Geodetic Surveying: The type of surveying that takes into account the true shape of the earth.

These
surveys are of high precision and extend over large areas.

Plane Surveying: The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane,
or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to horizontal distances and directions.

Land Surveying, then, is the PROFESSION of creating and retracing on the site and documenting land
divisions and boundaries. It is both an art and a science: an art due to the experience and creative nature
involved; and a science due to the mathematical and scientific methods employed.

STEM (science technology, engineering and math)

Our world is based on measurement and mathematics, and surveying brings them to life, the data gathered
from surveying helps establish planning and design and provides data that can be used to determine the
best course of action. 

Horizontal angles are used to determine bearings and directions in control surveys, for locating detail
when mapping and for setting out all types of structure. Vertical angles are used when determining the
heights of points and to calculate slope corrections.

Theodolites are precision instruments used for measuring angles; electronic theodolites read and display
angles automatically. Optical theodolites need to be read manually. Both are usually classified according
to the smallest reading that the instrument displays, this varies from 1’ to 0.1’. Total stations are precision
instruments that can measure angles and distances.   These are classified according to their angle and
distance measuring capability.

The figure below shows two points A and B and a theodolites or total station T set up on a tripod above a
ground point G.  Point A is higher than the instrument and is above the horizontal plane through T,
whereas B is lower and below the horizontal plane.  At T, the instrument is mounted a vertical distance h
above G on its tripod .

 
 The horizontal angle at T between A and B is not the angle in the sloping plane containing A, T and B,
but the angle θ on the horizontal plane through T between
the vertical planes containing the lines of sight TA and TB.  

The vertical angles to A and B from T are αA (an angle of elevation) and αB (angle of
depression) .Another angle often referred to is the zenith angle.  This is defined as the angle in the vertical
plane between the direction vertically above the instrument and the line  of sight for example zA

Accuracy of angle measurement

So that they can be used to measure angles, theodolites and total stations have to be centred over a point
and they must also be levelled to bring their angle reading systems into the horizontal and vertical planes.

When assessing the relationship between angular and linear precisions the following are useful:
20″ is equivalent to 10 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m
10″ is equivalent to 5 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m
5″ is equivalent to 2.5 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m
1″ is equivalent to 0.5 mm at a sighting distance of 100 m

Based on these, if a 5 mm tolerance was specified for site work up to a distance of 100 m, a 10″ theodolite
(or total station) is required.

By simple proportion, if a 5 mm tolerance was specified but the maximum distance to be set out was 50
m, a 20″ instrument is sufficient.

A high specification theodolites or total station is not needed for most site work (setting out).
The only time a high precision is required (5″, 1″) is for establishing control or on special construction
projects demanding high quality positioning. E.g. Dams, Nuclear Power Plants, etc. Care has to be taken
when assessing the requirement for angular precision in this way as the minimum reading on a theodolites
(or total station) is not the same as its accuracy. Always read through the technical specification of the
instrument to find out what its accuracy is quoted as by the manufacturer Don’t forget to make an
allowance for centering and sighting errors when assessing angular precisions.

Electronic Theodolites:

Mechanical parts of the theodolites

Electronic Theodolites
Mechanical parts of the theodolites

Measuring angles and setting out angles

Setting up a theodolite
This is carried out in three stages: Centring the theodolites; Levelling the theodolites; Removal of
parallax. The following procedure is recommended where it is assumed that the theodolite is to be centred
over a nail in the top of a peg. This is a typical point or reference mark used in construction and setting
out.

Leaving the instrument in its case, the tripod is first set up over the peg. The legs of the tripod are placed
an equal distance from the peg and are extended to suit the height of the observer.

The tripod head should be made as level as possible by eye. Standing back a few paces from the tripod,
the centre of the tripod head is checked to see if it
is vertically above the peg – this should be done by eye from two directions at right angles.

If the tripod is not centred, each leg is moved a distance equal to the amount the tripod is judged to be off
centre and in the same direction in which it is not centred. It is important to keep the tripod head level
when changing its position.

When the tripod has been centred in this way, the tripod legs are pushed firmly into the ground. If one
foot goes in more than the others making the tripod head go off level, this can be allowed for by loosening
the clamp of the tripod leg affected, adjusting the length and then re-clamping.

The theodolite is carefully taken out of its case, its exact position being noted to help in replacement, and
it is securely attached to the tripod head. Whenever carrying a theodolite, always hold it by the standards
and not the telescope. Never let go of the theodolite until it is firmly screwed onto the tripod.

The ground mark under the theodolite is now observed through the optical plummet. The plummet is
adjusted such that the nail in the peg and the plummet’s reference mark are seen together in clear focus.
By adjusting the three footscrews, the image of the nail seen through the plummet is moved until it
coincides with the reference mark. If the instrument is fitted with a laser plummet, the footscrews are
adjusted so that the beam is centred on the ground mark (nail).

The circular bubble on the tribrach is now centred by adjusting the length of individual tripod legs, as
required At this stage, the theodolite is almost centred and is almost level. To level the instrument exactly,
the plate level is used.

The procedure for this is as follows and is the only one recommended for a three-footscrew instrument.
To level a theodolite it is rotated until the plate level axis is parallel to the line through any two
footscrews as shown

 
 

These two footscrews are turned until the plate bubble is brought to the centre of its run.  The levelling
footscrews should be turned in opposite directions simultaneously, remembering that the bubble will
move in  a direction corresponding to the movement of the thumb.  The instrument is turned 90° and the
bubble centred again but using the third footscrew only.

Bearing

Bearing   :
The horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the survey line is termed as bearing of
the survey line.

Magnetic Bearing:
The magnetic needle of the compass always points towards the magnetic north-south (N-S)
direction indicating earth’s magnetic axis. Since this direction is same at all the places on the
earth’s surface, it is universally used as the reference direction. The angle made by survey line
in a clockwise direction with reference to magnetic N-S line is termed as magnetic bearing of the
line. The value of magnetic bearing ranges from 0 o  to 360o .

True Bearing:
The geographical north of earth is different from the magnetic north. Hence, the angle which the
survey line makes with the true geographical north is termed as true bearing of the survey line.

Arbitrary Bearing:
It is the horizontal angle which a survey line makes with any arbitrary meridian, which is any
convenient direction towards a permanent and prominent mark or signal, such as a church spire
or top of a chimney. Such bearings are used to determine the relative position of line in a small
area.

