth to prevent scratching the metal surface. If plastic piping
is in place, do not grip the nuts too tightly with the wrench, as they can crack easily.
Place a bucket directly under the pipe to catch any dripping from the open pipe. Pull out the
clogging material with a piece of wire or small hand-turned cable. If you take the trap off,
have some new gaskets ready to slip into the joints.
Using A Sewer Snake
Another handy tool is a sewer "snake" or auger. It's basically a flexible metal rod with a
spiral hook or ball on the end.
There are two basic snakes: 1) a closet auger with bent tip made to fit in a toilet's built in
trap, 2) a drain auger which is a coiled rod or flattened metal strip.
With both augers, when the rod meets an obstruction in the line, tighten the handle and ram
the snake into the clog -- sometimes that's all it takes to clear the line. Otherwise, crank the
rod clockwise so the hook (or ball) snags the clog.
Back the snake off slightly, then steadily push inward again while turning the handle
clockwise until the debris is solidly hooked.
Firmly push the snake back and forth until the obstruction is freed. The clog may have
moved a bit further down the line just to get stuck again. So, repeat the procedure while
running water and feeding out more line -- all the way to the septic tank or city sewer line
connection if possible.
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Once the clog is gone, reconnect the sink's trap and flush the line with water. Check the
connections for leaks. Run more water down the drain and monitor it a few minutes to
ensure the clog is gone. If the blockage still remains (like tree roots), you may need to rent
a commercial "power" auger with a rotor or blade bit that chops up whatever is in the line.
Toilets
A clogged trap way in a water closet is a ticklish problem, so be careful with whatever
method you use for cleaning the drain. Most water closets are made of vitreous china which
might crack if exposed to extremely hot water.
A plunger will normally handle simple toilet clogs. Another method of cleaning a water
closet trap or toilet is the use of an auger with an adjustable, crank-type handle. Known to
plumbers as a "snake," the spring-steel coil is easily worked past the trap and down the
pipe. A three foot auger is inexpensive and will quickly drill through most clogs. Use the
auger carefully. Careless handling may crack the toilet.
Tubs
When trying to clear a plugged bathtub drain, place a heavy cloth in the bottom of the
bathtub so your shoe soles won't scratch the bath's enameled surface. Hold your hand or
rag over the waste and overflow plate, cup the plunger over the drain and plunge it
vigorously several times. If it doesn't open easily, the drain may require cabling to open it.
Heavy steel spring coils should not be used to clean traps under lavatories, sinks, or
bathtubs. A more flexible type of wire or spring should be used -- one which is easy to work
through the bend of the trap.
Floor Drains
To clean out a floor drain, remove the strainer or grating which covers the drain box. The
dirt and grease can then be dug out with a spoon or a stick. After that, a hooked wire or coil
spring-steel auger will clean out the bend or trap. Check to find out whether a removable
clean-out plug has been provided to make this job easier.
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Sewer Gases
When the clogging material has been removed from the trap, pour a pail or two of hot water
into the drain to wash out any loose material. Check the strainer itself and clean it in hot
water and soap in order to open all holes. The floor drain should be checked regularly,
especially one that is not often used, since water in the trap may evaporate. This would
allow sewer gases to enter the room. Pour a pail of water into the drain periodically in order
to make certain of a proper water seal.
Unclogging Sinks
Hair can often clog a bathroom sink and potato peels and other food waste will plug up
kitchen sinks. Regardless of the obstruction, unclogging both sinks is done the same way.
Place a plunger over the clogged drain. Add enough water to cover the plunger lip and form
a seal.
Plunge straight up and down several times and "pop" the plunger away. Repeat this method
a few times to free the clog.
If the clog remains, position a bucket underneath the sink's trap. Unscrew each end of the
trap and drain the water into the bucket.
Clean out any debris in the trap and if a kitchen sink has a disposer, disconnect and drain
its waste line and clean out any debris.
If no significant debris is found in the sink lines, the clog is located in the sink's drain line or
main waste line.
A clog in the main line will also plug other drains above it, and that needs to be cleared with
a sewer snake.
Unclogging A Toilet
Use a "fluted" or funnel plunger designed to seal inside a toilet bowl. Extend the fluted
flap of the plunger; fit it tightly inside bowl drain to form a good seal.
Plunge up and down several times; to quickly break the seal. Repeat this a few times to
work the clog back and forth and eventually free it.
If the clog remains, insert a closet auger into the bowl. Position the bent end of the auger
into the bowl's trap and fish the rod through until it hits the clog.
Crank the auger's handle clockwise and push it into the clog a bit more. Once the clog is
"hooked" with the spiral tip (or ball) pull the auger back and forth. Repeat these steps until
the clog is freed.
Avoid flushing the toilet. It may still be clogged and backup. Instead, fill the bowl with a
bucket. If the water level doesn't go down, the clog is still in the line.
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No Hub compression type fitting used on drain, waste and vent lines.
Drain Waste Vent System Installation
Most Common Mistakes
1. Violating or ignoring code restrictions,
2. Not installing D/W/V with at least a 1/4" slope per one foot pipe,
3. Not properly venting or trapping all fixtures,
4. Attaching too many fixtures to a drain or vent pipe,
5. Using pipes that are too small,
6. Not providing enough cleanouts or not providing cleanouts at the prescribed places,
7. Venting the fixture too far from the fixture's trap,
8. Not properly aligning tubing into fittings or stop valves. (Forcing the nut onto the
compression ring at an angle when the tubing is at an angle will cause a leak.)
9. Using a fitting in a wrong position,
10. Installing rough plumbing in the wrong location,
11. Reducing pipe size as the pipes run downstream,
12. Cutting pipe too long and not allowing for the ridge in the fittings, and
13. Forcing the trap and waste arm fittings out of alignment and putting too much stress
on the nuts and washers in the tubing.
14. Make certain the compression tubing is put in the fittings so that it is evenly
tightened.
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System Elements
The elements of a water distribution system include distribution mains, arterial mains,
storage reservoirs, and system accessories. These elements and accessories are
described as follows:
DISTRIBUTION MAINS Distribution mains are the pipelines that make up the
distribution system. Their function is to carry water from the water source or
treatment works to users.
ARTERIAL MAINS Arterial mains are distribution mains of large size. They are
interconnected with smaller distribution mains to form a complete gridiron system.
STORAGE RESERVOIRS Storage reservoirs are structures used to store water.
They also equalize the supply or pressure in the distribution system. A common
example of a storage reservoir is an aboveground water storage tank.
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Booster Pump
System accessories include the following:
BOOSTER STATIONS Booster stations are used to increase water pressure from storage
tanks for low-pressure mains.
VALVES Valves control the flow of water in the distribution system by isolating areas for
repair or by regulating system flow or pressure.
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System Layouts
There are three general ways systems are laid out to deliver water (Picture your quarter
section layouts). They include:
A. Tree systems
B. Loop or Grid systems
C. Dead-end systems. Taste and odor problems.
Tree System
Older water systems frequently were expanded without planning and developed into a
treelike system. This consists of a single main that decreases in size as it leaves the source
and progresses through the area originally served. Smaller pipelines branch off the main and
divide again, much like the trunk and branches of a tree. A treelike system is not desirable
because the size of the old main limits the expansion of the system needed to meet
increasing demands. In addition, there are many dead ends in the system where water
remains for long periods, causing undesirable tastes and odors in nearby service lines. The
most reliable means to provide water for firefighting is by designing redundancy into the
system. There are several advantages gained by laying out water mains in a loop or grid,
with feeder and distributor mains interconnecting at roadway intersections and other regular
intervals.
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Always remember to use shoring and proper safety equipment when working
underground. You should also wear your hard hats as well. We are professionals
and need to look like it. Bottom photograph is two nitwits going to be killed. 15 feet
deep and no way out. Lets think before doing work.
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Distribution Valves
The purpose of installing shutoff valves in water mains at various locations within the
distribution system is to allow sections of the system to be taken out of service for repairs or
maintenance, without significantly curtailing service over large areas.
Valves should be installed at intervals not greater
than 5,000 feet in long supply lines, and 1,500 foot
in main distribution loops or feeders. All branch
mains connecting to feeder mains or feeder loops
should have valves installed as close to the
feeders as practical. In this way, branch mains
can be taken out of service without interrupting the
supply to other locations.
In the areas of greatest water demand or when
the dependability of the distribution system is particularly important, valve spacing of 500
feet may be appropriate.
At intersections of distribution mains, the number of valves required is normally one less
than the number of radiating mains. The valve omitted from the line is usually the one that
principally supplies flow to the intersection. Shutoff valves should be installed in
standardized locations (that is, the northeast comer of intersections or a certain distance
from the center line of streets), so they can be easily found in emergencies. All buried smalland medium-sized valves should be installed in valve boxes. For large shutoff valves (about
30 inches in diameter and larger), it may be necessary to surround the valve operator or
entire valve within a vault or manhole to allow repair or replacement.
Classification of Valves
There are two major classifications of water valves: Rotary and Linear. Linear is a fancy
word for up and down or blade movement.
Gate Valve Linear Valve Our primary Linear valve
The most common valve in the distribution system. Primarily used for main line shut
downs. Should be exercised on annual basis.
Gate valves are used when a straight-line flow of
fluid and minimum flow restriction are needed.
Gate valves are so-named because the part that
either stops or allows flow through the valve acts
somewhat like a gate. The gate is usually wedgeshaped. When the valve is wide open the gate is
fully drawn up into the valve bonnet. This leaves
an opening for flow through the valve the same
size as the pipe in which the valve is installed.
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Therefore, there is little pressure drop or flow restriction through the valve. Gate valves are
not suitable for throttling purposes. The control of flow is difficult because of the valves
design, and the flow of fluid slapping against a partially open gate can cause extensive
damage to the valve. Except as specifically authorized, gate valves should not be used for
throttling.
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Valve Glossary
Here are some of the common valves and related information.
Air and Vacuum relief valve: Both of these functions are in one valve. These
valves can combine three functions; they can allow large amounts of air to escape
during the filling of a pipeline, permits air to enter a pipeline that is being drained and
allow entrained air to escape while a line is operating under pressure. Distribution
system water quality can be adversely affected by improperly constructed or poorly
located blowoffs of vacuum/air relief valves. Air relief valves in the distribution
system lines must be placed in locations that cannot be flooded. This is to prevent
water contamination. The common customer complaint of Milky Water is sometimes
solved by the installation of these air relief valves.
Altitude valve: Are often used on supply lines to elevated tanks or standpipes.
These close automatically when the tank is full and open when the pressure on the
inlet side is less than that on the tank side of the valve. These valves control the high
water level and prevent overflow. Altitude-Control Valve is designed to, 1. Prevent
overflows from the storage tank or reservoir, or 2. Maintain a constant water level as
long as water pressure in the distribution system is adequate.
Butterfly valve: Has a movable disc as large as the full bore opening of the valve.
Check valve: Are often used on the discharge side of pumps to prevent backflow.
Gate valve: Is a linear valve used to isolate sections of the water main, to permit
emergency repairs without interruption of water service to customers.
Pressure sustaining valve: Maintains constant downstream pressure regardless of
fluctuating demand. The valve is usually a globe design controlled by a diaphragm
with the diaphragm assembly being the only moving part in the valve. Can also be
used as an automatic flow-control valve.
Pressure regulating valve: A valve that controls water pressure by restricting flows.
The pressure downstream of the valve regulates the amount of flow. Usually these
valves are of the globe valve design. Pressure Regulation Valves control water
pressure and operate by restricting flows. They are used to deliver water from a high
pressure to a low-pressure system. The pressure downstream from the valve
regulates the amount of flow. Usually, these valves are of the globe design and have
a spring-loaded diaphragm that sets the size of the opening.
Pressure relief: The simplest type of surge pressure relief is a pressure relief valve.
These valves respond to pressure variations at their inlets.
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What screen size and protection should air vacuum release valves have above
and below ground?
Vents should be screened to keep out birds and animals that may contaminate the
water. A screen with1/4 mesh openings is required. Some vents have flap valves
that will operate to relive excess pressure or vacuum if the screen becomes blocked.
What types of water contamination problems could result from improper
installation of air vacuum and relief valves?
All overflow, blow off, or cleanout pipes should be turned downward to prevent
entrance of rain and should have removable #24-mesh screens to prevent the
entrance of birds, insects, rodents, and contaminating materials.
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Problems
Valve Jammed Open
Dr. Rusty recommends that opened valves should not be jammed-tight on the backseat.
Always back the valve-off a quarter turn from the fully opened position.
Note that motor operated valves coast inevitably to the backseat by tripping on a limit switch.
Valves should not be back seated on torque.
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Here is a nasty 4 inch broken gate valve with serious Tuberculation. The valve is
broken closed. The rust particles are sharp and can easily cut the water service
worker. The flange bolts or Tee bolts were cut off to replace this valve. The rubber
gasket will leave a black ink like stain on your clothes and in the water line as well.
You will see lots of nasty stuff in the top portion of a valve. Some engineers or big
shots refer to this area of the valve as the Angular space. If they really knew that
this space contained nasty particles or debris and sediment they would never visit
your Yard or facility again.
