Surveying

Important Questions

Unit-II

Define Surveying and Leveling

Differentiate between Surveying and Leveling.
Explain fundamental Principles of Surveying.
Explain Plain and Diagonal Scale.
What is Surveying? What are object of surveying
and its application?
Differentiate between plain survey and geodetic
survey.
Examples on scales

Syllabus

Surveying and leveling, Object and uses, Primary divisions, Fundamental

principles, Classification of surveying, Plans and maps, Scales, Units of
measure.
Linear measurements: Methods, Instruments used in chaining; Chain
surveying, Ranging, Errors in chaining, Conventional symbols.
Compass surveying: Types and uses of compass, Bearings, Whole Circle
Bearings and Reduced Bearings, Computation of angles; Meridians & its
related examples; declinations and dip of needle; Chain and compass
surveying field work.
Elevation measurements:
Leveling, object and uses, terms used in
leveling, leveling instruments, methods of leveling, recording and methods
of reducing, errors in leveling & examples related to leveling, contours;
characteristics and applications.
Areas and volumes; use of a Planimeter
Modern Tools of Surveying and Mapping:
Introduction to Global Positioning System, Remote Sensing and
Geographic Information System

Surveying & Leveling

Surveying and leveling, Object and uses,
Primary divisions, Fundamental principles,
Classification of surveying, Plans and maps,
Scales, Units of measure

Surveying

Leveling

Surveying is an art of determining relative

position of point on above or below the surface
of the earth by measuring the horizontal and
vertical distances, angles and taking details of
these points and by preparing a map or plan to
suitable scale.
Thus in surveying, the measurements are taken
in the horizontal and vertical planes.

Leveling is a branch of surveying which deals

with the measurement of relative heights of
different points on above or below the surface
of the earth.
Thus in leveling, the measurements are taken
in vertical plane.

Leveling

Object of Surveying
The Object of surveying is to prepare a map or
plan to show relative positions of the objects
on the surface of the earth.
The plan or map is prepared to some suitable
scale. It shows boundaries of state and
countries too. It also includes details of
different engineering features such as
buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals etc.

Plan and Map

Uses of Surveying
Surveying may be used for the following purposes:
To prepare topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers,
forests, villages towns.
To prepare a cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields,
plots, houses and other properties.
To prepare an engineering map which shows the position of
engineering works, such as buildings, roads, railways, dams, canals,
etc.
To prepare a contour map to know the topography of the area to
find one of the best possible site for roads, railways, bridges,
reservoirs, canals, etc.
Surveying is also used to prepare military map, geological map,
archaeological map.etc.
For setting out of works and transferring details from the map on the
ground.

Topographical Map

Cadestral Map

Primary Divisions of Surveying

Contour Map
Engineering Map

Surveying is primarily divided into two types

considering the curvature of the earths
surface.
Plane Surveying
Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying

Plane Triangle

The plane surveying is that type of surveying in

which earth surface is considered as a plane and
the curvature of the earth is ignored. In such
surveying the line joining any two stations is
considered to be straight. The triangle formed by
the three points is considered as a plane triangle
and the angles of the triangle are considered as
plane angle.
Plane surveying is carried out for a small area of
less than 250 km2. It is carried out by local or
state agencies like Irrigation department, Railway
department., etc.

Geodetic Surveying
The geodetic surveying is that type of surveying
in which the curvature of the earth is taken into
account. It generally extends over larger area. The
line joining any two stations is considered as a
curved line. The triangle formed by any three
points is considered as spherical and the angles of
the triangles are considered to be spherical angles.
Geodetic surveying is carried out by survey of
India department and is carried out for a large
area exceeding 250 km2.

Geodetic Triangle

Plane surveying Vs Geodetic surveying

No.

Plane Surveying

Geodetic Surveying

The earth surface is considered as a The earth surface is considered as curved

plane surface
surface

The curvature of the earth is ignored

The line joining any two stations is The line joining any two stations is
considered to be straight line
considered as a curved line

The triangle formed by any three The triangle formed by any three points is
points is considered as a plane
considered as spherical.

The angles of the triangles are The angles of the triangles are considered
considered as plane angles
to be spherical

Carried out for a small area < 250 Carried out for a larger area > 250 km 2
km2

The curvature of the earth is not ignored

Work from whole to a part

Fundamental Principles of Surveying

Two basic principles of surveying are:
Always work from whole to a part.
To locate a new station by at least two
measurements (linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.