Whole Circle Bearing (WCB):

The complete circle of angular measurement starts with north as 0 o and ends at north at 360o .
The bearing of line directly obtained by magnetic needle ranging from 0 o to 360 o is called
whole circle bearing .

Reduced Bearing (RB):

The more convenient way to comprehend the direction of a survey line is to represent the
bearing on a quadrantal system. The angle is measured with respect to N–S line towards east
or west as shown in Figure 3.1(b). The relationship between WCB and RB is shown in Figure
3.1(c).

Fore Bearing (FB):

The angle measured in the direction of survey line from starting survey station to the next
station is called fore bearing. In Figure 3.1(d), if the bearing of line AB is measured from A
towards B, it is known as forward bearing or fore bearing.

Back Bearing (BB):

It is the bearing of the survey line taken from the forward survey station to the preceding station
from which the fore bearing was taken earlier. In Figure , if the bearing of same line AB is
measured from B towards A, it is known as backward bearing or back bearing.

(c) Relationship between WCB and RB 

Bearing of a Survey Line

Magnetic Declination

The direction of magnetic meridian varies from place to place across the globe. Hence, the
bearings taken with reference to magnetic meridian of the survey lines will not represent true
relative angles between them. The errors can be negligible for smaller area surveys but will be
quite significant for large surveys particularly geodetic and astronomical surveys. A more
accurate method of denoting the bearing of a survey line will be to obtain the true bearing of the
line. The difference between true bearing and magnetic bearing of a survey line at a survey
station is called magnetic declination of that place.   

Hence, the horizontal angle made by magnetic meridian and true meridian at a place is termed
as magnetic declination of that place as depicted in Figure . The magnetic declination could be
East declination Figure or West declination as in Figure indicating whether magnetic North is
toward East or towards West of true North.

 
Magnetic Declination

It may also be noted here that position of magnetic North may change even at a station due to
several factors. Hence, it may be necessary to record the date of
survey and time to obtain the true bearing of a survey line at a place.

Astronomical observations are required to be taken to determine the direction of true North at a
place and hence to obtain the true bearing of a survey line at that
place. Magnetic bearing can be easily obtained for the same line by compass survey. The
difference between true bearing and magnetic bearing of the survey
line so obtained will give the magnetic declination at that place, i.e.  

 Magnetic Declination = (True Bearing – Magnetic Bearing)

The magnetic declination will be positive if magnetic meridian is towards east of true meridian
and negative if magnetic meridian is westward of true meridian.
Isogonic Lines If the points on the globe which have same magnetic declination at a point of
time are joined, the imaginary lines so obtained are called isogonic lines.

Agonic Lines:
These are imaginary lines constructed by joining the points at which the magnetic declination is
zero, and hence have the same value of magnetic bearing and true bearings.

For reference to geodetic and other important surveys, isogonic charts are published by
agencies like Survey of India, on which isogonic and agonic lines are drawn on earth maps.
 

Magnetic Dip:
The magnetic bearing of a survey line at a place is obtained by using a magnetic compass. The
needle of this compass will not remain horizontal due to magnetic
influence of the earth. This deflection of the needle from the horizontal position is called dip of
the needle. Apart from local effects due to presence of magnetic ores in ground or such other
localised influences, the magnetic dip of the compass needle will vary from place to place on the
surface of earth. It will be horizontal at equator, i.e. zero dip at a place equidistant from both the
poles. The deviation from horizontal position will gradually increase as survey lines moves
toward the poles. This dip will influence the accurate recording of the bearings. A sliding weight
or an aluminium coil can be placed on the higher side of the needle to counter balance this dip
and make the needle perfectly horizontal during bearing measurements.

INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES

Compass:
The compass essentially consists of a freely suspended magnetic needle mounted on a smooth
pointed pivot. The needle can freely move over a graduated scale. Two slit vanes are provided
on the frame – one as the object vane and other as eye vane – placed at 180 o to provide the
line of sight. A tripod stand is provided on which the compass can be mounted and positioned
over the survey station, while taking observations. A circular metal box, approximately 100 mm
diameter, is used with a hardened steel pivot at the centre. The magnetic needle, graduated
aluminium ring and vanes etc. are other parts of the compass. Design of these parts and their
placement vary in different types of compass.

The two types of compass – prismatic compass and surveyors compass – are currently used in
practice.

Prismatic Compass:
It is the commonly used compass for engineering surveys and is suitable for surveys where
speed is more important than accuracy, for example, the preliminary surveys of road, railway
line or pipe line alignments and rough traversing etc. Figure  shows the different constituents of
a prismatic compass in their final assembled form.

 
Prismatic Compass

The aluminium ring of prismatic compass has a magnetic needle marked with N-S along the
diameter of the ring. The graduations are itched from 0o  to 360o  in clockwise direction with
zero marked at south end of needle and 180o at the north end (Figure . The itching is marked in
inverted fashion so that they are read in correct way when viewed through the reflecting prism.
Each degree in graduation is divided into half to give a least count of 30'.

The object vane has a vertical hair thin wire bisecting the object under observation. The
observation vane (or eye vane) consists of a reflecting prism. Both the vanes are collapsible to
be folded to lie on compass cover when not in use. A plane mirror is hinged to object vane to
sight the object which is too high or too low to be sighted directly. The indication of mirror can be
adjusted to facilitate this process. In case of sun glare, when making the measurements
become difficult, sun screen of tinted glasses can be used by placing them in the line of sight
between prism and object vane.

To dampen the oscillation of magnetic needle and providing stability to measurement process, a
brake pin is provided on the side of the compass box. A lifting pin is also provided to lift the
needle and to keep it pressed against glass cover when the object vane is folded and the
compass is not in use. This prevents the pivot from excessive wear and tear.

 
System of Graduation

Surveyor Compass:
This instrument is more or less obsolete these days and not often used for land surveying. Its
construction is somewhat similar to prismatic compass except that it has plane sight vane with a
narrow vertical slit in place in prism. The graduations on scale vary from 0o  to 90 o  with 0 o at
North and South and 90 o at East and West positions marked (Figure ). The magnetic needle is
edge bar type while the circular graduated scale is fixed with the box. Thus, here, instead of
whole circle bearing, reduced bearings are recorded.

Procedure of Measuring Bearing with Prismatic Compass

The procedure of measuring bearing with the compass is discussed in this section along with
some related issues like compass traversing, local attraction and correction due to local
attraction.