One practice that I am not sure about is the common procedure of only removing the
bonnet or removing the guts of a closed valve and keeping the valve body on the
line. I guess that sometimes this practice is necessary, and I dont like removing the
guts and packing of cement and a redwood plug in the stem hole but it happens. Dr.
Rustys advice, when working on wastewater and water valves is difficult practice
because of mud, debris and because water lines are under pressure, but be super
careful of rust particles cutting your skin. Get in line at the Doctors or Health
Providers facility and get all of your shots. Especially Tetanus and Hepatitis. Some
of you will need Rabies as well, not because of the water but because of your wild
animal make-up. I know some of you will fight this but the facts are that you will
probably be infected with something nasty. Dr. Rusty recommends that you protect
yourself, others around you and the public.
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Gate valve storage procedures. Dr. Rusty recommends to always store a gate valve
with the gate up or opened. Not like this picture. Sunlight will give the rubbers a
good shot of Vitamin D and a sunburn, destroying the rubbers with ultraviolet
radiation. I like to keep the valves covered and clean and I want you to do the same.
I know that some of you dont care because these valves are so darn heavy and
bother-some. We are professionals and must remember the final outcome. We
provide drinking water to the public. Notice the two different styles of flange fittings.
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Common distribution fittings: Single check, Poly Pig, 1 inch repair clamp,
4 inch full circle clamp, T- Bolt and a corp. and saddle. Note from Dr. Rusty, Single
checks are not a backflow assembly and will probably stick open over time. I know
that most systems will pay for these but unless you replace or test these checks,
they will not hold up. Most fitting salesmen will not tell you this little tidbit. Notice the
Corp, it is a ball type valve.
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Ductile pipe cement-lined iron pipe. Ive seen thousands of dollars of pipe that is
dropped or moved with the front bucket of a backhoe and destroyed. This destroys
the interior protection of the pipe, causing leaks which will start in a few years. I
know that some of you welcome this as job security. These nitwits need job security,
but water professionals do not need crappy work to keep them employed. Always
protect and store all types of pipe covered in a pipe rack. This goes for the proper
storage of rubbers as well.
Here is a four-way pipe cutting tool used for iron pipe. Be careful not to break the
wheels by over-tightening. I personally like 4-Ways because of the nice cut. You
will learn to recognize the distinct snap of cut pipe. The only drawback to these
cutters is cutting a small section out of the main. You may need to make two or
three more cuts and break the section out with a cocking hammer. It will easily cut
ductile, galvanized, and even plastic. Plastic pipe cutters utilize sharper cutting
wheels. Rookies like to thread the pipe rather than cut the pipe. It is fun to watch
and good to tease these rookies about it. Especially if they have just finished
jumping a stop with the valve closed or no ball. Good times for sure in the crazy
Distribution field.
Photograph on right, difficult to see,
these are pipe crimpers. These will
easily and effectively stop flow in
copper or plastic pipe in tubing less
than 2 inches. The only problem is
dealing with the crimp when you are
finished. I suggest placing a flex
coupling over the crimp in plastic and
completely cutting the crimped area
out when done in copper pipe.
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Top photograph, two gate valves blew out, you can see the kickers or thrust blocks in
the back ground. Bottom photograph, a tapping machine and a new gate valve.
These tapping machines are very, very expensive. I cant believe the cost of a new
one. Even buying a used one will set you back more than a new car.
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The valve should be welded onto the line with the disc in the fully closed position. Leaving it
even partially open can cause distortion and leaking. Allow time for the weld to cool before
operating the valve the first time in the pipeline. The preferred orientation of a globe valve is
upright. The valve may be installed in other orientations, but any deviation from vertical is a
compromise. Installation upside down is not recommended because it can cause dirt to
accumulate in the bonnet.
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Small grooves less than 0.005" can be polished with an Emory cloth. Contact specialized
services or an outside contractor if run-out is unacceptable or large grooves are discovered
on the surface of the stem.
If the valve packing compression is too tight--Verify the packing bolt torque and adjust if
necessary.
Foreign debris is trapped on threads and/or in the packing area--This is a common
problem when valves are installed outdoors in sandy areas and areas not cleaned before
operating.
Always inspect threads and packing area for particle obstructions; even seemingly small
amounts of sand trapped on the drive can completely stop large valves from cycling. The
valve may stop abruptly when a cycle is attempted. With the line pressure removed from the
valve, disconnect the actuator, gear operator or handwheel and inspect the drive nut, stem,
bearings and yoke bushing. Contaminated parts should be cleaned with a lint-free cloth using
alcohol, varsol or equivalent. All parts should be re-lubricated before being re-assembled. If
the valves are installed outdoors in a sandy area, it may be desirable to cover the valves with
jackets.
If the valve components are faulty or damaged--contact specialized services or an outside
contractor.
If the valves handwheel is too small--Increasing the size of the handwheel will reduce the
amount of torque required to operate the valve. If a larger handwheel is installed, the person
operating the valve must be careful not to over-torque the valve when closing it.
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Most commonly found on customer or water meters. All small backflow assemblies will have
two Ball valves. It is the valve that is either fully on or fully off; and the one that you use to
test the abilities of a water service rookie. The best trick is to remove the ball from the Ball
valve and have a rookie Jump a Stop. The Corp is usually found at the water main on a
saddle. Some people say that the purpose of the Corp is to regulate the service. I dont like
that explanation. No one likes to dig up the street to regulate the service, and Ball valves
are only to be used fully on or fully off.
Most ball valves are the quick-acting type. They require only a 90-degree turn to either
completely open or close the valve. However, many are operated by planetary gears. This
type of gearing allows the use of a relatively small handwheel and operating force to operate
a fairly large valve. Always follow standard safety procedures when working on a valve.
The gearing does, however, increase the
operating time for the valve. Some ball valves
also contain a swing check located within the
ball to give the valve a check valve feature.
The brass ball valve is often used for house
appliance and industry appliance, the size
range is 1/4-4. Brass or zinc is common for
body, brass or iron for stem, brass or iron for
ball, aluminum, stainless steel, or iron for
handle including a Teflon seal in the ball
housing. Flush the pipeline before installing
the valve. Debris allowed to remain in the
pipeline (such as weld spatters, welding rods, bricks, tools, etc.) can damage the valve. After
installation, cycle the valve a minimum of three times and re-torque bolts as required. Ensure
that the valve is in the open position and the inside of the body bore of the valve body/body
end is coated with a suitable spatter guard.
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Removing the ball is very difficult. I think they use a robot to tighten the rear nut to
keep you from removing it. I recommend that you always use pipe dope or Teflon
tape when installing a Stop. I know a lot of you think that brass or bronze will make
up the slack, but pipe dope, or Teflon dope or tape makes a nicer job and makes for
an easier removal.
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54 inch Butterfly valve on a huge transmission line. Nice job but no shoring, no
ladder or valve blocking.
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ACTUATION METHODS
Standard Handwheel
Chainwheel Operated
Square Nut
Pneumatic
Electric
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A broken 54 inch Butterfly and a worker inside the water main preparing the interior
surface. Notice, this is a Permit Required Confined Space. Hot work permit is also
required. Side note, there is a plastic version of the 54 and 60 inch Butterfly valve.
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Here at a water treatment plant, we can see both valve actuators control devices and
Butterfly valves as well. Bottom photograph is a cut-away of an actuator.
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Counterbalance valves. A counterbalance valve is, in fact, a special type of pilot controlled
check valve. Whereas the check valve is open or closed, the counterbalance valve acts a bit
like a pilot controlled flow control.
Cartridge valves are, in fact, the inner part of a check valve; they are off the shelf
components with a standardized envelope, making them easy to populate a proprietary valve
block. They are available in many configurations: on/off, proportional, pressure relief, etc.
They generally screw into a valve block and are electrically controlled to provide logic and
automated functions. Hydraulic fuses are in-line safety devices designed to automatically
seal off a hydraulic line if pressure becomes too low, or safely vent fluid if pressure becomes
too high.
Auxiliary valves. Complex hydraulic systems will usually have auxiliary valve blocks to
handle various duties unseen to the operator, such as accumulator charging, cooling fan
operation, air conditioning power, etc... They are usually custom valves designed for a
particular machine, and may consist of a metal block with drilled ports and channels.
Cartridge valves are threaded into the ports and may be electrically controlled by switches or
a microprocessor to route fluid power as needed.
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This valve operates by balancing the force exerted by the pressure in the main circuit against
the sum of the forces exerted by secondary circuit pressure and the spring. Because the
pressurized areas on both sides of the poppet are equal, the fixed reduction is that exerted
by the spring.
How do Pressure Relief Valves Operate?
Most pressure relief valves consist of a main valve and pilot control system. The basic main
Cla-Val valve is called a Hytrol Valve.
When no pressure is in the valve, the spring and the weight of the diaphragm
assembly hold the valve closed.
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Often a small box can be connected to an existing pilot PRV valve to control the main
Pressure Reducing Valve on the pipe network. This single box contains both the control
electronics and an integral data logger to save the cost and space of having both a controller
and a separate data logger. There are basically two types of PRV controllers, either timebased (to reduce the pipe pressure at low demand times, e.g. at night) or flow modulated
controllers which can realize leakage savings throughout the day and night (by adjusting the
pressure according to the demand to prevent excessive pressure at any time of the day or
night).
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FLOW
DIRECTION
FLOW
DIRECTION
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Plain Swing
check valve
Rubber Flapper
Swing check valve
Surge Relief valves are not usually employed due to short pipe runs in the plant.
A beautiful swing check valve. Swing checks need to be maintained. I hate finding a
swing check that is either buried and/or forgotten, rusted in place or, my favorite, the
check was removed. Yes, folks, you too will find these three conditions. Send me a
photograph if you do. I love stories and photographs from the field.
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Wastewater Section
Oil Controlled Closing Check Valve
Controlled closing
closing speed
speed reduces
reduces surge
surge magnitude
magnitude
on pump
pump shutdown
shutdown by
by allowing
allowing reverse flow
flow to
to be
be
established
then
decelerated
during
the
final
established then decelerated during
final
increment of valve closure
Wastewater valves are widely used in different industries like dairy, food, pharmaceutical,
medical and chemical industries to name a few.
These sanitary valves perform various features
like easy cleaning, crevice free, and polish
contact surfaces. Types among these sanitary
valves can be seen in the form of sanitary ball
valves, sanitary sewer valves, sanitary butterfly
valves, sanitary check valves, sanitary globe
valves and many other such sanitary valves.
Variations among these sanitary valves can also
be seen in their working pressure and operating
temperature. These sanitary valves carry gas and
liquid media or liquid with suspended solids.
Metals like brass, bronze, copper, cast iron,
ductile iron, stainless steel, and steel are used in
the manufacture of these sanitary valves to
ensure that they have a longer life.
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Lift Station
May be pre-engineered, Pre-fab or
custom design Built-in place stations
Lengths vary
intermediate diameters
static heads vary
medium flows
(Hint: If your pump station is too big to unload with a fork lift, but smaller than the biggest building in
town, its probably a medium size lift station.)
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Best choice:
Diaphragm Isolation Valve
1. No packing to leak resilient rubber diaphragm seals the bonnet area
2. No areas for build-up to occur increasing torque
3. Reinforced diaphragm wont suck closed
Tru-Tech Industries
A GA Company
Natural Rubber
Neoprene
Butyl
EPDM
Hypalon
Viton
Teflon
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Bottom of a dry barrel fire hydrant--there is a drainage hole on the back of this
hydrant, sometimes referred to as a weep hole. Below is an Airport Runway type
of hydrant. These are difficult to find.
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Unrestricted, this pressure spike or wave will rapidly accelerate to the speed of sound in
liquid, which can exceed 4000 ft/sec. It is possible to estimate the pressure increase by the
following formula.
Water Hammer Formula:
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Various types and sizes of coupons or tap cut-outs. You will want to date and collect
these cut-outs to determine the condition of the pipe or measure the corrosion.
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PVC in top photograph. ABS plastic pipe in bottom. It is strange that some States
allow ABS and others do not. Like with any subject, it all depends on politics.
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Once the flux has been applied you can connect your fittings. We suggest that you twist
your fittings to get the flux to be properly spread on the fitting and pipe end surfaces. They
say that flux is not hazardous or corrosive, but for some reason it seems to eat holes in
clothes.
Propane gas will work fine for half inch tubing, but it doesnt work well with the
larger pipe sizes. Propane seems to take just a minute longer than map gas.
Place the flame nozzle just about one inch from the 90, focusing the heat right in the middle
of the fitting. Take a piece of solder about twelve inches or so, and test the area. If the
fitting is hot enough, it will draw the solder and equally distribute it around the joint. This
should take about one second or so.
MAP gas is a hotter gas made of oxygen and acetylene. MAP gas works fast and the
soldering is done quickly. Remember that your project is hot and be prepared to be burned
if you are not careful.
Most common mistake that you will make.
