Chemical Engineering Operations

Drying
Dr. Anand V. Patwardhan
Professor of Chemical Engineering
Institute of Chemical Technology
Nathalal M. Parikh Road
Matunga (East), Mumbai-400019
av.patwardhan@ictmumbai.edu.in; avpuict@gmail.com; avpiitkgp@gmail.com
1

Drying
Wet bulb, dry bulb and adiabatic saturation temperatures
Humidity
Drying
y g mechanisms
Drying rate curves
Estimation
E ti ti off drying
d i time
ti
Process design of dryers such as spray, rotary, tunnel, tray, fluid
bed and thin film dryers
Performance evaluation of dryers

 Final product is a solid.

Definition: A unit operation in which the liquid (generally
water), present in a wet solid (or a suspension or a solution) is
removed by vaporisation to get a relatively liquid-free solid
product.
d t
Solid-liquid operation such as filtration, settling, centrifugation
Difference: In filtration, settling, and centrifugation, liquid is
removed by mechanical means. The residual liquid may be
removed by drying. Also, in case of some liquids, evaporation
is followed by drying.
Evaporation
Drying
Milk Condensed Milk Milk Powder

Physical Mechanism of Drying

Transport of Heat and Mass: When a wet solid is heated,
moisture vaporises at or near the solid surface (gas-solid
i t f )
interface).
H t is
Heat
i supplied
li d by
b a hot
h t gas (exceptions:
(
ti
microwave drying, freeze drying).
More moisture is transported from inside to its surface.
surface
Moisture movement: various mechanisms (depending on solid,
its pore structure,
structure and the rate of drying)
Transport by capillary forces
Liquid
Li id diffusion
diff i
Pressure induced transport
Vapour diffusion
Different mechanisms may be predominant at different stages
off drying.
d i
4

 In case of granular and porous solids, moisture transport by

capillary
ill
f
forces
as long
l
as there
th
i enoughh moisture
is
it
i the
in
th bulk
b lk
of the solid.
Larger capillaries are emptied first, but the smaller ones
continue to supply liquid to the surface.
Also, some drying gas enters the solid through free passages
and cracks Gas-filled spaces increase as drying proceeds.
Some solids shrink significantly during drying.
High drying rate fast drying of outer layer compressive
force to squeeze out moisture from the interior.
interior
This is called pressure-induced transport of liquid within
solid.
lid
5

 Colloidal, gelatinous, materials having great affinity for water:

moisture transport occurs by molecular diffusion of liquid.
liquid
As drying proceeds, the water concentration near the surface
decreases creates driving
dri ing force for water
ater diffusion
diff sion from
within the wet solid to exposed surface.
V
Vaporisation
i i may occur even below
b l
the
h surface,
f
and
d the
h vapour
may have to diffuse out Vapour Diffusion.

Transport Resistances in the Drying Process

Resistance to liquid / vapour transport inside the solid.
Resistance to convective mass transport of vapour from
surface to surrounding gas bulk.
Resistance to convective heat transport from surrounding
gas bulk to the solid surface.
Conduction heat transfer resistance in the solid (particularly
important at low moisture content on solid)
Sometimes, if drying is very fast solid surface loses moisture
very quickly surface becomes very hard and impervious to
moisture drying stops (although sufficient moisture is still
present in the bulk solid): called case
case hardening
hardening
7

Drying Equilibrium
Equilibrium
Eq
ilibri m relation between
bet een the moisture
it
content
t t off a solid
lid and
the humidity of the surrounding.
As long as the moisture content of the solid > equilibrium
value (at given T and surrounding humidity) drying occurs.
The pressure exerted by moisture in solid on surrounding
vapour pressure at prevailing T.
T
The exerted pressure = f (nature of solid, moisture content of
solid, T).
For nonhygroscopic solid: the equilibrium moisture content of
solid is almost zero at all T and surrounding
g humidity
y values.
For hygroscopic solid: the equilibrium moisture content of
solid have different values depending
p
g on T and surrounding
g
humidity values.

 Below a certain moisture in solid and at a particular T, partial

R
Relative
humiditty of surrroundin
ng

pressure of moisture < vapour pressure at that T.