Setting the Compass at Station:

The prismatic compass is required to be temporarily set over the station at which the bearing of
survey line required to be measured. It is basically a two-step procedure. This is also called the
temporary adjustments of compass.

Centering:
The compass is set so that its centre lies exactly above the station under consideration. This is
achieved by suspending a plumb bob from the centre hook provided. If the conical end of plumb
bob lie exactly over the station (X is marked over station for accuracy), the compass is
considered to be exactly centered. If not, the legs of the tripod are adjusted in position by
moving one leg first and then simultaneously moving other two legs in perpendicular direction to
first movement. Several trials can be needed for obtaining the correct centering of the compass.
In real life situations, when plumb bob is not available, a small piece of stone or pebble can be
taken, by holding this stone by fingers in line of centre of compass and allowing it t drop freely
on the station. If the stone falls on the top of peg then centering is correct, otherwise the
adjustment of tripod is done as explained earlier.

Levelling:
The compass is required to be levelled so that the aluminium ring is in horizontal plane and
hence free to rotate on pivot. The levelling can be checked by a spirit level or by rolling a pin on
compass box. If the round pin does not roll, the level is correct. If not levelled correctly, the level
can be adjusted by moving the legs of tripod. Some instruments are provided with a ball and
socket arrangement at box base to achieve rapid levelling till the graduated ring moves freely
inside the compass box.
Observing the Bearing:
Once the compass is centered over the station and levelled, the process of bearing
measurement can start. Let AB be the survey line as shown in Figure , the bearing of which is
required to be measured. The instrument is set at A and a ranging rod is fixed at B. The
compass is turned so that line of sight is aligned in the direction of AB by making eye slit of
observation vane, vertical hair of object vane and ranging rod at B in same horizontal line. Wait
for oscillation of graduation ring to dampen, with the use of brake pin if necessary. The viewing
prism is focused by moving it vertically with the help of focusing stud. The reading of the image
of hair line as observed through prism is noted indicating the whole circle bearing of survey line.
The process is repeated to check the repeatability of measurements. This bearing is called fore
bearing of line AB.

Recording of Bearing

Traversing:
The instrument is successively set at each station of the traverse and the fore bearing and back
bearing of each line is taken and recorded in the field notebook. The observational errors in this
survey tend to compensate as each bearing is observed independently. Distances between
each survey stations are measured using a chain/tape. The offset points are located either by
procedure followed in chain surveying or by angular measurement with compass.

The bearings of survey lines in a traverse are observed in progressive way. The bearing
recorded in the direction of progress of survey is called the fore bearing while the bearing of the
same survey line from the end station   (station B on line AB) is termed back bearing (Figure . It
can be noted that back bearing of a line is equal to its fore bearing ± 180 o . Plus sign is used
when fore bearing is less than 180 o  and minus sign is used when it is more than 180o .

Local Attraction:
The bearings measured by prismatic compass are magnetic bearings measured with reference
to magnetic north of the earth. Apart from the fact that magnetic meridian changes from place to
place on earth and with time of observation, external magnetic influence existing locally at a
place can influence the readings seriously. The local presence of magnetic rocks, iron ore
deposits, steel structures, railway lines, iron electric poles etc. can seriously deflect the
magnetic needle of compass from its normal positions. Such disturbances in accuracy of
measurements are termed local attraction.

The actual measurements of bearings can also be disturbed if the surveyors, carelessly keeps
bunch of iron keys, iron knives or buttons, steel framed spectacles. Even the chains and arrows,
used in surveying, near the compass can also affect bearings. Proximity of such objects should
be avoided as far as possible during compass surveying.

CALCULATIONS OF BEARING AND INCLUDED

ANGLES

Calculation of Included Angles:

Having conducted the compass survey as described in Section , next step in plotting the survey
results on maps is to calculate the included angle between two consecutive survey lines of the
traverse.

(a) If the whole circle bearings of two lines at a station where these lines intersect are recorded,
then the included angle between these lines 50 would be equal to the difference between the
whole circle bearings of two lines. If the difference is less than 180o  the included angle would
be interior angle and if it is more that 180o it will be the exterior angle between the two lines
forming the traverse .
In Figure , it is given that back bearing (BB) of line AB, i.e. (α) = 240 o and fore bearing (FB) of
line BC, (β) = 120o . Then the included angle ABC, θ = α – β = 240 o  – 120 o  = 120 o

. Therefore, it can be said that if both the bearings are measured from a common point (B) then
included angle can be obtained by subtracting FB of next line (BC) from the BB of previous line
(AB).

Included Angle from WCB

(b) If the WCB at point of intersection of survey lines AB and BC (i.e. at station B) are not given
but rather fore bearing of line AB (i.e. WCB of line AB at A) and back bearing of line BC (i.e.
WCB of line BC at C) are known, then the included angle at station B between survey lines AB
and BC (Figure ) can be obtained as follows.

WCB of AB at B = Back bearing of line AB at B = 150o  180 o  = 330o. Back bearing of line BC at
C = 220 o .

WCB of BC at B = Fore bearing of line BC at B = 220o – 180o = 40o.  Compass Surveying

Included angle θ1 = 340o – 40o = 290o = Exterior angle.
Hence, Interior angle θ = 360o – θ1 = 360o – 290o = 70o.

PRECAUTIONS AND ERRORS IN COMPASS SURVEY

Precautions:
While undertaking the compass traversing, following precautions should normally be observed.

Bearing:
If it is difficult to observe the location of the ranging rod at station B from compass set at station
A for obtaining the bearing of survey line AB, locate an  intermediate station C on line AB, which
can be sighted from both stations A and B. The compass can then be set over the intermediate
station C. When there is an optical obstruction in the line AB, a parallel line C1 D1 is set out by
means of offsets as nearly as possible (Figure ) and get the bearing of the survey line.

 
Bearings when Two Stations are not Intervisible

Freeing the Needle:

The magnetic needle has to rotate freely over the pivot to get accurate measurement of bearing
of the survey line. Tap the compass box after the needle has come to rest. This helps in
overcoming the pivot friction, if any. The cover glass may also have gathered static electric
charge, when rubbed with cloth while dusting and thus attract and jam the magnetic needle of
compass. The glass has to be discharged by applying moist finger on its surface.