This mistake is burning the flux out of the joint before you are able to apply solder. I call
this burning the joint. If you overheat the joint and burn the flux, you will see the joint
steaming and turning black, as you apply the solder, the solder just drips of the pipe. If this
happens to you, cool the pipe off and re-sand, re-apply flux and do it again.
Another Problem
Another common problem with soldering is water. If you have one drop of water in the line,
you will not be able to get a good seal. There are a couple of tricks to help you solder when
there is water in the line. One method is plain old white bread. Just cram the water line with
bread until the water has stopped. You can proceed to solder your fitting at that time and
then simply flush the line when you are finished. There are also small balls filled with oil
that you can cram inside the pipe, or you can even freeze the pipe to sweat your fittings on.
You can also purchase a special tool from most plumbing stores that works like a
compression fitting or a boat drain plug and will stop the leak.
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Gate Valves are used to isolate sections of water mains. Not to be used to throttle
or regulate the flow.
A Globe valve should be used to regulate the flow. Be sure to chlorinate or disinfect
all distribution parts such as valves.
Caps
A pipe cap is a fitting with a female (inside) thread. It is used like a plug, except that the
pipe cap screws on the male thread of a pipe or nipple.
Couplings
The three common types of couplings are straight coupling, reducer, and eccentric reducer.
The STRAIGHT COUPLING is for joining two lengths of pipe in a straight run that does not
require additional fittings. A run is that portion of a pipe or fitting continuing in a straight line
in the direction of flow.
A REDUCER is used to join two pipes of different sizes. The ECCENTRIC REDUCER (also
called a BELL REDUCER) has two female (inside) threads of different sizes with centers so
designed that when they are joined, the two pieces of pipe will not be in line with each
other, but they can be installed to provide optimum drainage of the line.
Elbows (OR ELLS) 90 AND 45
These fittings (fig. 8-5, close to middle of figure) are used to change the direction of the pipe
either 90 or 45 degrees. REGULAR elbows have female threads at both outlets. STREET
elbows change the direction of a pipe in a close space where it would be impossible or
impractical to use an elbow and nipple.
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Both 45 and 90-degree street elbows are available with one female and one male threaded
end. The REDUCING elbow is similar to the 90-degree elbow except that one opening is
smaller than the other is.
Nipples
A nipple is a short length of pipe (12 in. or less) with a male thread on each end. It is used
for extension from a fitting. At times, you may use the DIELECTRIC or INSULATING TYPE
of fittings. These fittings connect underground tanks or hot-water tanks. They are also used
when pipes of dissimilar metals are combined. These help slow down corrosion that starts
inside the pipe and works to the outside of the pipe.
Do not heat or solder dielectric fittings. You may melt the plastic coating from them.
Zinc is a coating on the outside and inside of pipes to slow corrosion. This is called
galvanization.
Tees
A tee is used for connecting pipes of different diameters or for changing the direction of
pipe runs. A common type of pipe tee is the STRAIGHT tee, which has a straight-through
portion and a 90-degree takeoff on one side.
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Cathodic Protection
Steel reservoirs can be subject to internal corrosion through the process of electrolysis
which occurs when metallic ions are released by the steel and flow through the water,
which is electrically conductive. This can be overcome by installing a sacrificial anode,
usually composed of magnesium or zinc, in the water and connecting it to the positive side
of a DC power source.
The wall of the reservoir is connected to the negative side of the power supply. This tends
to reverse the flow of electrons, from the anode (hence the term sacrificial), through the
water and back to the reservoir wall.
This essentially turns the steel wall of the reservoir into a cathode, or negative terminal, with
respect to its surroundings, and the migration of metallic ions from the steel is retarded.
Repair crew replacing three tapping valves that blew out during a leak.
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Miscellaneous
Sump Pump
If you have a sump pump, be sure that it is always in good operating condition so that it
will be ready to function when it is needed. Oil it carefully in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. Make it operate occasionally by tripping the lever after filling
the basin particularly with water. Unless you do this every three or four months, there is
danger that corrosion may cause a sticking of the shaft when operation is required.
Sump Pump
Backwater Valve
The function of this valve is to prevent the sewer from backing up into the house during
heavy rains. Most backwater valves operate automatically. A valve with a butterfly action
closes against the sewer on the house side. Sometimes however, debris lodges against
the seat of the valve so that it cannot close tightly. There are also manually operated
valves that have a wheel handle to shut them down.
Sometimes, debris (mop strings, etc.) can accumulate or collect near the valve seat,
which prevents it from closing tightly. With automatic backwater valves, removing the lid,
cleaning the seat, and greasing the hinge pin on the valve gate annually will guarantee
that the valve will operate as expected when it is called upon to prevent the water from
coming into your basement. With the manual type of valve it is best to operate this valve
every six months in order that (1) all members of the family may be familiar with the
location of the valve with its function, and where the wheel for manual operation is
stored; and (2) in order that the manual operation may keep the valve free from
corrosion and lessen the chances for debris interfering with the valve closing.
Flammable Vapors
Vapors from flammable liquids can explode and catch fire, causing death or severe
burns. That is why it's vitally important, that you should NEVER use flammable liquids
such as gasoline, adhesive solvents, lighter fluid, mineral spirits, paint thinner and
kerosene around water heaters, furnaces, or any appliance with the potential for flame or
sparks. Keep flammable products far away from the water heater or furnace, stored in an
approved container, tightly closed and out of childrens' reach. Flammable products,
improperly stored or used near an open flame, give off invisible vapors that can travel
the length of a house and be ignited by any of a dozen or more household sources of
flame or spark. A few precautionary measures can prevent a tragedy from taking place.
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Glossary
ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene): Rigid black plastic pipe used only for drain lines.
ACCESS PANEL: An opening in the wall or ceiling near the fixture that allows access for
servicing the plumbing/electrical system.
ADAPTOR: A fitting that unites different types of pipe together, e.g. ABS to cast iron pipe.
AIR BREAK: An air break is a physical separation which may be a low inlet into the indirect
waste receptor from the fixture, or device that is indirectly connected. You will most likely find an
air break on waste fixtures or on non-potable lines. You should never allow an air break on an ice
machine.
AIR GAP SEPARATION: A physical separation space that is present between the discharge
vessel and the receiving vessel, for an example, a kitchen faucet.
ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTANTS: Disinfectants - other than chlorination (halogens) - used to
treat water, e.g. ozone, ultraviolet radiation, chlorine dioxide, and chloramine. There is limited
experience and scientific knowledge about the by-products and risks associated with the use of
alternatives.
AMMONIA: A chemical made with Nitrogen and Hydrogen and used with chlorine to disinfect
water.
AQUIFER: An underground geologic formation capable of storing significant amounts of water.
BACKFLOW PREVENTION: To stop or prevent the occurrence of the unnatural act of reversing
the normal direction of the flow of liquids, gases, or solid substances back into the public potable
(drinking) water supply. See Cross-connection control.
BACKFLOW: To reverse the natural and normal directional flow of liquids, gases, or solid
substances back in to the public potable (drinking) water supply. This is normally an undesirable
effect.
BACKSIPHONAGE: A liquid substance that is carried over a higher point. It is the method by
which the liquid substance may be forced by excess pressure over or into a higher point.
BENCHING: A method of protecting employees from cave-ins by excavating the sides of an
excavation to form one or a series of horizontal levels or steps, usually with vertical or near
vertical surfaces between levels.
BREAK POINT CHLORINATION: The process of chlorinating the water with significant quantities
of chlorine to oxidize all contaminants and organic wastes and leave all remaining chlorine as free
chlorine.
BROMINE: Chemical disinfectant (HALOGEN) that kills bacteria and algae.
BUFFER: Chemical that resists pH change, e.g. sodium bicarbonate.
CALCIUM HARDNESS: A measure of the calcium salts dissolved in water.
CAUSTIC SODA: Also known as sodium hydroxide and is used to raise pH.
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CAVE-IN: The separation of a mass of soil or rock material from the side of an excavation, or the
loss of soil from under a trench shield or support system, and its sudden movement into the
excavation, either by failing or sliding, in sufficient quantity so that it could entrap, bury, or
otherwise injure and immobilize a person.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP: A pump consisting of an impeller fixed on a rotating shaft and enclosed
in a casing, having an inlet and a discharge connection. The rotating impeller creates pressure in
the liquid by the velocity derived from centrifugal force.
CHLORAMINATION: Treating drinking water by applying chlorine before or after ammonia. This
creates a persistent disinfectant residual.
CHLORINATION: The process in water treatment of adding chlorine (gas or solid hypochlorite)
for purposes of disinfection.
CHLORAMINES: A group of chlorine ammonia compounds formed when chlorine combines with
organic wastes in the water. Chloramines are not effective as disinfectants and are responsible
for eye and skin irritation as well as strong chlorine odors (also known as Combined Chlorine).
CHLORINE: A chemical which destroys small organisms in water. Chemical disinfectant that kills
bacteria and algae.
CHLORINE DEMAND: Amount of chlorine required to react on various water impurities before a
residual is obtained. Also, means the amount of chlorine required to produce a free chlorine
residual of 0.1 mg/l after a contact time of fifteen minutes as measured by iodmetic method of a
sample at a temperature of twenty degrees in conformance with Standard methods.
CHLORINE, FREE: Chlorine available to kill bacteria or algae. The amount of chlorine available
for sanitization after the chlorine demand has been met. Also known as chlorine residual.
CLEANOUT: A plug in a trap or drain pipe that provides access for the purpose of clearing an
obstruction.
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CLOSET AUGER: A flexible rod with a curved end used to access the toilet's built-in trap and
remove clogs.
CLOSET BEND: A curved fitting that connects the closet flange to the toilet drain.
CLOSET FLANGE: An anchoring ring secured to the floor. The base of the toilet is secured to
this ring with bolts.
COLIFORM: A group of bacteria commonly found in the environment. They are an indicator of
potential contamination of water. Adequate and appropriate disinfection effectively destroys
coliform bacteria.
COMBINED CHLORINE: The reaction product of chlorine with ammonia or other pollutants, also
known as chloramines.
COMPETENT PERSON: One who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards in
the surroundings or working conditions, which are unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to
employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them.
CONTAMINANT: Any natural or man-made physical, chemical, biological, or radiological
substance or matter in water, which is at a level that may have an adverse effect on public health,
and which is known or anticipated to occur in public water systems.
CONTAMINATION: To make something bad. To pollute or infect something. To reduce the
quality of the potable (drinking) water and create an actual hazard to the water supply by
poisoning or through spread of diseases.
CORROSION: The removal of metal from copper, other metal surfaces and concrete surfaces in
a destructive manner. Corrosion is caused by improperly balanced water or excessive water
velocity through piping or heat exchangers.
COUPLING: A fitting that joins two pieces of pipe.
CPVC (Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride): Rigid plastic pipe used in water supply systems, where
code permits.
CROSS-CONTAMINATION: The mixing of two unlike qualities of water. For example, the mixing
of good water with a polluting substance like a chemical.
CRYPTOSPORIDIUM: A disease-causing parasite, resistant to chlorine disinfection. It may be
found in fecal matter or contaminated drinking water.
DISINFECT: To kill and inhibit growth of harmful bacterial and viruses in drinking water.
DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBPs): The products created due to the reaction of chlorine
with organic materials (e.g. leaves, soil) present in raw water during the water treatment process.
The EPA has determined that these DBPs can cause cancer.
DISINFECTION: The treatment of water to inactivate, destroy, and/or remove pathogenic
bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and other parasites.
DWV: Abbreviation for drain, waste and vent.
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E. COLI, Escherichia coli: is a bacterium commonly found in the human intestine. For water
quality analyses purposes, it is considered an indicator organism. These are considered evidence
of water contamination. Indicator organisms may be accompanied by pathogens, but do not
necessarily cause disease themselves.
ELBOW: A pipe fitting with two openings that changes the direction of the line. Also called an ell.
It comes in a variety of angles, from 22 1/2 to 90.
ELEVATION HEAD: The energy possessed per unit weight of a fluid because of its elevation. 1
foot of water will produce .433 pounds of pressure head.
ENERGY: The ability to do work. Energy can exist in one of several forms, such as heat, light,
mechanical, electrical, or chemical. Energy can be transferred to different forms. It also can exist
in one of two states, either potential or kinetic.
ENHANCED COAGULATION: The process of joining together particles in water to help remove
organic matter.
ENTEROVIRUS: A virus whose presence may indicate contaminated water; a virus which may
infect the gastrointestinal tract of humans.
FALL-FLOW: The proper slope or pitch of a pipe for adequate drainage.
FECAL COLIFORM: A group of bacteria that may indicate the presence of human or animal
fecal matter in water.
FILTRATION: A series of processes that physically remove particles from water.
FINISHED WATER: Treated drinking water that meets state and federal drinking water
regulations.
FIXTURE: In plumbing, the devices that provide a supply of water and/or its disposal, e.g. sinks,
tubs, toilets.
FLOCCULATION: The process of bringing together destabilized or coagulated particles to form
larger masses which can be settled and/or filtered out of the water being treated.