Always work from whole to the part

According to the first principle, the whole are is first
divided into a number of divisions by forming well
conditioned triangles.
The main survey lines are measured very accurately
with precise survey instruments. Then the remaining
sides of triangle are measured. The purpose of this
method of working is to control accumulation of errors.
During measurement, if there is any error, then it will
not effect the whole work. But if the reverse process is
followed then the minor error in measurement will be
magnified.

To locate a new station by at least two

measurements ( linear or angular) from fixed
reference points:

To locate a new station by at least two

measurements ( linear or angular) from
fixed reference points

According to the second principle the points or

stations are located by linear or angular
measurement or by both in surveying. If two
control points are established first, then a new
station can be located by two linear or two
angular measurements or by one linear and one
angular measurement. Let A and B are control
points. A new point C can be established.
Following are the methods of locating point C
from such reference points A and B.

The distance AB can be measured accurately and the relative

positions of the points can be then plotted on the sheet to some
scale.
a) Taking linear measurements from A and B for C.
b) Taking linear measurement of perpendicular from D to C.
c) Taking one linear measurement from B and one angular
measurement as angle ABC.
d) Taking two angular measurements at A and B as angle CAB
and angle ABC
e) Taking one angle at B as angle ABC and one linear
measurement from A as AC.

To locate a new station by at least two

measurements ( linear or angular) from
fixed reference points

To locate a new station by at least

two measurements ( linear or
angular) from fixed reference points

To locate a new station by at least

two measurements ( linear or
angular) from fixed reference points

Surveying Based on Instruments

Classification of Surveying
Classification based on Instruments:
Chain Survey: This is the simplest type of survey in
which only linear measurement are made with a chain
or a tape.
Compass Survey: In compass survey angles are
measured with the help of a magnetic compass.
Chain and Compass survey: In this survey linear
measurements are made with a chain or a tape and
angular measurements with a compass.
Plane Table Survey: It is graphical method of
surveying in which field works and plotting both are
done simultaneously.

Classification of Surveying
Theodolite Survey: In theodolite survey, the horizontal
angles are measured with a theodolite more precisely than
compass and the linear measurements are made with a chain
or tape.
Tachometric Survey: A special type of theodolite known
as tachometer is used to determine horizontal and vertical
distances indirectly.
Leveling Survey: This type of survey is carried out to
determine the vertical distances and relative heights of
points with the help of an instrument known as level.
Photogrammetric Survey: Photogrammetric is a science of
taking measurements with the help of photographs taken by
aerial camera from air craft.
EDM Survey: In this type of survey, all measurements are
made with the help of EDM.

Classification of Surveying

Classification based on methods

Triangulation: Triangulation is a basic method of
surveying. When the area to be surveyed is large,
triangulation is adopted. The entire area is divided
into a network of triangles.
Traversing: A traverse is a circuit of survey lines.
It may ne open or closed. When the linear
measurements are done with a chain and tape and
the directions or horizontal angles are measured
with a compass or a theodolite respectively, the
survey is called traversing.

Classification by methods

Triangulation

Traversing

Classification based on Purposes

Geological Survey: In this both surface and subsurface
surveying are conducted to locate different minerals
and rocks. In addition, geological features of the terrain
such as folds and faults are located.
Mine Surveying: Mine surveys include both surface
and underground surveys. It is conducted for the
exploration of mineral deposits and to guide tunneling
and other operations associated with mining.
Archeological Survey: It is conducted to locate relics
of antiquity, civilization, kingdoms, forts, temples, etc.
Military Survey: It has a very important and critical
application in the military. Aerial surveys are conducted
for this purpose. It is conducted to locate strategic
positions for the purpose of army operations.

Classification based on Purposes

Classification Based on Nature of

Fields
Land Survey: Land survey is done on land to prepare plan
and maps of a given area. Topographical, city, cadastral
survey are some of the examples of land surveying.
Hydrographic survey: This surveys are conducted on or
near the body of water such as lake, river, coastal area This
survey consists of locating shorelines of water bodies.
Astronomic Survey: The surveys are conducted for the
determination of latitudes, longitudes, azimuths, local time,
etc. for various places on the earth by observing heavenly
bodies.
Aerial Survey: An aerial survey is conducted from
aircrafts, aerial cameras take photographs of the surface of
the earth in overlapping strips of land. This is also known as
photography survey.

Classification based on fields

Plans and Maps

One of the basic objective of surveying is to prepare
plans and maps.
Plan: A plan is graphical representation to some scale,
of the features on, near, or below the surface of the
earth as projected on a horizontal plane. The horizontal
plane is represented by the plane of the drawing sheet
on which the plan is drawn to some scale.
However, the surface of the earth is curved it cannot be
truly represented on a plan without distortion.
A land is drawn on a relatively large scale.