Damping:
The vibration of compass needle are damped by gently pressing the braking knob. To reduce
vibrations and to minimize wear and tear of pivot point, the needle shall be released only when
the compass is aligned approximately in the direction of magnetic meridian at site. It is always
advisable to take duplicate reading of the needle for each bearing measurements. After noting
down the first reading the compass is rotated to displace the needle. Readjust the needle before
taking the duplicate reading. This reduces observational errors.

Sources of Error

Having observed various types of possible errors during compass surveying, the surveyor has
to take adequate measures during actual use of instrument to minimize the effects of these
errors. Some of these are given below. Ensure Horizontality of Needle and Scale If the needle is
not horizontal even when the compass is levelled properly, a small coil of brass rider is used by
sliding it on needle towards the higher end of needle. Proper adjustment of rider will make the
needle and scale horizontal.

Ensure that Pivot is Central to Scale:

Readings at both, North and South, end of needle are recorded. The difference shall be exactly
180 o . Any deviation from this will indicate that either the needle is not straight or the pivot is
bent. If the difference between N- and S-readings is constant for different positions of compass,
though it may not be 180 o , it will indicate that needle is not straight while pivot is in centre. The
needle is carefully observed and straightened to remove this deviation. If the deviation is not
same for different compass position, pivot bending is indicated. Pivot is bent and needle
straightened to remove this error.

Ensure Verticality of Plane of Sight :

A plumb bob is suspended in front of the compass set in position and is observed through the
instrument. The eye vane, the object vane and the string of plumb bob shall be in same vertical
plane. Any deviation will indicate the loss of verticality of either the eye vane or object vane
which are then adjusted accordingly.

Closing Error:
When a closed traverse survey is conducted and the results plotted, it may be observed that
traverse fails to close. Actual distance by which traverse
fail to close is called the closing error. These could be either due to

(a) error in measuring angles, or

(b) error in measuring distances.

All the included angles of the traverse are computed from the recorded bearings and
aggregated. If the aggregated included angle is equal to (2n – 4) right angles, the angle
measurements are correct provided there is no local attraction influence or observational error.
Any difference will indicate error in angular measurement. If the closing error is large, the survey
is rejected and repeated. If it is small, the error can be corrected by making small adjustments in
bearings  under “Adjustments and Corrections”.

Errors in Chaining:
The traverse may fail to close even when angles are error free. For example the traverse
starting from A is plotted as A B1 C1 D1 E1 A1 in Figure. The end point A1 does not coincide with A
indicating closing error. If error AA1 is large, the survey has to be repeated. However, if it is
small, it can be adjusted as described below.
Errors in Chaining

Plot a straight line  Compass Surveying a b1 c1 d1 e1 a1 (ab1 = AB1, b1 c1 = B1 B C1 and so on) on
any suitable scale. At end a1, draw a line a1 a2 parallel to and equal to closing error AA1 and join
a – a2. Draw lines parallel to a1 a2 from e1, d1, c1 and b1 (Figure ) to intersect aa2 at e2, d2, c2 and
b2 respectively. The distances b1 b2, c1 c2, d1 d2, e1 e2 will represent the corresponding corrections
by which station BB 1,C1, D1 and E1 are required to be shifted as in Figure  for traverse to close.
ABCDE will then represent the corrected closed traverse.

Levelling

Introduction:
Levelling is a means by which surveyors can determine the elevation of points, using other
known points as references. Levelling is perhaps the most basic of surveying operations and
forms an important fundamental part of almost every surveying project.

Equipment: Levelling is carried out by the use of: a Spirit Level, often called an Engineer’s
Level, and a level rod. The level rod resembles a large fold-up ruler but is not accurately
referred to as such.

Basics of Levelling:
In levelling, the surveyor looks back (BS) to a point of known elevation to determine the
elevation of his or her instrument (EI). The surveyor then looks forward (FS) to a point of
unknown elevation and determines the elevation of that point using the elevation of his or her
instrument (EI) and the value on the level rod read through the level’s telescope.
Once the elevation of a point is determined, that point can be used for determining the
elevations of other points. In this way, the surveyor may “leap-frog” forward, eventually
determining the elevations of points that are impractical from the initial location, and developing
greater accuracy by means of a “closed traverse”.

A Sample Levelling Traverse:

Sample Traverse Data:

Surveyors accumulate levelling data in a specific fashion. This format ensures that all the
relevant data is preserved and none is lost. Calculations are performed as you go, making
mistakes easier to detect. This is important in levelling since a turning point may not be marked
to revisit in case of error.

Sample Correction Calculations:

Adjust on basis of shot lengths. S shot lengths = 168 m (exclude IS’s from this)

Object and Uses

USES OF LEVELLING:

In the context of tidal measurements, levelling is used for the following purposes:

Referencing of Tide Gauges: To determine and check the vertical stability of the tide gauge
bench mark (TGBM) with respect to reference points (benchmarks) in its immediate vicinity. In
order to isolate any local movements, there should be at least three such benchmarks, and the
levelling should be repeated on an annual or semi-annual basis.

Connection to GPS Reference Points: To determine its regional stability and to separate sea
level rise from vertical crustal motion, the TGBM should be connected via GPS to reference
stations fixed in a global co-ordinate system. Generally speaking, the GPS antenna cannot be
directly placed on the TGBM and a GPS reference point must be established a short distance
away. This must be connected to the TGBM by levelling.

 Connection to National Levelling Network: Mean sea level is used to define vertical datums for
national surveying and mapping - hence the TGBM must be connected to the national levelling
network. Connection to the network will also allow all tide gauges to be connected to each other,
providing information on spatial variations in mean sea level.
 

PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING:

Differential levelling provides a means of accurately measuring height differences between

points some tens of metres apart. A level is set up on a tripod and levelled so that the line of
sight is horizontal:

A graduated staff is held vertically over the first point and a reading made of the intersection of
the cross-hair with the image of the staff (backsight - b). The same (or an identical) staff is then
held vertically over the second point and a further reading made (foresight - f). The difference
between the two readings is the difference in height between the two points:

If b is greater than f then dh is positive (i.e. there is a rise in elevation in moving from the first to
the second point).

This process can be repeated - the level can be moved to beyond the second point and the
height difference between the second and a third point measured by the same process. Further
repetitions will allow the height difference between widely separated points to be determined by
accumulating the height differences between (temporary) intermediate points. The distance from
level to staff is dictated by the steepness of the terrain and the clarity of the image viewed by the
observer. Usually the maximum sight length is restricted to 50-60m.