FLOOD RIM: The point of an object where the water would run over the edge of something and
begin to cause a flood. See Air Break.
FLUX: The paste that is used in soldering metal joints. Flux aids the process by preventing
oxidation of the joint.
GIARDIA LAMBLIA: A pathogenic parasite which may be found in contaminated water.
HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE: An atmosphere which by reason of being explosive, flammable,
poisonous, corrosive, oxidizing, irritating, oxygen deficient, toxic, or otherwise harmful, may cause
death, illness, or injury.
HEAD: The measure of the pressure of water, expressed in feet, of height of water. 1 psi = 2.41
feet of water. There are various types of heads of water depending upon what is being measured;
for example, Static (water at rest) and Residual (water at flow conditions).
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HEADWORKS: The facility at the "head" of the water source where water is first treated and
routed into the distribution system.
HETEROTROPHIC PLATE COUNT BACTERIA: A broad group of bacteria including nonpathogens, pathogens, and opportunistic pathogens; they may be an indicator of poor general
biological quality of drinking water. Often referred to as HPC.
I.D.: Abbreviation for inside diameter. All pipes are sized according to their inside diameter.
INFECTIOUS PATHOGENS/ MICROBES/GERMS: Disease-producing bacteria, viruses and
other microorganisms.
IRRIGATION: Water that is especially furnished to help provide and sustain the life of growing
plants. It comes from ditches, and it is sometimes treated with herbicides and pesticides to
prevent the growth of weeds and the development of bugs in a lawn or garden.
KINETIC ENERGY: The ability of an object to do work by virtue of its motion. The energy terms
that are used to describe the operation of a pump are pressure and head.
LANGELIER INDEX: A mathematically derived factor obtained from the values of calcium
hardness, total alkalinity, and pH at a given temperature. A Langelier index of zero indicates
perfect water balance (i.e., neither corroding nor scaling).
MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVELS (MCLs): The maximum allowable level of a contaminant
that federal or state regulations allow in a public water system. If the MCL is exceeded, the water
system must treat the water so that it meets the MCL. Or provide adequate backflow protection.
MECHANICAL SEAL: A mechanical device used to control leakage from the stuffing box of a
pump. Usually made of two flat surfaces, one of which rotates on the shaft. The two flat surfaces
are of such tolerances as to prevent the passage of water between them.
Mg/L: milligrams per liter
MICROBE, MICROBIAL: Any minute, simple, single-celled form of life, especially one that
causes disease.
MICROBIAL CONTAMINANTS: Microscopic organisms present in untreated water that can
cause waterborne diseases.
mL: milliliter.
NON-CHLORINE SHOCK: Oxygen based shocking compound. Non Chlorine shock is fast
dissolving so it allows swimming just 15 minutes after use.
NTU (nephelometric turbidity unit): A measure of the clarity of water.
O.D.: Abbreviation for outside diameter.
OXIDIZING: The process of breaking down organic wastes into simpler elemental forms or by
products. Also used to separate combined chlorine and convert it into free chlorine.
PATHOGENS: disease-causing pathogens; waterborne pathogens. A pathogen is a bacterium,
virus or parasite that causes or is capable of causing disease. Pathogens may contaminate water
and cause waterborne disease.
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pCi/L: picocuries per liter. A curie is the amount of radiation released by a set amount of a
certain compound. A picocurie is one quadrillionth of a curie.
PIPELINE APPURTENANCE: Pressure reducers, bends, valves, regulators (which are a type of
valve), etc.
POTABLE: Good water which is safe for drinking or cooking purposes. Non-Potable: A liquid or
water that is not approved for drinking.
PB (Polybutylene): Flexible plastic tubing used in water supply systems where allowed by code.
pH: A measure of the acidity of water. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14 with 7 being the mid-point
or neutral. A pH of less than 7 is on the acid side of the scale with 0 as the point of greatest acid
activity. A pH of more than 7 is on the basic (alkaline) side of the scale with 14 as the point of
greatest basic activity. pH (Power of Hydroxyl Ion Activity).
pH OF SATURATION: The ideal pH for perfect water balance in relation to a particular total
alkalinity level and a particular calcium hardness level, at a particular temperature. The pH where
the Langelier Index equals zero.
PHENOL RED: Chemical reagent used for testing pH in the range of 6.8 - 8.4.
PLUMBERS PUTTY: A pliable, popular putty used to seal joints between drain pieces and fixture
surfaces.
POLLUTION: To make something unclean or impure. Some states will have a definition of
pollution that relates to non-health related water problems, like taste and odors. See
Contaminated.
POTENTIAL ENERGY: The energy that a body has by virtue of its position or state enabling it to
do work.
ppm: Abbreviation for parts per million.
PRE-CHLORINATION: The addition of chlorine to the water prior to any other plant treatment
processes.
PRESSURE HEAD: The height to which liquid can be raised by a given pressure.
PROGRAMMATIC CONSERVATION: Conservation that results from public education efforts that
influence consumer behavior. Examples include turning off the water when brushing your teeth,
washing only full loads of laundry, fixing leaks, etc.
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride): A rigid white or cream colored plastic pipe used in non-pressure
systems, such as waste and vent systems.
RAW WATER: Water that has not been treated in any way; it is generally considered to be
unsafe to drink. Sometimes referred to as Auxiliary Water.
REDUCER: A fitting that connects pipes of different sizes.
RESERVOIR: An impoundment used to store water.
RESIDUAL DISINFECTION/ PROTECTION: A required level of disinfectant that remains in
treated water to ensure disinfection protection and prevent recontamination throughout the
distribution system (i.e., pipes).
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RISER: A vertical assembly of fittings and pipes that distributes water upward.
ROUGH-IN: The portion of a plumbing installation that includes running the water supply lines
and drain, waste & vent lines to the proposed location of each fixture.
RUN: A complete or secondary section(s) of pipe that extends from supply to fixture or drain to
stack.
SANITARY FITTING: Fitting that joins the assorted pipes in a drain, waste and vent system;
designed to allow solid material to pass through without clogging.
SANITIZER: A chemical which disinfects (kills bacteria), kills algae and oxidizes organic matter.
SCALE: Crust of calcium carbonate, the result of unbalanced pool water. Hard, insoluble mineral
deposits (usually calcium bicarbonate) which form on pool and spa surfaces and clog filters,
heaters and pumps. Scale is caused by high calcium hardness and/or high pH. You will often find
major scale deposits inside a backflow prevention assembly.
SEDIMENTATION: The process of suspended solid particles settling out (going to the bottom of
the vessel) in water. The use of a strainer before the backflow assembly can help remove some
of the course sedimentation.
SLOPING: A method of protecting workers from cave-ins by excavating to form sides of an
excavation that are inclined away from the excavation to prevent cave-ins. The angle of incline
required to prevent a cave-in varies with differences such as soil type, length of exposure, and
application of surcharge loads.
SOIL STACK: Largest vertical drain line to which all branch waste lines connect; carries waste to
the sewer line.
SOLDER: A fusible alloy used to join metallic parts. Solder for potable water pipes shall be leadfree.
SHOCK: Also known as superchlorination or break-point chlorination. Ridding a pool of organic
waste through oxidization by the addition of significant quantities of a halogen.
SOLDER: A metal alloy that is melted to join or mend metal surfaces; also, the act of melting
solder into the joint.
STANDPIPE: A water tank that is taller than it is wide.
STOP VALVE: A valve that controls the flow of water to an individual fixture, allowing water
supply to be stopped to one fixture without affecting the water supply to other fixtures.
STUFFING BOX: That portion of the pump which houses the packing or mechanical seal.
SUBMERGED: To cover with water or liquid substance.
SUPERCHLORINATION: Application of large dosages of chlorine to destroy buildup of
undesirable compounds in water.
SURFACE WATER: Water which is open to the atmosphere and subject to surface runoff;
generally, lakes, streams, rivers.
TCE, trichloroethylene: A solvent and degreaser used for many purposes; for example, dry
cleaning is a common groundwater contaminant.
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TITRATION: method of testing by adding a reagent of known strength to a water sample until a
specific color change indicates the completion of the reaction.
TEE: A T-shaped fitting with three openings used to create branch lines.
TOTAL ALKALINITY: A measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water which indicates its
buffering ability, i.e. measure of its resistance to a change in pH. Generally, the higher the total
alkalinity, the greater the resistance to pH change.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS) : The accumulated total of all solids that might be dissolved
in water.
TRAP: Curved section of a fixture drain line; designed to hold water, thus preventing sewer gases
from entering the house.
TREATED WATER: Disinfected and/or filtered water served to water system customers. It must
meet or surpass all drinking water standards to be considered safe to drink.
TRENCH: A narrow excavation below the surface of the ground, less than 15 feet wide, with a
depth no greater than the width.
TRIHALOMETHANES(THM): Four separate compounds including chloroform,
dichlorobromomethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. The most common class of
disinfection by-products created when chemical disinfectants react with organic matter in water
during the disinfection process. See Disinfectant Byproducts.
TURBIDITY: A measure of the cloudiness of water caused by suspended particles.
UNDERMINING: Undermining can be caused by such things as leaking, leaching, caving or overdigging. Undermined walls can be very dangerous.
UNION: Three-piece fitting that joins two sections of pipe, but allows them to be disconnected
without cutting the pipe. Used primarily with steel pipes, but never in a DWV system.
VALVE: A device that opens and closes to regulate the flow of liquids. Faucet, hose bib, and Ball
are examples of valves.
VANE: That portion of an impeller which throws the water toward the volute.
VELOCITY HEAD: The vertical distance a liquid must fall to acquire the velocity with which it
flows through the piping system. For a given quantity of flow, the velocity head will vary indirectly
as the pipe diameter varies.
VENT STACK: The upper portion of the soil stack above the topmost fixture through which gases
and odors escape.
VENTURI: If water flows through a pipeline at a high velocity, the pressure in the pipeline is
reduced. Velocities can be increased to a point that a partial vacuum is created.
VIBRATION: A force that is present on construction sites and must be considered. The
vibrations caused by backhoes, dump trucks, compactors and traffic on job sites can be
substantial.
VOLUTE: The spiral-shaped casing surrounding a pump impeller that collects the liquid
discharge by the impeller.
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WATER WORKS: All of the pipes, pumps, reservoirs, dams and buildings that make up a water
system.
WATERBORNE DISEASES: A disease, caused by a virus, bacterium, protozoan, or other
microorganism, capable of being transmitted by water (e.g., typhoid fever, cholera, amoebic
dysentery, gastroenteritis).
WATERSHED: An area which drains all of its water to a particular water course or body of water.
WATER PURVEYOR: The individual or organization responsible to help provide, supply, and
furnish quality water to a community.
WYE: A Y-shaped fitting with three openings used to create branch lines.
LENGTH
12 Inches = 1 Foot
3 Feet = 1 Yard
5,280 Feet = 1 Mile
AREA
144 Square Inches = 1 Square Foot
43,560 Square Feet = 1 Acre
VOLUME
1000 Milliliters = 1 Liter
3.785 Liters = 1 Gallon
231 Cubic Inches = 1 Gallon
7.48 Gallons = 1 Cubic Foot of
62.38 Pounds = 1 Cubic Foot of
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References
Several Photographs and Reference were provided by
GA Industries, Inc.
WWW. Gaindustries.com
Telephone (724) 776-1020
Fax (724) 776-1254
9025 Marshall Road
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 USA
CLA-VAL
P.O.Box 1325
Newport Beach, CA 92659-0325
Phone: (949) 722-4800 1-800-942-6326
Fax: (949) 548-5441
www.cla-val.com
E-mail: claval@cla-val.com
US Regional Offices
WESTERN REGION:
Phone: (951) 687-9145
1-800-247-9090
Fax: (951) 687-9954
E-mail: lvanderk@cla-val.com
SOUTHERN REGION:
Phone: (281) 759-9590
1-800-336-7171
Fax: (281) 759-8938
E-mail: blindsey@cla-val.com
NORTHERN REGION:
Phone: (847) 697-1413
1-800-238-7070
Fax: (847) 697-5549
E-mail: djurs@cla-val.com
EASTERN REGION:
Phone: (703) 721-1923
1-800-451-3030
Fax: (703) 721-1927
E-mail: bmoore@cla-val.com
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Microorganism Appendix
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This section will give a close-up and short explanation of the major
microorganisms found in water and in wastewater.
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Protozoa
Protozoa are around 1050 micrometer, but can grow up to 1 mm and can easily be
seen under a microscope. Protozoa exist throughout aqueous environments and soil.
Protozoa occupy a range of trophic levels. As predators, they prey upon unicellular or
filamentous algae, bacteria, and microfungi.
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Protozoa play a role both as herbivores and as consumers in the decomposer link of the
food chain. Protozoa also play a vital role in controlling bacteria populations and
biomass. As components of the micro- and meiofauna, protozoa are an important food
source for microinvertebrates. Thus, the ecological role of protozoa in the transfer of
bacterial and algal production to successive trophic levels is important. Protozoa such as
the malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.), trypanosomes and leishmania are also
important as parasites and symbionts of multicellular animals.