All moisture below this threshold value: bound moisture.
All
ll moisture
i
above above
b
threshold
h h ld value:
l unbound moisture.
i
1.0

1
2

0.8

7
T = room temperature
1: asbestos fibre
2: PVC
3: wood
4: Kraft paper
5: jjute
6: wheat
7: potato

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

00
0.0

00.1
1
00.2
2
00.3
3
Equilibrium moisture content in solid

XM
9

 Consider point M (wheat curve): relative humidity (RHM) = 1,

and moisture content of solid = XM.
On the right side of XM, the curve becomes horizontal, that is,
the relative humidity (RHM) = 1.
This means for a moisture content of solid XM, the
equilibrium pressure exerted by wet solid = vapour pressure at
the prevailing T.
This also means for a moisture content of solid < XM, the
equilibrium pressure exerted by wet solid < vapour pressure at
the prevailing T.
All moisture
it
abo e XM: unbound.
above
nb
d
All moisture below XM: bound.
10

 Hygroscopic solids have high equilibrium moisture content.

Microporous solids have high equilibrium moisture content,
content
because a liquid filled in a capillary exerts a pressure <
vapour pressure of the liquid at the prevailing T (see Kelvin
equation for capillary condensation).
p
ln
Pv

V cos
s m
=
r RT
k

where, = a process parameter

s = liquidsolid interfacial tension, J/m2
Vm = molar volume of the condensable vapour, m3/mol
= contact angle
rK = Kelvin radius (m), which is the curvature of the
gasliquid interface
The
Th larger
l
pores get filled
fill d only
l when
h p/p
/ V is
i high.
hi h
When p/pV = 1, all the pores get filled.
11

Rellative sa
aturation
n
of surro
ounding gas, pa//PV

Some solids exhibit different equilibrium moisture relationships

depending on whether it is undergoing drying or absorbing
moisture (closed loop hysteresis)
1.0
Liquid uptake
(wetting)
drying

Moisture retained by solid during drying

Equilibrium moisture content (mass water / mass solid)

12

Equilibrium pressure exerted by moisture present in solid is

larger in case of moisture uptake (wetting) than in drying,
drying
(at the same moisture content of solid).
Explanation:
p
Vaporisation and condensation are not reversible for
capillaries, because,
When
Wh dying
d i occurs, capillaries
ill i are already
l d liquid-filled
li id fill d
and pressure exerted is < vapour pressure.
In case of moisture uptake (wetting),
(wetting) adsorption occurs on
the pore walls, but a meniscus is not formed immediately.
y g equilibrium
q
curve)) is useful for
The lower curve ((drying
drying calculations.
The upper curve (wetting curve) is useful for calculating the
time for moisture uptake (wetting), for
f
example:
l to
calculate the time within which a hygroscopic solid should
be packaged after drying.
drying
13

Important Definitions and Terms

Moisture content: the quantity of moisture in a wet solid
generally expressed in the mass ratio unit (kg moisture per kg
y solid).
)
dry
Bound moisture: the amount of moisture in a solid that exerts
a pressure less than normal vapour pressure at the given T.
Unbound moisture:
i
the
h amount off moisture
i
i a wet solid
in
lid in
i
excess of the bound moisture. Unbound moisture exerts a
pressure equal to normal vapour pressure at the given T.
T
Equilibrium moisture: the moisture content in a solid that
can remain in equilibrium
q
with the drying
y g medium of a
given relative humidity at the given T.
Free moisture: the moisture in a wet solid in excess of the
equilibrium
ilib i
moisture.
i
O l free
Only
f
moisture
i
can removed
d by
b
drying under a given set of conditions at the given humidity of
the drying gas and the given T.
T
14

AVP1

Different Types of Moisture in a Wet Solid

1.0
Rellative hu
umidity RH

Bound
moisture

R*
H

Equilibrium
moisture

Unbound
moisture
Free
moisture

X*

Xb

Xi

X (kg moisture per kg dry solid)

15

Slide 15
AVP1

Anand V. Patwardhan, 3/16/2008

Explanation of the figure:

A solid of initial moisture content Xi is being dried in contact
with a gas of relative humidity R*H.
The liquid present in the solid exerts a pressure equal to vapour
pressure of pure liquid till a moisture content of Xb is reached.
Hence, (Xi Xb) is unbound moisture content of wet solid.
As the moisture content is decreased below Xb, the pressure
exerted
t d by
b the
th liquid
li id remaining
i i in
i the
th solid
lid also
l decreases.
d
As the moisture content reaches the equilibrium moisture
content
t t X*, the
th pressure off moisture
it
over the
th wett solid
lid becomes
b
equal to the partial pressure of vapour in the drying gas (the
corresponding relative humidity R*H in Figure)
Hence, Xb is the bound moisture, Xi X* is the free moisture
content.
16

The Drying Rate Curve

Th
The time
ti
required
i d for
f drying
d i
can be
b determined
d t
i d from
f
a
knowledge of the drying rate under a given set of conditions.
(T Humidity,
Humidity flow rate,
rate transport properties of
Drying rate = f (T,
the drying gas).
Drying rate can be determined experimentally.
Schematic of a simple laboratory drying experiment
Suspended from the pan of a balance
Drying
D
i
chamber
H t gas
Hot
Wet solid