The sketch below shows a schematic illustration of a basic level:

 

The level is mounted on a tripod, and has three levelling screws that (in conjunction with a
circular bubble) allow the level to be leveled. These screws have a limited range and the tripod
head must be set approximately level beforehand by adjusting the tripod legs.

Terms Used in Leveling Instruments

Leveling Instruments

Levelling is a branch of Surveying which aims to find the distance from the ground of a given point with the data provided so that
you can establish a point at a given altitude. Leveling instrument is an instrument developed to set up a horizontal line of sight and
spirit level is used to develop the horizontal line. Spirit level, the dumpy level, the digital level and the laser level are the most
commonly used leveling instruments.

Spirit Level (Bubble level)

To indicate whether a surface is level or plumb spirit level or Bubble level is used. Original spirit levels are comprised of two
bananas shaped curved glass vials at each point of view. They are little complicated in structure. The spirit level will be placed in
such a way that the tripod in between two points and the height difference between those points can be calculated easily. To mark
the points markers in rock or soil are used. A leveling rod equipped with measured graduations is placed on each point. The focus of
the viewer will be pointed on each road and values can be calculated from it. Calculate the difference of back and forward value to
find the height difference.

Dumpy level (Automatic Level)

Automatic level is an optical instrument used in surveying and building. It helps to transfer measure or set horizontal levels in
surveying and building. A dumpy level is an older style instruments and skilled use is necessary to set that instrument correctly. The
instrument should be set level in each quadrant, so that full 360 degree traverse is accurately maintained. Some dumpy levels will
have bubble level to ensure accuracy and perfection. A benchmark with known height determined in previous survey, or an arbitrary
point with an assumed height can be used to calculate the measurement.

 
Digital level

Digital level is a leveling instrument in surveys which use a special rod scale so that the height can be calculated. Data recording
competence is a major feature of Digital level. The computerization tries to eliminate the job of operator to read a scale and so it
reduces blunders that can happen to a great extend. Refraction and curvature corrections can be done with the help of this
instrument. The bubble level vial, spirit level vial and laser technology are some important features supporting digital level.

Laser level

The laser level is affixed to a tripod, leveled and then spun to illuminate a horizontal plane in leveling and surveying.The laser beam
projector is comprised of rotating head with a mirror. Visually readable level vials and physically adjustable screw to adjust the
projector is equipped in laser level to provide better performance.

Before studying the art of levelling, it is necessary to clearly understand the following terms
used in levelling:

1. Level Surface: A surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called a level surface
and the line drawn on the level surface is known as a level line. Hence all points lying on a level
surface are equidistant from the centre of the earth. Figure shows a typical level surface.

A level Surface

2. Horizontal Surface: A surface tangential to level surface at a given point is called horizontal
surface at that point. Hence a horizontal line is at right angles to the plumb line at that point
[Ref. Fig. ].
3. Vertical Line: A vertical line at a point is the line connecting the point to the centre of the
earth. It is the plumb line at that point. Vertical and horizontal lines at a point are at right angles
to each other [Fig. ].

4. Datum: The level of a point or the surface with respect to which levels of other points or
planes are calculated, is called a datum or datum surface.

5. Mean Sea Level (MSL): MSL is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At
any particular place MSL is established by finding the mean sea level (free of tides) after
averaging tide heights over a long period of at least 19 years. In India MSL used is that
established at Karachi, presently, in Pakistan. In all important surveys this is used as datum.

6. Reduced Levels (RL): The level of a point taken as height above the datum surface is
known as RL of that point.

7. Benchmarks: A benchmark is a relatively permanent reference point, the elevation of which

is known (assumed or known w.r.t. MSL). It is used as a starting point for levelling or as a point
upon which to close for a check. The following are the different types of benchmarks used in
surveying:

(a) GTS benchmarks (b) Permanent benchmarks

(c) Arbitrary benchmarks and (d) Temporary benchmarks.

(a) GTS Benchmark: The long form of GTS benchmark is Great Trigonometrical Survey
benchmark. These benchmarks are established by national agency. In India, the department of
Survey of India is entrusted with such works. GTS benchmarks are established all over the
country with highest precision survey, the datum being mean sea level. A bronze plate provided
on the top of a concrete pedastal with elevation engraved on it serves as benchmark. It is well
protected with masonry structure built around it so that its position is not disturbed by animals or
by any unauthorised person. The position of GTS benchmarks are shown in the topo sheets
published.

 
 b) Permanent Benchmark: These are the benchmarks established by state government
agencies like PWD. They are established with reference to GTS benchmarks. They are usually
on the corner of plinth of public buildings.

(c) Arbitrary Benchmark: In many engineering projects the difference in elevations of

neighboring points is more important than their reduced level with respect to mean sea level. In
such cases a relatively permanent point, like plinth of a building or corner of a culvert, are taken
as benchmarks, their level assumed arbitrarily such as 100.0 m, 300.0 m, etc.

(d) Temporary Benchmark: This type of benchmark is established at the end of the day’s
work, so that the next day work may be continued from that point. Such point should be on a
permanent object so that next day it is easily identified.

Methods of Levelling

Leveling:

 The general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of points or
differences in elevation are determined.

 Leveling results are used

  To design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems etc, having grade lines
that best conform the existing topography,
  To lay out construction projects according to planned elevations,
  To calculate volume of earthworks and other materials,
  To investigate drainage characteristics of an area, etc.

Leveling  methods  are  subdivided  into  twomajor   categories:   DIRECT   and  

INDIRECT.Direct  leveling  describes  the  method  of  measuringvertical distance (difference in
elevation) directlywith  the  use  of  precise  or  semi-precise  levelinginstruments.  Indirect 
leveling  methods,  on  theother  hand,  apply  to  measuring  vertical  distancesindirectly   or  
by   computation.   Unlike   directleveling  operations,  indirect  leveling  operationsdo not
depend on lines of sight or intervisibilityof   points   or   stations.   Some   of   the  
surveyinginstruments commonly used for indirect levelingmethods  are  the  transit  and 
theodolite.