Most protozoa exist in 5 stages of life which are in the form of trophozoites and cysts. As
cysts, protozoa can survive harsh conditions, such as exposure to extreme temperatures
and harmful chemicals, or long periods without access to nutrients, water, or oxygen for
a period of time. Being a cyst enables parasitic species to survive outside of the host,
and allows their transmission from one host to another. When protozoa are in the form of
trophozoites (Greek, tropho=to nourish), they actively feed and grow. The process by
which the protozoa takes its cyst form is called encystation, while the process of
transforming back into trophozoite is called excystation.
Protozoa can reproduce by binary fission or multiple fission. Some protozoa reproduce
sexually, some asexually, and some both (e.g. Coccidia). An individual protozoan is
hermaphroditic.
Classification
Protozoa were commonly grouped in the kingdom of Protista together with the plant-like
algae and fungus-like water molds and slime molds. In the 21st-century systematics,
protozoans, along with ciliates, mastigophorans, and apicomplexans, are arranged as
animal-like protists. However, protozoans are neither Animalia nor Metazoa (with the
possible exception of the enigmatic, moldy Myxozoa).
Sub-groups
Protozoa have traditionally been divided on the basis of their means of locomotion,
although this is no longer believed to represent genuine relationships:
* Flagellates (e.g. Giardia lambia)
* Amoeboids (e.g. Entamoeba histolytica)
* Sporozoans (e.g. Plasmodium knowlesi)
* Apicomplexa
* Myxozoa
* Microsporidia
* Ciliates (e.g. Balantidium coli)
There are many ways that infectious diseases can spread. Pathogens usually have
specific routes by which they are transmitted, and these routes may depend on the type
of cells and tissue that a particular agent targets. For example, because cold viruses
infect the respiratory tract, they are dispersed into the air via coughing and sneezing.
Once in the air, the viruses can infect another person who is unlucky enough to inhale
air containing the virus particles.
Agents vary greatly in their stability in the environment. Some viruses may survive for
only a few minutes outside of a host, while some spore-forming bacteria are extremely
durable and may survive in a dormant state for a decade or more.
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Protozoa Section
The diverse assemblage of organisms that carry out all of their life functions within the
confines of a single, complex eukaryotic cell are called protozoa.
Paramecium, Euglena, and Amoeba are well-known examples of these major groups of
organisms. Some protozoa are more closely related to animals, others to plants, and still
others are relatively unique. Although it is not appropriate to group them together into a
single taxonomic category, the research tools used to study any unicellular organism are
usually the same, and the field of protozoology has been created to carry out this
research. The unicellular photosynthetic protozoa are sometimes also called algae and
are addressed elsewhere. This report considers the status of our knowledge of
heterotrophic protozoa (protozoa that cannot produce their own food).
Free-living Protozoa
Protozoans are found in all moist habitats within the United States, but we know little
about their specific geographic distribution. Because of their small size, production of
resistant cysts, and ease of distribution from one place to another, many species appear
to be cosmopolitan and may be collected in similar microhabitats worldwide (Cairns and
Ruthven 1972). Other species may have relatively narrow limits to their distribution.
Marine ciliates inhabit interstices of sediment and beach sands, surfaces, deep sea and
cold Antarctic environments, planktonic habitats, and the algal mats and detritus of
estuaries and wetlands.
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Amoebas
Amoebas (Phylum Rhizopoda) are unicellular protists that are able to change their
shape constantly. Each species has its own distinct repertoire of shapes.
How does an amoeba locomote?
Amoebas locomote by way of cytoplasmic movement. (cytoplasm is the cell content
around the nucleus of the cell) The amoeba forms pseudopods (false feet) with which
they 'flow' over a surface. The cytoplasma not only flows, it also changes from a fluid into
a solid state.
These pseudopods are also used to capture prey, they simply engulf the food. They can
detect the kind of prey and use different 'engulfing tactics'.
The image from the last page shows several cell organelles. Left from the center we can
see aspherical water expelling vesicle and just right of it, the single nucleus of this
species can be seen. Other species may have many nuclei. The cell is full of brown food
vacuoles and also contains small crystals.
Protozoa Information
Our actual knowledge of salinity, temperature, and oxygen requirements of marine
protozoa is poor (although some groups, such as the foraminifera, are better studied
than others), and even the broadest outlines of their biogeographic ranges are usually a
mystery. In general, freshwater protozoan communities are similar to marine
communities except the specialized interstitial fauna of the sand is largely missing. In
freshwater habitats, the foraminifera and radiolaria common in marine environments are
absent or low in numbers while testate amoebae exist in greater numbers. Relative
abundance of species in the marine versus freshwater habitat is unknown.
Soil-dwelling protozoa have been documented from almost every type of soil and in
every kind of environment, from the peat-rich soil of bogs to the dry sands of deserts. In
general, protozoa are found in greatest abundance near the soil surface, especially in
the upper 15 cm (6 in), but occasional isolates can be obtained at depths of a meter
(yard) or more.
Protozoa do not constitute a major part of soil biomass, but in some highly productive
regions such as forest litter, the protozoa are a significant food source for the
microinvertebrates, with a biomass that may reach 20 g/m2 of soil surface area there.
Environmental Quality Indicators
Polluted waters often have a rich and characteristic protozoan fauna. The relative
abundance and diversity of protozoa are used as indicators of organic and toxic pollution
(Cairns et al. 1972; Foissner 1987; Niederlehner et al. 1990; Curds 1992). Bick (1972),
for example, provided a guide to ciliates that are useful as indicators of environmental
quality of European freshwater systems, along with their ecological distribution with
respect to parameters such as amount of organic material and oxygen levels.
Foissner (1988) clarified the taxonomy of European ciliates as part of a system for
classifying the state of aquatic habitats according to their faunas.
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Symbiotic Protozoa
Parasites
Protozoa are infamous for their role in causing disease, and parasitic species are among
the best-known protozoa. Nevertheless, our knowledge has large gaps, especially of
normally free-living protozoa that may become pathogenic in immunocompromised
individuals. For example, microsporidia comprise a unique group of obligate, intracellular
parasitic protozoa. Microsporidia are amazingly diverse organisms with more than 700
species and 80 genera that are capable of infecting a variety of plant, animal, and even
other protist hosts.
They are found worldwide and have the ability to thrive in many ecological conditions.
Until the past few years, their ubiquity did not cause a threat to human health, and few
systematists worked to describe and classify the species. Since 1985, however,
physicians have documented an unusual rise in worldwide infections in AIDS patients
caused by four different genera of microsporidia (Encephalitozoon, Nosema,
Pleistophora, and Enterocytozoon). According to the Centers for Disease Control in the
United States, difficulties in identifying microsporidian species are impeding diagnosis
and effective treatment of AIDS patients.
Protozoan Reservoirs of Disease
The presence of bacteria in the cytoplasm of protozoa is well known, whereas that of
viruses is less frequently reported. Most of these reports simply record the presence of
bacteria or viruses and assume some sort of symbiotic relationship between them and
the protozoa. Recently, however, certain human pathogens were shown to not only
survive but also to multiply in the cytoplasm of free-living, nonpathogenic protozoa.
Indeed, it is now believed that protozoa are the natural habitat for certain pathogenic
bacteria. To date, the main focus of attention has been on the bacterium Legionella
pneumophila, the causative organism of Legionnaires' disease; these bacteria live and
reproduce in the cytoplasm of some free-living amoebae (Curds 1992). More on this
subject in the following chapters.
Symbionts
Some protozoa are harmless or even beneficial symbionts. A bewildering array of
ciliates, for example, inhabit the rumen and reticulum of ruminates and the cecum and
colon of equids. Little is known about the relationship of the ciliates to their host, but a
few may aid the animal in digesting cellulose.
Data on Protozoa
While our knowledge of recent and fossil foraminifera in the U.S. coastal waterways is
systematically growing, other free-living protozoa are poorly known. There are some
regional guides and, while some are excellent, many are limited in scope, vague on
specifics, or difficult to use. Largely because of these problems, most ecologists who
include protozoa in their studies of aquatic habitats do not identify them, even if they do
count and measure them for biomass estimates (Taylor and Sanders 1991).
Parasitic protozoa of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife are better known although
no attempt has been made to compile this information into a single source. Large gaps
in our knowledge exist, especially for haemogregarines, microsporidians, and
myxosporidians (see Kreier and Baker 1987).
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Museum Specimens
For many plant and animal taxa, museums represent a massive information resource.
This is not true for protozoa. In the United States, only the National Natural History
Museum (Smithsonian Institution) has a reference collection preserved on microscope
slides, but it does not have a protozoologist curator and cannot provide species'
identification or verification services. The American Type Culture Collection has some
protozoa in culture, but its collection includes relatively few kinds of protozoa.
Ecological Role of Protozoa
Although protozoa are frequently overlooked, they play an important role in many
communities where they occupy a range of trophic levels. As predators upon unicellular
or filamentous algae, bacteria, and microfungi, protozoa play a role both as herbivores
and as consumers in the decomposer link of the food chain. As components of the
micro- and meiofauna, protozoa are an important food source for microinvertebrates.
Thus, the ecological role of protozoa in the transfer of bacterial and algal production to
successive trophic levels is important.
Factors Affecting Growth and Distribution
Most free-living protozoa reproduce by cell division (exchange of genetic material is a
separate process and is not involved in reproduction in protozoa). The relative
importance for population growth of biotic versus chemical-physical components of the
environment is difficult to ascertain from the existing survey data. Protozoa are found
living actively in nutrient-poor to organically rich waters and in fresh water varying
between 0C (32F) and 50C (122F). Nonetheless, it appears that rates of population
growth increase when food is not constrained and temperature is increased (Lee and
Fenchel 1972; Fenchel 1974; Montagnes et al. 1988).
Comparisons of oxygen consumption in various taxonomic groups show wide variation
(Laybourn and Finlay 1976), with some aerobic forms able to function at extremely low
oxygen tensions and to thereby avoid competition and predation.
Many parasitic and a few free-living species are obligatory anaerobes (grow without
atmospheric oxygen). Of the free-living forms, the best known are the plagiopylid ciliates
that live in the anaerobic sulfide-rich sediments of marine wetlands (Fenchel et al. 1977).
The importance of plagiopylids in recycling nutrients to aerobic zones of wetlands is
potentially great.
Because of the small size of protozoa, their short generation time, and (for some
species) ease of maintaining them in the laboratory, ecologists have used protozoan
populations and communities to investigate competition and predation.
The result has been an extensive literature on a few species studied primarily under
laboratory conditions. Few studies have been extended to natural habitats with the result
that we know relatively little about most protozoa and their roles in natural communities.
Intraspecific competition for common resources often results in cannibalism, sometimes
with dramatic changes in morphology of the cannibals (Giese 1973). Field studies of
interspecific competition are few and most evidence for such species interactions is
indirect (Cairns and Yongue 1977).
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Contractile Vacuoles
Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and
extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In
multicellular organisms, hormones are often produced in vesicles. In higher plants, most
of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole or tonoplast, which maintains its
osmotic pressure. Many eukaryotes have slender motile projections, usually called
flagella when long and cilia when short. These are variously involved in movement,
feeding, and sensation. These are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagella. They are
supported by a bundle of microtubules arising from a basal body, also called a
kinetosome or centriole, characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two
singlets. Flagella also may have hairs or mastigonemes, scales, connecting membranes,
and internal rods. Their interior is continuous with the cell's cytoplasm.
Centrioles
Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella. They
generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids that give rise to various
microtubular roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and
are often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained
from the parent and the other derived from it. Centrioles may also be associated in the
formation of a spindle during nuclear division. Some protists have various other
microtubule-supported organelles. These include the radiolaria and heliozoa, which
produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and the haptophytes, which have
a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema.
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Contractile Vacuoles
Figure 2. The contractile vacuole when full (top) and after contraction (bottom).
Paramecium
Members of the genus Paramecium are single-celled, freshwater organisms in the
kingdom Protista. They exist in an environment in which the osmotic concentration in
their external environment is much lower than that in their cytoplasm. More specifically,
the habitat in which they live is hypotonic to their cytoplasm. As a result of this,
Paramecium is subjected to a continuous influx of water, as water diffuses inward to a
region of higher osmotic concentration.
If Paramecium is to maintain homeostasis, water must be continually pumped out of the
cell (against the osmotic gradient) at the same rate at which it moves in. This process,
known as osmoregulation, is carried out by two organelles in Paramecium known as
contractile vacuoles (Figures 1 and 2).
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Protozoan Diseases
Protozoan pathogens are larger than bacteria and viruses, but still microscopic. They
invade and inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Some parasites enter the environment in a
dormant form, with a protective cell wall called a cyst. The cyst can survive in the
environment for long periods of time and be extremely resistant to conventional
disinfectants such as chlorine. Effective filtration treatment is therefore critical to
removing these organisms from water sources.