Plans and Maps

Plan and Map

Map: If the scale of the graphical projection on a

horizontal plane is small, the plan is called a map.
Thus graphical representation is called a plan if
the scale is large while it is called a map if the
scale is small.
On a plan, generally, only horizontal distance and
directions or angles are shown. On a
topographical map, however the vertical distances
are also represented by contour lines.

SCALES

Scale
It is basic requirement for the preparation of
plans or maps. Scale is used to represent large
distance on paper. The ratio by which the
actual length of the object is reduced or
increased in the drawing is known as the
Scale
For ex, if 1 cm on a map represents a distance
of 10 m on the ground the scale of the map is
said to be 1 cm= 10 m.

DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OBJECTS MUST BE REDUCED TO ACCOMMODATE

ON STANDARD SIZE DRAWING SHEET.THIS REDUCTION CREATES A SCALE
OF THAT REDUCTION RATIO, WHICH IS GENERALLY A FRACTION..
SUCH A SCALE IS CALLED REDUCING SCALE
AND
THAT RATIO IS CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR.
SIMILARLY IN CASE OF TINY OBJECTS DIMENSIONS MUST BE INCREASED
FOR ABOVE PURPOSE. HENCE THIS SCALE IS CALLED ENLARGING SCALE.
HERE THE RATIO CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR IS MORE THAN UNITY.
USE FOLLOWING FORMULAS FOR THE CALCULATIONS IN THIS TOPIC.

REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =

=
=

DIMENSION OF DRAWING
DIMENSION OF OBJECT
LENGTH OF DRAWING
ACTUAL LENGTH
AREA OF DRAWING
V ACTUAL AREA

=3

VOLUME AS PER DRWG.

V ACTUAL VOLUME

LENGTH OF SCALE = R.F.

X MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.

FOR FULL SIZE SCALE

R.F.=1 OR ( 1:1 )
MEANS DRAWING
& OBJECT ARE OF
SAME SIZE.
Other RFs are described
as
1:10,
1:100,
1:1000, 1:1,00,000

Representative Factor (RF)

Representative Factor (RF)

The ratio of the distance on the drawing to the

corresponding actual length of the object on
the ground is known as the representative
fraction. i.e.
RF=
Distance of Object on Drawing
Corresponding actual distance on ground

Example

Example

Example

Graphical Representation of Scale

Graphical representation of scale on maps has
the advantage that if the paper shrinks, the
scale will also shrinks accordingly and the
distance representations will not be disturbed.

PLAIN SCALE:- This type of scale represents two units or a unit and its sub-division.

Types of Scale

PROBLEM NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m.

Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.
CONSTRUCTION:- DIMENSION OF DRAWING
a) Calculate R.F.=

PLAIN SCALE

DIMENSION OF OBJECT

Plain scale
Diagonal Scale
Vernier Scale
Plain Scale: The Plain Scale is the most
commonly used in maps, the scale is used to
represent two successive units, such as tenths,
,metres, decimetres, etc.

R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100

Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 600 cm
= 6 cms
b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d) Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions
on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale.
e) After construction of scale mention its RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.

4 M 6 DM

10
DECIMETERS

R.F. = 1/100
PLANESCALESHOWINGMETERSANDDECIMETERS.

5 METERS

Plain Scale

Diagonal Scale
Using a diagonal scale, one can measure three
dimensions such as
units, tenths, and
hundredths,
metres,
decimeter
and
centimeters and so on. The diagonal scale is
made on the principle of similar triangle.

We have seen that the plain scales give only two dimensions, such as a
unit and its subunit or its fraction.

Diagonal Scale

DIAGONAL
SCALE

The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions

that is a unit, a subunit and a subdivision of a subunit.
The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.
Let the XY in figure be a subunit.
From Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable height.
Join XZ. Divide YZ in to 10 equal parts.
Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions
and number them as shown.
From geometry we know that similar triangles have
their like sides proportional.

Y
10
9
8
7
6
5

Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7 7Z,

we have 7Z / YZ = 77 / XY (each part being one unit)
Means 7 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY
:.
Similarly
1 1 = 0.1 XY
2 2 = 0.2 XY
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles,
which are parallel to divided lines, become progressively
shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

4
3
2
1
Z

PROBLEM NO. : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find its R.F.
Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km.
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km

Diagonal Scale

SOLUTION STEPS:

DIAGONAL
SCALE

RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000

Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 105 = 15 cm

Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each will represent 100 km.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will represent 10 km.Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division of horizontal scale
with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and
complete diagonal scale.
569 km
459 km
336 km

KM

222 km

KM

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

100

50

100

200

300

R.F. = 1 / 40,00,000
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS.