DIRECT  LEVELING: This  method  of  leveling  uses  the  measuredvertical distance to carry
elevation from a knownpoint to an unknown point. Direct leveling is themost  precise  method 
of  determining  elevation  andyields accuracies of third or higher orders. Whenthis   method  
is   specified   for   lower   accuracysurveys, direct leveling is sometimes referred toas  “spirit” 
or  “fly”  levels.  Fly  levels  are  levelingoperations used to rerun original levels to makesure that
no mistake has been made. Fly levelsuse a shorter route and smaller number of turningpoints
than the original survey. Let’s take a lookat  some  of  the  processes  involving  direct  leveling.
 Leveling: Theory and Methods:

Curvature and Refraction:

  Horizontal line departs from a level line because of curvature of the earth.

  The deviation DB is expressed approximately by

where K is the distance AB in kilometers.

 Curvature and Refraction „ Light rays passing through the earth’s atmosphere are bent or
refracted toward the earth’s surface.

 Thus theoretical horizontal line of sight AH is bent to the curved form AR.

 For a horizontal sight, refraction in meters is expressed approximately by

Curvature and Refraction:

 The combined effect of curvature and refraction is expressed approximately by

where K is the distance AB in kilometers.

  For sight of 100 m length:

 hm= 0.00068 m.

  Proper field procedures can practically eliminate the error due to curvature and refraction.
 Use of a Planimeter


 A planimeter will give correct results for "any" scale factor whatsoever, at least within the
tolerance imposed by the operator and a small mechanical uncertainty.
  
 In practice, an operator will trace an area on a plan with a known scale factor, and then
multiply the "raw" planimeter reading by a constant, Ca, to get a corrected reading.
  
 The constant Ca can be computed using an equation given in the instructions that come
with each instrument. It is Ca = u*Sc^2 . "u" is the number of square inches per
planimeter count, unique for each instrument and dependent on the arm length of that
instrument. It is provided with each instrument shipped. Sc is the scale factor of the
drawing to be measured.
  
 For example, suppose an Operator is using a planimeter with its arm length set to
medium length. He or she should refer to the calibration record that comes with the
instrument and find that u is 0.017324 for a medium arm. The operator sees that the
scale factor for his or her drawing is 1:400, meaning 1 unit = 400 units, where a unit can
be an inch, a foot, or whatever. For this example the operator wants his answer to be in
square feet so he must convert his 1:400 scale to the number of inches per foot. Since
1inch = 400 inches, it also equals 400 divided 12, or 33 1/3 feet. The hard part over, he
or she uses the equation and finds that Ca equals 0.017324*(33 1/3)^2 , or 19.249.
  
 If the operator has a digital readout, he simply keys in his scale factor of 19.249 and
begins measuring. His answer will be in terms of square feet for each measurement. If
the Operator has a mechanical planimeter, he or she must manually multiply each
planimeter reading by
 19.249 to get the number of square feet. If he or she stores the 19.249 in a calculator
memory, this task becomes easier.
  
 Some planimeters also give the value of u for metric measurements, that is, u is the
number of square centimeters per planimeter count. In this case, the operator might
have to convert the scale factor to give the number of centimeters per meter or whatever
before computing Ca.
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information.
 Construction:
  
 There are several kinds of planimeters, but all operate in a similar way. The precise way
in which they are constructed varies, with the main types of mechanical planimeter being
polar, linear and Prytz or "hatchet" planimeters. The Swiss mathematician Jakob Amsler-
Laffon built the first modern planimeter in 1854, the concept having been pioneered by
Johann Martin Hermann in 1814. Many developments followed Amsler's famous
planimeter, including electronic versions.
 
 A linear planimeter on scrolls for the determination of stretched shapes:
 They consist of a linkage with a pointer on one end, used to trace around the boundary
of the shape. The other end of the linkage is fixed for a polar planimeter and restricted to
a line for a linear planimeter. Tracing around the perimeter of a surface induces a
movement in another part of the instrument and a reading of this is used to establish the
area of the shape. The planimeter contains a measuring wheel that rolls along the
drawing as the operator traces the contour. When the planimeter's measuring wheel
moves perpendicular to its axis, it rolls, and this movement is recorded. When the
measuring wheel moves parallel to its axis, the
 wheel skids without rolling, so this movement is ignored. That means the planimeter
measures the distance that its measuring wheel travels, projected perpendicularly to the
measuring wheel's axis of rotation. The area of the shape is proportional to the number
of turns through which the measuring wheel rotates when the planimeter is traced along
the complete perimeter of the shape.
 Developments of the planimeter can establish the position of the first moment of area
(center of mass), and even the second moment of area.
  
 The pictures show a linear and a polar planimeter. The pointer M at one end of the
planimeter follows the contour C of the surface S to be measured. For the linear
planimeter the movement of the "elbow" E is restricted to the y-axis. For the polar
planimeter the "elbow" is connected to an arm with fixed other endpoint O. Connected to
the arm ME is the measuring wheel with its axis of rotation parallel to ME. A movement
of the arm ME can be decomposed into a movement perpendicular to ME, causing the
wheel to rotate, and a movement parallel to ME, causing the wheel to skid, with no
contribution to its reading.

Introduction to Global Positioning System,

Introduction to the System Components:

 System Design Considerations:

Development work on GPS  commenced  within  the  U.S.  Department  of  Defense  in  1973, 
the motivation  being  to  develop  an  all-weather,  24-hour,  global  positioning system  to
support  the positioning requirements for the armed forces of  the U.S.  and its  allies. (For  a 
background to thedevelopment of the GPS system the reader is referred to [1].) The system
was therefore designed to replace the large variety of navigational systems already in use, and
great emphasis was placed on the system's reliability and survivability. In short, a number of
stringent conditions had to be met:

  suitable for all classes of platform: aircraft (jet to helicopter), ship, land (vehicle-mounted to
handheld) and space (missiles and satellites),
  able to handle a wide variety of dynamics,
  real-time positioning, velocity and time determination capability to an appropriate accuracy,
 the positioning results were to be available on a single global geodetic datum,
  highest accuracy to be restricted to a certain class of user,
  resistant to jamming (intentional and unintentional),
  redundancy provisions to ensure the survivability of the system,
 passive positioning system that does not require the transmission of signals from the user to
the satellite(s),
  able to provide the service to an unlimited number of users,
  low cost, low power, therefore as much complexity as possible should be built into the
satellite segment, and
  total replacement of the Transit  satellite and other terrestrial navaid systems.

This led to a design based on the following essential concepts:

  A one-way ranging system, in which the satellites transmit signals, but are unaware of who is
using the signal (no receiving function). As a result the user (or listener) cannot easily be: (a)
detected by the enemy (military context), or (b) charged for using the system (civilian
context).
  Use of the latest atomic clock and microwave transmission technology, including
spreadspectrum techniques.
  A system that makes range-like measurements with the aid of pseudo-random binary codes.