Giardiasis
Giardiasis is a commonly reported protozoan-caused disease. It has also been referred
to as backpackers disease and beaver fever because of the many cases reported
among hikers and others who consume untreated surface water. Symptoms include
chronic diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, frequent loose and pale greasy stools,
fatigue and weight loss. The incubation period is 5-25 days or longer, with an average of
7-10 days. Many infections are asymptomatic (no symptoms). Giardiasis occurs
worldwide. Waterborne outbreaks in the United States occur most often in communities
receiving their drinking water from streams or rivers without adequate disinfection or a
filtration system. The organism, Giardia lamblia, has been responsible for more
community-wide outbreaks of disease in the U.S. than any other pathogen. Drugs are
available for treatment but are not 100% effective.
Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis is an example of a protozoan disease that is common worldwide, but
was only recently recognized as causing human disease. The major symptom in humans
is diarrhea, which may be profuse and watery. The diarrhea is associated with cramping
abdominal pain. General malaise, fever, anorexia, nausea, and vomiting occur less
often. Symptoms usually come and go, and end in fewer than 30 days in most cases.
The incubation period is 1-12 days, with an average of about seven days.
Cryptosporidium organisms have been identified in human fecal specimens from more
than 50 countries on six continents. The mode of transmission is fecal-oral, either by
person-to-person or animal-to-person. There is no specific treatment for
Cryptosporidium infections.
All of these diseases, with the exception of hepatitis A, have one symptom in common:
diarrhea. They also have the same mode of transmission, fecal-oral, whether through
person-to-person or animal-to-person contact, and the same routes of transmission,
being either foodborne or waterborne. Although most pathogens cause mild, self-limiting
disease, on occasion, they can cause serious, even life threatening illness. Particularly
vulnerable are persons with weak immune systems such as those with HIV infections or
cancer. By understanding the nature of waterborne diseases, the importance of properly
constructed, operated and maintained public water systems becomes obvious. While
water treatment cannot achieve sterile water (no microorganisms), the goal of treatment
must clearly be to produce drinking water that is as pathogen-free as possible at all
times. For those who operate water systems with inadequate source protection or
treatment facilities, the potential risk of a waterborne disease outbreak is real. For those
operating systems that currently provide adequate source protection and treatment,
operating and maintaining the system at a high level on a continuing basis is critical to
prevent disease.
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Giardia Lamblia
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Those who work with children are also at risk of being infected, as are family members
of infected individuals. Not all Giardia infections are symptomatic, so some people can
unknowingly serve as carriers of the parasite.
The life cycle begins with a non-infective cyst being excreted with feces of an infected
individual. Once out in the environment, the cyst becomes infective. A distinguishing
characteristic of the cyst is 4 nuclei and a retracted cytoplasm. Once ingested by a host,
the trophozoite emerges to an active state of feeding and motility. After the feeding
stage, the trophozoite undergoes asexual replication through longitudinal binary fission.
The resulting trophozoites and cysts then pass through the digestive system in the
feces. While the trophozoites may be found in the feces, only the cysts are capable of
surviving outside of the host.
Distinguishing features of the trophozoites are large karyosomes and lack of peripheral
chromatin, giving the two nuclei a halo appearance. Cysts are distinguished by a
retracted cytoplasm. This protozoa lacks mitochondria, although the discovery of the
presence of mitochodrial remnant organelles in one recent study "indicate that Giardia is
not primitively amitochondrial and that it has retained a functional organelle derived from
the original mitochondrial endosymbiont"
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Cryptosporidium
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When C. parvum was first identified as a human pathogen, diagnosis was made by a
biopsy of intestinal tissue (Keusch, et al., 1995). However, this method of testing can
give false negatives due the "patchy" nature of the intestinal parasitic infection (Flanigan
and Soave, 1993). Staining methods were then developed to detect and identify the
oocysts directly from stool samples. The modified acid-fast stain is traditionally used to
most reliably and specifically detect the presence of cryptosporidial oocysts.
There have been six major outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis in the United States as a result
of contamination of drinking water (Juranek, 1995). One major outbreak in Milwaukee in
1993 affected over 400,000 persons. Outbreaks such as these usually result from
drinking water taken from surface water sources such as lakes and rivers (Juranek,
1995). Swimming pools and water park wave pools have also been associated with
outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. Also, untreated groundwater or well water public drinking
water supplies can be sources of contamination.
The highly environmentally resistant cyst of C. parvum allows the pathogen to survive
various drinking water filtrations and chemical treatments such as chlorination. Although
municipal drinking water utilities may meet federal standards for safety and quality of
drinking water, complete protection from cryptosporidial infection is not guaranteed. In
fact, all waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have occurred in communities where
the local utilities met all state and federal drinking water standards (Juranek, 1995).
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Entamoeba histolytica
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Mitochondria
The bacterial cell is surrounded by a lipid membrane, or cell membrane, which encloses
the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients, proteins and other
essential components of the cytoplasm within the cell. As they are prokaryotes, bacteria
do not tend to have membrane-bound organelles in their cytoplasm and thus contain few
large intracellular structures. They consequently lack a nucleus, mitochondria,
chloroplasts and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells, such as the Golgi
apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.
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Paramecia
Paramecia are a group of unicellular ciliate protozoa formerly known as slipper
animalcules from their slipper shape. They are commonly studied as a representative of
the ciliate group. Simple cilia cover the body which allows the cell to move with a
synchronous motion (like a caterpilla). There is also a deep oral groove containing
inconspicuous compound oral cilia (as found in other peniculids) that is used to draw
food inside. They generally feed upon bacteria and other small cells. Osmoregulation is
carried out by a pair of contractile vacuoles, which actively expel water absorbed by
osmosis from their surroundings.
Paramecia are widespread in freshwater
environments, and are especially common in scums. Paramecia are attracted by acidic
conditions. Certain single-celled eukaryotes, such as Paramecium, are examples for
exceptions to the universality of the genetic code (translation systems where a few
codons differ from the standard ones).
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Amoeba
Amoeba (sometimes amba or ameba, plural amoebae) is a genus of protozoa that
moves by means of pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular
organism. The word amoeba or ameba is variously used to refer to it and its close
relatives, now grouped as the Amoebozoa, or to all protozoa that move using
pseudopods, otherwise termed amoeboids.
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Vorticella
Vorticella is a genus of protozoa, with over 100 known species. They are stalked
inverted bell-shaped ciliates, placed among the peritrichs. Each cell has a separate stalk
anchored onto the substrate, which contains a contracile fibril called a myoneme. When
stimulated this shortens, causing the stalk to coil like a spring. Reproduction is by
budding, where the cell undergoes longitudinal fission and only one daughter keeps the
stalk. Vorticella mainly lives in freshwater ponds and streams - generally anywhere
protists are plentiful. Other genera such as Carchesium resemble Vorticella but are
branched or colonial.
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Ciliophora
Class: Oligohymenophorea
Subclass: Peritrichia
Order: Sessilida
Family: Vorticellidae
Genus: Vorticella
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Rotifer
The rotifers make up a phylum of microscopic and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate
animals. They were first described by John Harris in 1696 (Hudson and Gosse, 1886).
Leeuwenhoek is mistakenly given credit for being the first to describe rotifers but Harris
had produced sketches in 1703. Most rotifers are around 0.1-0.5 mm long, and are
common in freshwater throughout the world with a few saltwater species. Rotifers may
be free swimming and truly planktonic, others move by inch worming along the
substrate, whilst some are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts. About 25
species are colonial (e.g. Sinantherina semibullata), either sessile or planktonic.
Rotifers get their name (derived from Greek and meaning "wheel-bearer"; they have also
been called wheel animalcules) from the corona, which is composed of several ciliated
tufts around the mouth that in motion resemble a wheel. These create a current that
sweeps food into the mouth, where it is chewed up by a characteristic pharynx (called
the mastax) containing a tiny, calcified, jaw-like structure called the trophi. The cilia also
pull the animal, when unattached, through the water. Most free-living forms have pairs of
posterior toes to anchor themselves while feeding. Rotifers have bilateral symmetry and
a variety of different shapes. There is a well-developed cuticle which may be thick and
rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape;
such rotifers are respectively called loricate and illoricate.
Like many other microscopic animals, adult rotifers frequently exhibit eutely - they have
a fixed number of cells within a species, usually on the order of one thousand. Males in
the class Monogononta may be either present or absent depending on the species and
environmental conditions. In the absence of males, reproduction is by parthenogenesis
and results in clonal offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. Individuals of
some species form two distinct types of parthenogenetic eggs; one type develops into a
normal parthenogenetic female, while the other occurs in response to a changed
environment and develops into a degenerate male that lacks a digestive system, but
does have a complete male reproductive system that is used to inseminate females
thereby producing fertilized 'resting eggs'. Resting eggs develop into zygotes that are
able to survive extreme environmental conditions such as may occur during winter or
when the pond dries up. These eggs resume development and produce a new female
generation when conditions improve again. The life span of monogonont females varies
from a couple of days to about three weeks.
Bdelloid rotifers are unable to produce resting eggs, but many can survive prolonged
periods of adverse conditions after desiccation. This facility is termed anhydrobiosis, and
organisms with these capabilities are termed anhydrobionts. Under drought conditions,
bdelloid rotifers contract into an inert form and lose almost all body water; when
rehydrated, however, they resume activity within a few hours. Bdelloids can survive the
dry state for prolonged periods, with the longest well-documented dormancy being nine
years. While in other anhydrobionts, such as the brine shrimp, this desiccation tolerance
is thought to be linked to the production of trehalose, a non-reducing disaccharide
(sugar), bdelloids apparently lack the ability to synthesize trehalose. Bdelloid rotifer
genomes contain two or more divergent copies of each gene. Four copies of hsp82 are,
for example, found. Each is different and found on a different chromosome, excluding
the possibility of homozygous sexual reproduction.
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Waterborne Diseases
Name
Viral
gastroenteritis
Causative organism
Rotavirus (mostly in young
children)
Source of organism
Human feces
Disease
Diarrhea
or vomiting
Norwalk Agent
Diarrhea and
vomiting
Salmonellosis
Salmonella (bacterium)
Gastroenteritis
Escherichia coli
Human feces
Symptoms vary
with type caused
Typhoid
Shigellosis
Shigella (bacterium)
Human feces
Inflamed intestine,
enlarged spleen,
high temperaturesometimes fatal
Diarrhea
Cholera
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis A virus
Amebiasis
Entamoeba histolytica
(protozoan)
Human feces
Giardiasis
Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidium parvum
Notes:
*1 http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/gastro/norovirus.htm
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5009a1.htm
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Diarrhea or
vomiting
Vomiting, severe
diarrhea, rapid
dehydration,
mineral loss-high
mortality
Yellowed skin,
enlarged liver,
fever, vomiting,
weight loss,
abdominal painlow mortality, lasts
up to four months
Mild diarrhea,
dysentery, extra
intestinal infection
Diarrhea,
cramps, nausea,
and general
weakness lasts
one week to
months
Diarrhea, stomach
pain lasts
(protozoan) days
to weeks
Bacteria Types
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Bacteria Section
Peritrichous Bacteria
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Shigella dysenteriae
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Type
Characteristics
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environment
Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; include Bdellovibrio, predatory
on other bacteria
Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, mostly anaerobic; common in moist
environments, from mammalian gums to coastal mudflats; complex
internal structures convey rapid movement; include
Treponemapallidum, cause of syphilis
Spirillum
Spirochete
Sulfate- and
Sulfurreducing
Sulfur- and
iron-oxidizing
Vibrio
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Salmonella
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When the cells are grown for a prolonged time at a range of 2528C, some strains
produce a biofilm, which is a matrix of complex carbohydrates, cellulose and proteins.
The ability to produce biofilm (a.k.a. "rugose", "lacy", or "wrinkled") can be an indicator of
dimorphism, which is the ability of a single genome to produce multiple phenotypes in
response to environmental conditions. Salmonellae usually do not ferment lactose; most
of them produce hydrogen sulfide which, in media containing ferric ammonium citrate,
reacts to form a black spot in the centre of the creamy colonies.
Classification
Salmonella taxonomy is complicated. As of December 7, 2005, there are two species
within the genus: S. bongori
(previously subspecies V) and
S. enterica (formerly called
S. choleraesuis), which is divided
into six subspecies:
* Ienterica
* IIsalamae
* IIIaarizonae
* IIIbdiarizonae
* IVhoutenae
* Vobsolete (now designated
S. bongori)
* VIindica
There are also numerous (over
2500) serovars within both species,
which are found in a disparate
variety of environments and which
are associated with many different
diseases. The vast majority of
human isolates (>99.5%) are
subspecies S. enterica. For the
sake of simplicity, the CDC
recommends that Salmonella
species be referred to only by their
genus and serovar, e.g.
Salmonella Typhi instead of the
more technically correct
designation, Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi.
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*Total coliform (TC) includes bacteria from cold-blooded animals and various soil
organisms. According to recent literature, total coliform counts are normally about 10
times higher than fecal coliform (FC) counts.
Indicator Connection Varies
General coliforms, E. Coli, and Enterococcus bacteria are the "indicator" organisms
generally measured to assess microbiological quality of water. However, these aren't
generally what get people sick. Other bacteria, viruses, and parasites are what we are
actually worried about.