Vernier Scale

In 1631, Pierre Vernier invented a device for the purpose of measuring

fraction parts of a graduated scale. I consists of two approximating scales, one
of them is fixed and is called the primary scale, the other is movable and is
called the vernier.
Direct Vernier Scale: A direct vernier scale is the one which extends in the
same direction as that of the main scale and in which the smallest division on
the mail scale, It is so constructed that n divisions of the main scale are equal
in length of n+ 1 division of the vernier.
If ,
p= value of the smallest division of the primary scale.
v= value of the smallest division of the vernier scale.
n= number of divisions of the primary scale of a specified length.
n+1= number of division of the vernier scale of the same length.
Least Coun t= p
n+1

Vernier Scale

400

500 KM

Vernier Scales:

Example:
Draw a vernier scale of RF = 1 / 25 to read centimeters upto
4 meters and on it, show lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m

These scales, like diagonal scales , are used to read to a very small unit with great accuracy.
It consists of two parts a primary scale and a vernier. The primary scale is a plain scale fully
divided into minor divisions.
As it would be difficult to sub-divide the minor divisions in ordinary way, it is done with the help of
the vernier.
The graduations on vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.
Figure to the right shows a part of a plain scale in
which length A-O represents 10 cm. If we divide A-O
into ten equal parts, each will be of 1 cm. Now it would
not be easy to divide each of these parts into ten equal
divisions to get measurements in millimeters.

B 9.9

7.7

5.5

3.3

1.1 0

Vernier Scale

CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier)
Take 11 parts of Dm length and divide it in 10 equal parts.
Each will show 0.11 m or 1.1 dm or 11 cm and construct a rectangle
Covering these parts of vernier.

SOLUTION:
Length of scale = RF X max. Distance
= 1 / 25 X 4 X 100
= 16 cm
CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale)
Draw a line 16 cm long.
Divide it in 4 equal parts.
( each will represent meter )
Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts.
( each will represent decimeter )
Name those properly.

TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:

(1) For 2.39 m : Subtract 0.99 from 2.39 i.e. 2.39 - .99 = 1.4 m
The distance between 0.99 ( left of Zero) and 1.4 (right of Zero) is 2.39 m
(2) For 0.91 m : Subtract 0.11 from 0.91 i.e. 0.91 0.11 =0.80 m
The distance between 0.11 and 0.80 (both left side of Zero) is 0.91 m

A 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
2.39 m

Now if we take a length BO equal to 10 + 1 = 11 such equal

parts, thus representing 11 cm, and divide it into ten equal
divisions, each of these divisions will represent 11 / 10 1.1
cm.
The difference between one part of AO and one division of
BO will be equal 1.1 1.0 = 0.1 cm or 1 mm.
This difference is called Least Count of the scale.
Minimum this distance can be measured by this scale.
The upper scale BO is the vernier. The combination of plain
scale and the vernier is vernier scale.

Choice of Scale of a Map

Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance drawn on the map to the
corresponding distance on the ground. As the areas involved are
rather large, it is essential to select a suitable scale for representing
the area on a map. Selection of scale depends upon the purpose, size
and the required precision of plotting. The following general rules
are followed:
Choose a scale large enough so that in plotting or in scaling distance
from the finished map, it will not be necessary to read the scale
closer than 0.25 mm.
Choose as small a scale as is consistent with a clear delineation of
the smallest details to be plotted.
Scales are generally classified as large, medium and small as under:
Large scale: 1 cm= 10 m or less than 10 m
Medium Scale: 1cm = 10 m to 100 m
Small Scale: 1 cm= 100 or more than 100m

0.91 m
1.1 .99 .77 .55

.33 .11 0

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 0
METERS

1.4

3 METERS

Common Scales for Plan or Map

Suggested Scales for Different Types

of Survey
Scale
Serial No
Purpose of Survey
R.F.
1.

Land Survey

1 cm = 5 m to 50 m

1:500 to 1:5000

2.

Topographical Survey

1 cm = 0.25 km to
2.5 km

1:25,000 to
1:250,000

3.

Building Site

1 cm = 10 m

1:1000

4.

Route Survey

1 cm = 100 m

1:10,000

5.

Town Planning

1 cm = 100 m

1:10,000

Thanks

References
NPTEL
Internet Websites
Elements of Civil Engineering:
-Prof. R.B.Khasiya, Ms Rena Shukla
Mahajan Publication