Rarely have so many seemingly unrelated technological advances been required to make a 
complex system such as GPS work. Briefly they are:

Space System Reliability: The U.S. space program had by 1973 demonstrated the reliability of
space hardware. In particular, the Transit system had offered important lessons. The Transit
satellites were originally designed to last 2-3 years in orbit, yet some of the satellites have
operated well beyond their design life. In fact Transit continued to perform reliably for over 25
years.

Atomic Clock Technology: With the development of atomic clocks a new era of precise
timekeeping had commenced. However, before the GPS program was launched these precise
clocks had never been tested in space. The development of reliable, stable, compact, space-
qualified atomic frequency oscillators (rubidium, and then cesium) was therefore a significant
technological breakthrough. The advanced clocks now being used on the GPS satellites
routinely achieve long-term frequency stability in the range of a few parts in   per day (about 1
sec in 3,000,000 years!). This long-term stability is one of the keys to GPS, as it allows for the
autonomous, synchronised generation and transmission of accurate timing signals by each of
the GPS satellites without continuous monitoring from the ground.

Quartz Crystal Oscillator Technology: In order to keep the cost of user equipment down,
quartz crystal oscillators were proposed (similar to those used in modern digital watches), rather
than using atomic clocks as in the GPS satellites. Besides their low cost, quartz oscillators have
excellent short-term stability. However, their long-term drift must be accounted for as part of the
user position determination process.

Precise Satellite Tracking and Orbit Determination: Successful operation of GPS, as well as

the Transit system, depends on the precise knowledge and prediction of a satellite's position
 with respect to an earth-fixed reference system. Tracking data collected by ground monitor
stations is analysed to determine the satellite orbit over the period of tracking (typically one
week). This reference ephemeris is extrapolated into the future and the data is then up-loaded
to the satellites. Prediction accuracies of the satellite coordinates, for one day, at the few metre
level have been demonstrated.

Spread-Spectrum Technology: The ability to track and obtain any selected GPS satellite
signal (a receiver will be required to track a number of satellites at the same time), in the
presence of considerable ambient noise is a critical technology. This is now possible using
spread-spectrum and pseudo-random-noise coding techniques.

Large-Scale Integrated Circuit Technology: To realise the desired low cost, low power and
small size necessary for much of the user equipment, the GPS program relies heavily on the
successful application of VLSI circuits, and powerful computing capabilities built onto them.

The GPS system consists of three segments.  (Good  general references on  the  GPS
system are:

  The Space Segment: comprising the satellites and the transmitted signals.

 The Control Segment: the ground facilities carrying out the task of satellite tracking, orbit
computations, telemetry and supervision necessary for the daily control of the space
segment.

  The User Segment: the entire spectrum of applications equipment and computational
techniques that are available to the users.

Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System

INTRODUCTION:

Now-a-days the field of Remote Sensing and  GIS has become exciting and glamorous with
rapidly expanding opportunities.  Many organizations spend large amounts of money on these
fields. Here the question arises why these fields are so important in recent years.  Two main
reasons are there behind this. 

1) Now-a-days scientists, researchers, students, and even common people are showing great
interest for better understanding of our environment.  By environment we mean the geographic
space of their study area and the events that take place there.  In other words, we have come to
realise that geographic space along with the data describing it, is part of our everyday world;
almost every decision we take is influenced or dictated by some fact of geography.
2) Advancement in sophisticated space technology (which can provide large volume of spatial
data), along with declining costs of computer hardware and software (which can handle these
data) has made Remote Sensing and G.I.S. affordable to not only complex environmental /
spatial situation but also affordable to an increasingly wider audience.

REMOTE SENSING:

Meaning:

Literally Remote Sensing means obtaining information about an object, area or

phenomenonwithout coming in direct contact with it.  If we go by this meaning of Remote
Sensing, then a number of things would be coming under Remote  Sensor, e.g. Seismographs,
fathometer etc.   Without coming in direct contact with the focus of earthquake, seismograph
can measure the intensity of earthquake.  Likewise without coming in contact with the ocean
floor, fathometer can measure its depth. However, modern Remote Sensing means acquiring
information about earth’s land and water surfaces by using reflected or emitted electromagnetic
energy.

From the following definitions, we can have a better understanding about Remote Sensing:
According to White (1977), Remote Sensing includes all methods of obtaining pictures or other
forms of electromagnetic records of Earth’s surface from a distance, and the treatment and
processing of the picture data… Remote Sensing  then in the widest sense is concerned with
detecting and recording electromagnetic radiation from the target areas in the field of view of the
sensor instrument.  This radiation may have originated directly from separate components of the
target area, it may be solar energy reflected  from them; or it may be reflections of energy
transmitted to the target area from the sensor itself.

According to American Society of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing imagery is acquired with a

sensor other than (or in addition to) a conventional camera through which a scene is recorded,
such as electronic scanning, using radiations outside the normal visual range of the film and
camera- microwave, radar, thermal, infra-red, ultraviolet, as well as multispectral, special
techniques are applied to process and interpret remote sensing imagery for the purpose of
producing conventional maps, thematic maps, resource surveys, etc.

in the fields of agriculture, archaeology, forestry, geography, geology and others.    According to
the United Nations (95 th  Plenary meeting, 3 rd  December, 1986), Remote Sensing means
sensing of earth’s surface from space by making use of the properties of electromagnetic wave
emitted, reflected or diffracted by the sensed objects, for the purpose of improving natural
resource management, land use and the protection of the environment.

 
 According to James B.Campell (1996), Remote Sensing is the practice of deriving information
about the earth’s land and water surfaces using images acquired from an overhead perspective,
using electromagnetic radiation  in one or more regions of the electromagnetic spectrum,
reflected or emitted from the earth’s surface.

So the stages of Remote Sensing include :  

  A source of electromagnetic radiation or EMR (Sun)

 Transmission of energy from the source to the surface of the earth, through 
atmosphere                    
  Interaction of EMR with earth’s surface.
 Transmission of energy from surface to Remote Sensor mounted on a platform, through
atmosphere
  Detection of energy by the sensor.
 Transmission pf sensor data to ground station  

   Processing and analysis of the sensor data  

    Final data output for various types of application

Technical Components of Remote Sensing

Platforms:

The base, on which remote sensors are placed to acquire information about the Earth’s surface,
is called platform. Platforms can be stationary like a tripod (for field observation) and stationary
balloons or mobile like aircrafts and spacecrafts.  The types of platforms depend upon the
needs as well as constraints of the observation mission.  There are three main types of
platforms, namely 1) Ground borne, 2) Air borne and 3) Space borne.