Gas out
17

The Drying Experiment

Moist solid is taken on a pan and kept suspended
s spended in drying
dr ing
chamber, through which the drying gas is passed.
The change in the mass of solid is recorded.
recorded
The mass of bone dry solid is recoded separately.
L t
Let
WS = mass off bone
b
d solid
dry
lid
a = drying area (exposed area of solid)
X = moisture content at any time t
Then the rate of drying is given by,
Ws dX
Ws X kg moisture
N a
a
dt
t
m2 s
Here, dX/dt X/t = slope of X versus t plot at various t.
Negative
g
sign
g is used because moisture decreases with time and
hence dX/dt is inherently negative.

18

M
Moisture
e content, X

Change in the moisture content of a solid in batch drying

Xi
XC
XC
X*

XiD: Heating of solid and release of moisture

DE: Constant drying rate (constant drying period)
EF and FG: Nonlinear drop in drying rate
(falling rate periods)
G: Equilibrium
q
moisture content reached

E
F
G

0
Time, t
19

A typical drying rate curve

NC
Dryin
ng rate, N

T
X*

X C
XC
Moisture content, X

Xi
20

A Typical Drying Rate Curve

Drying rate curve corresponds to the tX curve.
PQ: solid gradually gets heated and drying rate increases.
QR: drying rate remains constant at NC. The moisture content
at point R is called critical moisture content.
RS: first falling rate period.
ST: second falling rate period.

21

Drying Mechanisms (from a typical drying rate curve)

Mechanism of moisture transport and drying is different for
different time ranges or moisture contents.
Co
Constant
s
ratee pe
period:
od: su
surface
ace remains
e a s u
uniformly
o y moist
o st
because of rapid moisture transport from inside to surface
no mass transfer resistance for liquid transport within solid.
Then, dry patches appear on surface capillary forces are
not enough for transporting liquid from inside to surface.
That is,
is the moisture transport is controlled by:
i. Transport resistance for liquid or vapour inside solid
p
from
ii. Resistance to convective mass transfer of vapour
surface to bulk of drying gas
iii. Corresponding heat transfer resistances inside and outside
solid.
Then, during the second falling rate period, moisture content
of solid becomes very low,
low and hence the internal diffusion
22
of moisture controls the drying rate.

 The critical moisture content of a solid is not a constant

quantity.
quantity

It is f (pore structure, particle size distribution,

thickness of bed of wet solid,
solid drying rate)
Drying rate = f (T, humidity, flow rate of drying gas)
Therefore, the CMC is a point of transition of the nature
and magnitude of the mass transfer resistances in relation to
the drying process.
process
Small particle size: less intraparticle resistance constant
drying rate continues for a longer duration CMC is less
More open and larger pores or bed depth is small: CMC is
small.
small
Larger drying rate: internal moisture diffusion resistance
becomes more important CMC is larger.
larger
23

CMC
C, kg H2O/kg d
dry soliid

Effect of constant drying rate and bed thickness on CMC

Constant drying rate, kg H2O/(hr.m2)

24

Dryin
ng rate, kg H2O
O/(hr.m
m2)

Effect of drying air temperature on drying rate

Free moisture content of solid, kg/kg dry solid

25

Calculation of drying time from drying time data

Drying rate data using laboratory experiments
CAUTION: drying conditions in laboratory dryer and
commercial dryer should match (drying gas velocity, T, drying
gas humidity, geometry of wet solid).
Let Xi = initial moisture content
Xf = final moisture content
WS = mass of bone dry solid
a = drying area (exposed area of solid)
The required drying time for the given duty (Xi to Xf) can be
obtained by integrating the equation,
Ws dX
Ws X kg moisture
a
N a
dt
t
m2 s
CAUTION: drying rate N = NC (from Xi till CMC), but depends
on X in
i the
th falling
f lli rate
t period.
i d
26