Because it is so much more expensive and tedious to do so, actual pathogens are
virtually never tested for. Over the course of a professional lifetime pouring over indicator
tests, in a context where all standards are based on indicators, water workers tend to
forget that the indicators are not the things we actually care about.
What are these indicators? More information in the Laboratory section.
General coliforms indicate that the water has come in contact with plant or
animal life. General coliforms are universally present, including in pristine spring
water. They are of little concern at low levels, except to indicate the effectiveness
of disinfection. Chlorinated water and water from perfectly sealed tube wells is
the only water I've tested which had zero general coliforms. At very high levels
they indicate there is what amounts to a lot of compost in the water, which could
easily include pathogens (Ten thousand general coliform bacteria will get you a
beach closure, compared to two or four hundred fecal coliforms, or fifty
enterococcus).
Fecal coliforms, particularly E. coli, indicate that there are mammal or bird feces
in the water.
Enterococcus bacteria also indicate that there are feces from warm blooded
animals in the water. Enterococcus are a type of fecal streptococci. They are
another valuable indicator for determining the amount of fecal contamination of
water.
According to studies conducted by the EPA, enterococci have a greater
correlation with swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness in both marine and
fresh waters than other bacterial indicator organisms, and are less likely to "die
off" in saltwater.
The more closely related the animal, the more likely pathogens excreted with their feces
can infect us. Human feces are the biggest concern, because anything which infects one
human could infect another. There isn't currently a quantitative method for measuring
specifically human fecal bacteria (expensive genetic studies can give a
presence/absence result). Ingesting a human stranger's feces via contaminated water
supply is a classic means for infections to spread rapidly. The more pathogens an
individual carries, the more hazardous their feces. Ingesting feces from someone who is
not carrying any pathogens may gross you out, but it can't infect you. Infection rates are
around 5% in the US, and approach 100% in areas with poor hygiene and contaminated
water supplies. Keep in the back of your mind that the ratio of indicators to actual
pathogens is not fixed. It will always be different, sometimes very different. Whenever
you are trying to form a mental map of reality based on water tests, you should include in
the application of your water intuition an adjustment factor for your best guess of the
ratio between indicators and actual pathogens.
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Plates can be stored in a dated box with expiration date and discarded if not used. No
denatured alcohol should be used. Everclear or 95% proof alcohol or absolute methyl
may be used for sterilizing forceps by flame.
Procedure:
Counters are alcohol wiped.
Bench sheets are filled out.
Samples are removed from refrigeration.
Sterile wrapped utensils are placed on counters.
Filtration units are placed onto sterile membrane filters by aseptic technique using sterile
forceps.
Sterile petri dishes are labeled.
The samples closures are clipped.
The sample is shaken 25 times 1 foot in length within 7 seconds.
100 mL is filtered and rinsed with sterile distilled water 3 times.
The membrane filter is aseptically removed from filter holder.
A sterile padded petri dish is used and the membrane filter is rolled onto the pad making
sure no air bubbles form.
The sterile labeled lid is placed on the petri dish.
2 blanks and a known is run with each series of samples.
The samples are placed in the 35oC + .5oC incubator stacked no higher than 3 for 22
24 hours (Humidity can be maintained by saturated paper towels placed under
containers holding petri dishes.)
After 22- 24 hours view the petri dishes under a 10 15 power magnification with cool
white fluorescent light.
Count all colonies that appear pink to dark red with a metallic surface sheen the sheen
may vary in size from a pin head to complete coverage.
Report as Total Coliform per 100 mL.
If no colonies are present report as <1 coliform/100mL.
Anything greater than 1 is over the limit for drinking water for 2 samples taken 24 hours
apart. Further investigation may be necessary follow Standard Methods accordingly.
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Positive Tests
If you draw water from a private well, you can contact your state health department to obtain
information on how to have your well tested for total coliforms, and E. coli contamination. If
your well tests positive for E. coli, there are several steps that you should take: (1) begin
boiling all water intended for consumption, (2) disinfect the well according to procedures
recommended by your local health department, and (3) monitor your water quality to make
certain that the problem does not recur. If the contamination is a recurring problem, you
should investigate the feasibility of drilling a new well or install a point-of-entry disinfection unit,
which can use chlorine, ultraviolet light, or ozone.
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Property owners have been sued for the spread of Legionella, resulting in expensive
settlements. Regular monitoring with a battery of DFA monoclonal antibodies for several
serogroups and species of Legionella morphologically intact bacteria provides a means for
exercising 'reasonable care' to deter potential litigation.
Currently, there are no United States government regulations concerning permissible numbers
of legionella in water systems and there are no federal or state certification programs for
laboratories that perform legionella testing of environmental samples.
Epifluorescence Microscopy DFA Method
The epifluorescence microscopy DFA method that most labs use was published in the British
Journal, Water Research 19:839-848, 1985 "Disinfection of circulating water systems by
ultraviolet light and halogenation", R. Gilpin, et al. so we can count viable-but-nonculturable
(VBNC) legionella.
Most labs will provide a quantitative epifluorescence microscopic analysis of your cooling
tower and potable water samples for 14 serogroups of Legionella pneumophila and 15 other
Legionella species (listed below).
Legionella anisa
Legionella dumoffi
Legionella gormanii
Legionella jordanis
Legionella maceachernii
Legionella oakridgensis
Legionella pneumophila sg 1-14
Legionella santicrucis
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Bacteriophage
A bacteriophage (from 'bacteria' and Greek phagein, 'to eat') is any one of a number of viruses
that infect bacteria. The term is commonly used in its shortened form, phage.
Typically, bacteriophages consist of an outer protein hull enclosing genetic material. The
genetic material can be ssRNA (single stranded RNA), dsRNA, ssDNA, or dsDNA between 5
and 500 kilo base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are
much smaller than the bacteria they destroy - usually between 20 and 200 nm in size.
Phages are estimated to be the most widely distributed and diverse entities in the biosphere.
Phages are ubiquitous and can be found in all reservoirs populated by bacterial hosts, such as
soil or the intestine of animals. One of the densest natural sources for phages and other
viruses is sea water, where up to 9108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats
at the surface, and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages.
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Release of Virions
Phages may be released via cell lysis or by host cell secretion. In the case of the T4 phage, in
just over twenty minutes after injection upwards of three hundred phages will be released via
lysis within a certain timescale. This is achieved by an enzyme called endolysin which attacks
and breaks down the peptidoglycan. In contrast, "lysogenic" phages do not kill the host but
rather become long-term parasites and make the host cell continually secrete more new virus
particles. The new virions bud off the plasma membrane, taking a portion of it with them to
become enveloped viruses possessing a viral envelope. All released virions are capable of
infecting a new bacterium.
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Viruses
Viruses are acellular microorganisms. They are made up of only genetic material and a protein
coat. Viruses depend on the energy and metabolic machinery of the host cell to reproduce. A
virus is an infectious agent found in virtually all life forms, including humans, animals, plants,
fungi, and bacteria. Viruses consist of genetic materialeither deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or
ribonucleic acid (RNA)surrounded by a protective coating of protein, called a capsid, with or
without an outer lipid envelope. Viruses are between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria
and hence are too small to be seen by light microscopy.
Viruses vary in size from the largest poxviruses of about 450 nanometers (about 0.000014 in)
in length to the smallest polioviruses of about 30 nanometers (about 0.000001 in). Viruses are
not considered free-living, since they cannot reproduce outside of a living cell; they have
evolved to transmit their genetic information from one cell to another for the purpose of
replication. Viruses often damage or kill the cells that they infect, causing disease in infected
organisms. A few viruses stimulate cells to grow uncontrollably and produce cancers. Although
many infectious diseases, such as the common cold, are caused by viruses, there are no
cures for these illnesses. The difficulty in developing antiviral therapies stems from the large
number of variant viruses that can cause the same disease, as well as the inability of drugs to
disable a virus without disabling healthy cells. However, the development of antiviral agents is
a major focus of current research, and the study of viruses has led to many discoveries
important to human health.
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Virions
Individual viruses, or virus particles, also called virions, contain genetic material, or genomes,
in one of several forms. Unlike cellular organisms, in which the genes always are made up of
DNA, viral genes may consist of either DNA or RNA. Like cell DNA, almost all viral DNA is
double-stranded, and it can have either a circular or a linear arrangement. Almost all viral RNA
is single-stranded; it is usually linear, and it may be either segmented (with different genes on
different RNA molecules) or non-segmented (with all genes on a single piece of RNA).
Capsids
The viral protective shell, or capsid, can be either helical (spiral-shaped) or icosahedral
(having 20 triangular sides). Capsids are composed of repeating units of one or a few different
proteins. These units are called protomers or capsomers. The proteins that make up the virus
particle are called structural proteins. Viruses also carry genes for making proteins that are
never incorporated into the virus particle and are found only in infected cells. These viral
proteins are called nonstructural proteins; they include factors required for the replication of
the viral genome and the production of the virus particle.
Capsids and the genetic material (DNA or RNA) they contain are together referred to as
nucleocapsids. Some virus particles consist only of nucleocapsids, while others contain
additional structures.
Some icosahedral and helical animal viruses are enclosed in a lipid envelope acquired when
the virus buds through host-cell membranes. Inserted into this envelope are glycoproteins that
the viral genome directs the cell to make; these molecules bind virus particles to susceptible
host cells.
Bacteriophages
The most elaborate viruses are the bacteriophages, which use bacteria as their hosts. Some
bacteriophages resemble an insect with an icosahedral head attached to a tubular sheath.
From the base of the sheath extend several long tail fibers that help the virus attach to the
bacterium and inject its DNA to be replicated, direct capsid production, and virus particle
assembly inside the cell.
Viroids and Prions
Viroids and prions are smaller than viruses, but they are similarly associated with disease.
Viroids are plant pathogens that consist only of a circular, independently replicating RNA
molecule. The single-stranded RNA circle collapses on itself to form a rod-like structure. The
only known mammalian pathogen that resembles plant viroids is the deltavirus (hepatitis D),
which requires hepatitis B virus proteins to package its RNA into virus particles. Co-infection
with hepatitis B and D can produce more severe disease than can infection with hepatitis B
alone. Prions are mutated forms of a normal protein found on the surface of certain animal
cells.
Virus Classification
Viruses are classified according to their type of genetic material, their strategy of replication,
and their structure. The International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses (ICNV),
established in 1966, devised a scheme to group viruses into families, subfamilies, genera, and
species. The ICNV report published in 1995 assigned more than 4000 viruses into 71 virus
families. Hundreds of other viruses remain unclassified because of the lack of sufficient
information.
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Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a
phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria"
comes from the color of the bacteria (Greek: kyans = blue). They are a significant component
of the marine nitrogen cycle and an important primary producer in many areas of the ocean,
but are also found on land.
Cyanobacteria include unicellular and colonial species. Colonies may form filaments, sheets or
even hollow balls. Some filamentous colonies show the ability to differentiate into several
different cell types: vegetative cells, the normal, photosynthetic cells that are formed under
favorable growing conditions; akinetes, the climate-resistant spores that may form when
environmental conditions become harsh; and thick-walled heterocysts, which contain the
enzyme nitrogenase, vital for nitrogen fixation. Heterocysts may also form under the
appropriate environmental conditions (anoxic) wherever nitrogen is necessary. Heterocystforming species are specialized for nitrogen fixation and are able to fix nitrogen gas, which
cannot be used by plants, into ammonia (NH3), nitrites (NO2) or nitrates (NO3), which can be
absorbed by plants and converted to protein and nucleic acids.
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The rice paddies of Asia, which produce about 75% of the world's rice, could not do so were it
not for healthy populations of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria in the rice paddy fertilizer too.
Many cyanobacteria also form motile filaments, called hormogonia, that travel away from the
main biomass to bud and form new colonies elsewhere. The cells in a hormogonium are often
thinner than in the vegetative state, and the cells on either end of the motile chain may be
tapered. In order to break away from the parent colony, a hormogonium often must tear apart
a weaker cell in a filament, called a necridium.
Each individual cell of a cyanobacterium typically has a thick, gelatinous cell wall. They differ
from other gram-negative bacteria in that the quorum sensing molecules autoinducer-2[4] and
acyl-homoserine lactones are absent. They lack flagella, but hormogonia and some unicellular
species may move about by gliding along surfaces. In water columns some cyanobacteria float
by forming gas vesicles, like in archaea.
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Euglena
Euglenas are common protists, of the class Euglenoidea of the phylum Euglenophyta.
Currently, over 1000 species of Euglena have been described. Marin et al. (2003) revised the
genus so, and including several species without chloroplasts, formerly classified as Astasia
and Khawkinea. Euglena sometimes can be considered to have both plant and animal
features.
Euglena gracilis has a long hair-like thing that stretches from its body. You need a very
powerful microscope to see it. This is called a flagellum, and the euglena uses it to swim. It
also has a red eyespot. Euglena gracilis uses its eyespot to locate light. Without light, it cannot
use its chloroplasts to make itself food. In order for Euglena gracilis to make more Euglena
gracilis it will complete a process called mitosis. That means it can split itself in half and
become two Euglena gracilis. It can only do this if it is well-fed and if the temperature is right.