1. Ground borne platforms: These platforms are used on the surface of the Earth. Cherry arm
configuration of Remote Sensing van and tripod are the two commonly used ground borne
platforms.  They have the capability of viewing the object from different angles and are mainly
used for collecting the ground truth or for laboratory simulation studies.

2. Air borne Platforms: These platforms are placed within the atmosphere of the Earth and can
be further classified into balloons and aircrafts.

 
a. Balloons: Balloons as platforms are not very expensive like aircrafts.  They have a great
variety of shapes, sizes and performance  capabilities.  The balloons have low acceleration,
require no power and exhibit low vibrations.  There are three main types of balloon systems, viz.
free balloons, Tethered balloons and Powered Balloons. Free balloons can reach almost the top
of the atmosphere; hence they can provide a platform at intermediate altitude between those of
aircraft and  space craft.  Thousands of kilograms of scientific payloads can be lifted by free
balloons.  Unless a mobile launching system is developed, the flights can be carried out only
from a fixed launching station. The free balloons are dependent on meteorological conditions,
particularly winds. The flight trajectory cannot be controlled.  All these make extremely difficult to
predict whether the balloons will fly over the specific area of interest or not.

In India, at present, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai, has set up a National
balloon facility at Hyderabad. Teethered balloons are connected to the earth station by means
of wires having high tensional strength and high flexibility.  The teethered line can carry the
antenna, power lines and gas tubes etc. when wind velocity is less than 35 km. per hour at the
altitude of 3000m., sphere type balloon is used.   When the wind velocity is less than 30  km per
hour, natural shape balloons are restricted to be placed.  Tethered balloons have the capability
of keeping the equipment at a fixed position for a long time and thus, useful for many remote
sensing programmes.  Powered balloons require some means of propulsion to maintain or
achieve station over a designated geographic location.  These can be remotely controlled and
guided along with a path or fly above a given area within certain limitations.

b. Aircrafts: Aircrafts are commonly used as  remote-sensing for obtaining Aerial Photographs. 
In India, four types of aircrafts are being used for remote sensing operations. 

These are as follows:

DAKOTA: The ceiling height is 5.6 to 6.2 km and minimum speed is 240 km./hr.
AVRO: Ceiling height is 7.5 km and minimum speed is 600 km./hr.
CESSNA: Ceiling height is 9 km. and minimum speed is 350 km./hr.  
CANBERRA: Ceiling height is 40 km.and minimum speed is 560 km./hr.

Remote Sensors

Remote Sensors:

Remote sensors are the instruments which detect various objects on the earth’s surface by
measuring electromagnetic energy reflected or emitted from them.  The sensors are mounted
on the platforms discussed above.  Different sensors record different wavelengths bands of
electromagnetic energy coming from the earth’s surface.  As for example, an ordinary camera is
the most familiar type of remote sensor which uses visible portion of electromagnetic radiation.

Classification of Sensors:
Remote sensors can be classified in different ways as follows.

1. On the Basis of Source of Energy Used: On the basis of source of energy used by the
sensors, they can be classified into two types – Active sensors and Passive sensors.

a. Active Sensors: Active sensors use their own source of energy and earth surface is
illuminated by this energy.  Then a part of this energy is reflected back which is received by the
sensor to gather information about the earth’s surface .   When photographic camera uses its
flash, it acts as an active sensor.  Radar and laser altimeter are active sensors.  Radar is
composed of a transmitter and a receiver.  The transmitter emits a wave, which strikes objects
and is then reflected or echoed back to the receiver. The properties of an active sensor are:

1) It uses both transmitter and receiver units to produce imagery, hence it requires high energy
levels.

2) It mostly works in microwave regions of EMR spectrum, which can penetrate clouds and is
not affected by rain.

3) It is an all weather, day-night system and independent of solar radiation.

4) The RADAR signal does not detect colour information or temperature information, but it can
detect the roughness, slope and electrical conductivity of the objects under study.

b. Passive Sensors: Passive sensors do not have their own source of energy.  The earth
surface is illuminated by sun/solar energy.  The reflected solar energy from the earth surface or
the emitted electromagnetic energy by the earth surface itself is received by the sensor . 
Photographic camera is a passive sensor when it is used in sun light, without using its flash.

The properties of a passive sensor are:

1) It is relatively simple both mechanically and electrically and it does not have high power
requirement.

2) The wavebands, where natural remittance or reflected levels are low, high detector
sensitivities and wide radiation collection apertures are necessary to obtain a reasonable signal
level.  Therefore, most passive sensors are relatively wide band systems.

3) It depends upon good weather conditions.

 
2. On the Basis of Function of Sensors: On the basis of function of sensors, they are divided
into two main types - Framing System and Scanning System.

a. Framing system: In framing system, two dimensional images are formed at one single
instant.  Here, a lens is used to gather the light which is passed through various filters and then
focused on a flat photosensitive target.  In ordinary camera, the target is film emulsion, whereas
in vidicon camera, the target is
electrically charged plate.

b. Scanning System: In scanning system, a single detector / a number of detectors with

specific field of view, is used which sweeps across a scene in a series of parallel lines and
collect data for continuous cells to produce an image.  Multi Spectral Scanner, Microwave
Radiometer, Microwave Radar, Optical Scanners are few examples of scanning system
sensors.

3. On the Basis of Technical Components of the System: The sensors can be classified into
three categories on the basis of technical components of the system and the capability of the
detection.

  These are:

1) Multispectral imaging sensor systems,

2) Thermal remote sensing systems, and

3) Microwave radar sensing systems.

The multispectral or multiband imaging systems may use conventional type camers or may use
a combination of both cameras and scanners for various bands of electromagnetic energy. As
for example, Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) sensor of Landsat uses both photographic and
scanning systems, which is similar to an ordinary TV camera.  The thermal system uses
radiometers, photometers, spectrometers, thermometers to detect the temperature changes
where microwave sensing systems use the antenna arrays for collecting and detecting the
energy from the terrain elements.