Euglena gracilis can reproduce better in warm temperatures.
Euglena gracilis, and other euglena, are harmless to people, but they are often signs that
water is polluted, since they do well where there is a lot of green algae to eat. Green algae
does well where there is a lot of nitrogen (comes from waste) in the water. If you don't clean
your swimming pool, leaves and twigs get in the water and turn into waste. Then algae and
euglena show up.
KINGDOM: Protist, PHYLUM: Euglenophyta, CLASS: Euglenophyceae, ORDER:
Euglenales, FAMILY: Euglenidae, GENUS: Euglena, SPECIES: Euglena gracilis
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Peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids that
forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of eubacteria. The sugar component
consists of alternating residues of -(1,4) linked N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic
acid residues. Attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid is a peptide chain of three to five amino
acids. The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide chain of another strand forming the
3D mesh-like layer.
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Hepatitis
There are five types of hepatitis -- A through E -- all of which cause inflammation of the liver.
Type D affects only those who also have hepatitis B, and hepatitis E is extremely rare in the
United States.
Type A hepatitis is contracted through anal-oral contact, by coming in contact with the
feces of someone with hepatitis A, or by eating or drinking hepatitis A contaminated
food or water.
Type B hepatitis can be contracted from infected blood, seminal fluid, vaginal
secretions, or contaminated drug needles, including tattoo or body-piercing equipment.
It can also be spread from a mother to her newborn.
Type C hepatitis is not easily spread through sex. You're more likely to get it through
contact with infected blood, contaminated razors, needles, tattoo and body-piercing
equipment, or manicure or pedicure tools that haven't been properly sanitized, and a
mother can pass it to her baby during delivery.
Type D hepatitis can be passed through contact with infected blood, contaminated
needles, or by sexual contact with an HIV-infected person.
Type E hepatitis is most likely to be transmitted in feces, through oral contact, or in
water that's been contaminated.
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Al(OH)3
AL2(SO4)3 . 14(H2O)
Alum, liquid
Ammonia
NH3
Ammonium
NH4
Bentonitic clay
Bentonite
Ca(HCO3)2
Calcium bicarbonate
Calcium carbonate
Limestone
CaCO3
Calcium Hypochlorite
HTH
Ca(OCl)2 . 4H2O
Calcium hydroxide
Slaked Lime
Ca(OH)2
Calcium oxide
Calcium sulfate
Unslaked (Quicklime)
Gypsum
CaO
CaSO4
Carbon
Carbon dioxide
Activated Carbon
C
CO2
Calcium chloride
CaCl2
Carbonic acid
H2CO3
Chlorine gas
Cl2
Chlorine Dioxide
ClO2
Copper sulfate
CuSO4 . 5H2O
Blue vitriol
Dichloramine
NHCl2
Ferric chloride
Iron chloride
FeCl3
Ferric hydroxide
Fe(OH)3
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3
Iron sulfate
Fe(HCO3)2
Ferrous bicarbonate
Ferrous hydroxide
Fe(OH)3
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4.7H20
Copperas
Hydrofluorsilicic acid
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrogen sulfide
H2SiF6
Muriatic acid
HCl
H2S
Hypochlorus acid
Magnesium bicarbonate
HOCL
Mg(HCO3)2
Magnesium carbonate
MgCO3
Magnesium chloride
MgCl2
Magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2
Magnesium dioxide
MgO2
Manganous bicarbonate
Mn(HCO3)2
Manganous sulfate
MnSO4
Monochloramine
NH2Cl
Potassium bicarbonate
KHCO3
Potassium permanganate
KMnO4
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Chemical Name
Common Name
Chemical Formula
Sodium carbonate
Soda ash
Na2CO3
Sodium chloride
Sodium chlorite
Salt
NaCl
NaClO2
Sodium fluoride
Sodium fluorsilicate
NaF
Na2SiF6
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium Metaphosphate
Lye
Hexametaphosphate
NaOH
NaOCl
NaPO3
Sodium phosphate
Disodium phosphate
Na3PO4
Sodium sulfate
Na2SO4
Sulfuric acid
H2SO4
Fluoride. Many communities add fluoride to their drinking water to promote dental health.
Each community makes its own decision about whether or not to add fluoride. The EPA has
set an enforceable drinking water standard for fluoride of 4 mg/L (some people who drink
water containing fluoride in excess of this level over many years could develop bone disease,
including pain and tenderness of the bones). The EPA has also set a secondary fluoride
standard of 2 mg/L to protect against dental fluorosis.
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LENGTH
12 Inches = 1 Foot
3 Feet = 1 Yard
5280 Feet = 1 Mile
AREA
144 Square Inches = 1 Square Foot
43,560 Square Feet =1 Acre
VOLUME
1000 Milliliters = 1 Liter
3.785 Liters = 1 Gallon
231 Cubic Inches = 1 Gallon
7.48 Gallons = 1 Cubic Foot of water
62.38 Pounds = 1 Cubic Foot of water
Dimensions
SQUARE:
CIRCLE:
CYLINDER: Volume (Cu. ft) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft) X Depth (ft)
PIPE VOLUME: .785 X Diameter 2 X Length = ? To obtain gallons multiply by 7.48
SPHERE:
(3.14) (Diameter)3
(6)
General Conversions
Flowrate
Multiply
>
to get
<
Divide
cc/min
mL/min
cfm (ft3/min)
28.31
L/min
1.699
m3/hr
cfh (ft3/hr)
472
mL/min
0.125
GPM
GPH
63.1
mL/min
GPH
0.134
cfh
GPM
0.227
m3/hr
GPM
3.785
L/min
oz/min
29.57
mL/min
to get
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F = (0C X 9/5) + 32
C = (0F - 32) X 5/9
TEMPERATURE:
9/5 =1.8
5/9 = .555
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q = [ 0.085] [(d12L1)/(d1L1)]
q
V = Velocity (ft./sec.)
= Pipe Roughness
R = Hydraulic Radius (ft)
S= Slope (ft/ft)
HYDRAULIC RADIUS (ft) = Flow Area (ft. 2)
Wetted Perimeter (ft.)
WIDTH OF TRENCH (ft) = Base (ft) + (2 Sides) X Depth (ft 2)
Slope
If you are poor at math, dont be embarrassed come to a TLC review class.
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REFERENCES
Benenson, Abram S., editor. 1990. Control of Communicable Diseases in Man. 15th ed.
Baltimore: Victor Graphics, Inc.
Bick, H. 1972. Ciliated protozoa. An illustrated guide to the species used as biological
indicators in freshwater biology. World Health Organization, Geneva. 198 pp.
Born, Stephen M., Douglas A. Yanggen, and Alexander Zaporozec. A Guide to
Groundwater Quality Planning and Management for Local Governments. Wisconsin
Geological and Natural History Survey, Madison, WI, 1987.
Cairns, J., and J.A. Ruthven. 1972. A test of the cosmopolitan distribution of fresh-water
protozoans. Hydrobiologia 39:405-427.
Cairns, J., and W.H. Yongue. 1977. Factors affecting the number of species of freshwater
protozoan communities. Pages 257-303 in J. Cairns, ed. Aquatic microbial communities.
Garland, New York.
Cairns, J., G.R. Lanza, and B.C. Parker. 1972. Pollution related structural and functional
changes in aquatic communities with emphasis on freshwater algae and protozoa.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 124:79-127.
Concern, Inc. Groundwater: A Community Action Guide. Washington, D.C., 1989.
Cross, Brad L and Jack Schulze. City of Hurst (A Public Water Supply Protection Strategy).
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Curds, C.R. 1992. Protozoa and the water industry. Cambridge University Press, MA. 122
pp.
Curtis, Christopher and Teri Anderson. A Guidebook for Organizing a Community Collection
Event: Household Hazardous Waste. Pioneer Valley Planning Commission and Western
Massachusetts Coalition for Safe Waste Management, West Springfield, MA, 1984.
Curtis, Christopher, Christopher Walsh, and Michael Przybyla. The Road Salt Management
Handbook: Introducing a Reliable Strategy to Safeguard People & Water Resources.
Pioneer Valley Planning Commission, West Springfield, MA, 1986.
Fenchel, T. 1974. Intrinsic rate increase: the relationship with body size. Oecologia 14:317326.
Fenchel, T., T. Perry, and A. Thane. 1977. Anaerobiosis and symbiosis with bacteria in
free-living ciliates. Journal of Protozoology 24:154-163.
Foissner, W. 1987. Soil protozoa: fundamental problems, ecological significance,
adaptations in ciliates and testaceans, bioindicators, and guide to the literature. Progress in
Protistology 2:69-212.
Foissner, W. 1988. Taxonomic and nomenclatural revision of Stdecek's list of ciliates
(Protozoa: Ciliophora) as indicators of water quality. Hydrobiologia 166:1-64.
Foster, Laurence, M.D. 1985. Waterborne Disease - Its Our Job to Prevent It. PIPELINE
newsletter, Oregon Health Division, Drinking Water Program, Portland, Oregon 1(4 ): 1-3.
Foster, Laurence, M.D. 1990. Waterborne Disease, Methods for the Investigation and
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Giese, A.C. 1973. Blepharisma. Stanford University Press, CA. 366 pp.
Gordon, Wendy. A Citizen's Handbook on Groundwater Protection. Natural Resources
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Harrison, Ellen Z. and Mary Ann Dickinson. Protecting Connecticut's Groundwater: A Guide
to Groundwater Protection for Local Officials. Connecticut Department of Environmental
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Hrezo, Margaret and Pat Nickinson. Protecting Virginia's Groundwater A Handbook for
Local Government Officials. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg,
VA, 1986.
Jaffe, Martin and Frank Dinovo. Local Groundwater Protection. American Planning
Association, Chicago, IL, 1987.
Kreier, J.P., and J.R. Baker. 1987. Parasitic protozoa. Allen and Unwin, Boston, MA. 241
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Laybourn, J., and B.J. Finlay. 1976. Respiratory energy losses related to cell weight and
temperature in ciliated protozoa. Oecologia 44:165-174.
Lee, C.C., and T. Fenchel. 1972. Studies on ciliates associated with sea ice from
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Loomis, George and Yael Calhoon. "Natural Resource Facts: Maintaining Your Septic
System." University of Rhode Island, Providence, RI, 1988.
Macozzi, Maureen. Groundwater- Protecting Wisconsin's Buried Treasure. Wisconsin
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Massachusetts Audubon Society. "Groundwater and Contamination: From the Watershed
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Massachusetts Audubon Society. "Mapping Aquifers and Recharge Areas." Groundwater
Information Flyer # 3. Lincoln, MA, 1984.
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Information Flyer # 9. Lincoln, MA, 1987.
McCann, Alyson and Thomas P Husband. "Natural Resources Facts: Household
Hazardous Waste." University of Rhode Island, Providence, RI; 1988.
Miller, David W. Groundwater Contamination: A Special Report. Geraghty & Miller, Inc.,
Syosset, NY 1982.
Montagnes, D.J.S., D.H. Lynn, J.C. Roff, and W.D. Taylor. 1988. The annual cycle of
heterotrophic planktonic ciliates in the waters surrounding the Isles of Shoals, Gulf of
Maine: an assessment of their trophic role. Marine Biology 99:21-30.
Mullikin, Elizabeth B. An Ounce of Prevention: A Ground Water Protection Handbook for
Local Officials. Vermont Departments of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering,
Health, and Agriculture, Montpelier, VT, 1984.
Murphy, Jim. "Groundwater and Your Town: What Your Town Can Do Right Now."
Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection, Hartford, CT.
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National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1986.
New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission. "Groundwater: Out of Sight
Not Out of Danger." Boston, MA, 1989.
Niederlehner, B.R., K.W. Pontasch, J.R. Pratt, and J. Cairns. 1990. Field evaluation of
predictions of environmental effects from multispecies microcosm toxicity test. Archives of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 19:62-71.
Noake, Kimberly D. Guide to Contamination Sources for Wellhead Protection. Draft.
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Quality Engineering, Boston, MA, 1988.
Office of Drinking Water. A Local Planning Process for Groundwater Protection. U.S. EPA,
Washington, D.C., 1989.
Office of Ground-Water Protection. Guidelines for Delineation of Wellhead Protection
Areas. U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C., 1987.
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We welcome you to complete the assignment in Microsoft Word. You can easily
find the assignment at www.abctlc.com. Once complete, just simply fax or e-mail
the answer key along with the registration page to us and allow two weeks for
grading. Once we grade it, we will mail a certificate of completion to you. Call us if
you need any help. If you need your certificate back within 48 hours, you may be
asked to pay a rush service fee of $50.00.
You can download the assignment in Microsoft Word from TLCs website under the
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score of 70% or better. If you need any assistance, please contact TLCs Student
Services. Once you are finished, please mail, e-mail or fax your answer sheet along
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