 X XC N = NC (= constant)
X XC, N = N(X)
Hence, integration is done over two intervals separately.
W Xf dX
W Xi dX
W Xi dX
W XC dX
s
s
s
s

a X N
a X N
a X N
a X N
i
f
C
f
W Xi dX
W XC dX
s
s

a X N
a X N
f
C C

The second integral may be done graphically or numerically of

N versus X data table is available.
27

 If drying rate N decreases with X as a linear function (such as

N = pX + q),
q) the drying time may be expressed as,
as

W X - X
s i
C
t
aN
C

W X X
s i
C

aN
C

W XC dX
s

a X pX q
f

W
pX q
s ln
C

ap
pX q
f

N
C
f
Since N p X q and N p X q p
C
C
f
f
X X
C
f
N

On substitution,

Ws X - X
N
Ws XC Xf
i
C

t
a
ln C t + t
C f
N N
aN
N
C
C
f
f

Here tC = constant rate drying time, tf = falling rate drying time

28

 At X = X*, N = 0, this gives,

0 = p X* + q q = p X*
pX q
p X p X*
X X*
C
C
C
C

*
*
N
pX q
p
X

p
X
X

X
f
f
f
f
and
N

X - X
C
f

N - N
C
f
t t

X X
C
f

p XC q p Xf q
W X X*
W X X
S C
S
i
C
ln

aN

aN

X*

C
N

X X*
C
X X*
f

If there are two falling rate periods, the functions of moisture

content X should be integrated
g
accordingly.
gy
29

Types of Drying Equipment

Different types of dryers to suit specific
needs
Dryer performance = f (efficacy of contact
between wet solid and drying gas)

30

1) Wet solid in trays trays stacked in

drying chambers gap for the drying
gas to pass over the
h top surface
f
off the
h
spread
p
wet solid
Called cross-circulation drying
Low drying rate because moisture is
transported to the drying surface by
diffusion through the layer of moist
solid (for example, tray dryer)
31

2) Wet solid in perforated trays on a moving

bed drying gas passes through the wet
solid bed
Called through-circulation
g
drying
y g
Drying rates are higher than crosscirculation
i l i
d i
drying
b
because
all
ll wet
pparticles exposed
p
to drying
y g g
gas,, and
hence effective drying area is higher
(for example,
example conveyer or band dryer)
32

3) Wet solid may move through a slightly

inclined rotating shell solid is
simultaneous
i l
lif d by
lifted
b flights
fli h on the
h
inner wall of shell solid is showered
in drying gas flowing through the shell
For example, rotary dryer

33

4) Wet solid in cylindrical vessel drying

gas flows at a high velocity wet solid
i suspended
is
d d or fluidised
fl idi d in
i drying
d i gas
drying
y g is accomplished
p
Uniform drying with high rate
For example: flash dryer, fluidised
bed dryer

34

5) Feed solution or slurry sprayed as

fine droplets efficient contact with
drying gas (for example: spray dryer)
Thick
Thi k liquid
li id or slurry
l
may be
b fed
f d on the
h
outer surface of a heated rotaryy drum
it is spread there and gets dried (for
example:
l : drum dryer)

35

Cl ifi ti off Drying

Classification
D i Equipment
E i
t
Industrial dryers
y
are classified on the basis
of mode of operation, state of the wet
solid, or method
solid
method of energy supply
supply.

36

1 Mode of operation: A dryer may

1.
operate batch-wise or continuous
batch dryer / continuous dryer.
Batch
B t h dryer:
d
l
low
equipment
i
t cost,
t
low installation cost,, more versatile
in applications, suitable for small
production capacities.
capacities

37

2 State of the wet solid: The wet feed

2.
may be a liquid (solution), a slurry, a
paste, filter-cake, free flowing solid,
granular or fibrous solid or lumps.
lumps
These types of dryers are classified and
may be named accordingly.

38

3. Method of energy supply: Direct or

indirect heating.
Direct heating: by hot drying gas.
Indirect
I di t heating:
h ti
th
through
h the
th dryer
d
wall from hot g
gas flowingg outside.
Sometimes, an inert (not hot) gas
flows through dryer while heat is
supplied from outside. This gas is
carrier gas.
39

Suggested Further Reading / Study

1) Direct heating batch dryers

4) Indirect heating continuous dryers

a)) Tray
T
d
dryer

a)) Indirect
I di
h i rotary dryer
heating
d

b) Truck dryer

b) Drum dryer

2) Direct
Di t heating
h ti continuous
ti
d
dryers
a) Tunnel truck dryer

c)) Freeze
F
d
dryer

5) Air suspended drying systems

b) Belt
B lt or Band
B d or Conveyer
C
d
dryer

a)) Flash
Fl h dryer
d

c) Rotary dryer

b) Fluidised bed dryer

3) Indirect
I di t heating
h ti batch
b t h dryers
d

c)) Spray
S
d
dryer

a) Jacketed shelf dryer

b) Agitated
A it t d pan dryer
d
c) Conical vacuum dryer

40

Suggested Further Reading / Study

Drying Calculations
1) Cross
Cross-circulation
circulation drying
a) Case I: Temperature and humidity of drying gas remain
constant
b) Case II: Temperature and humidity of drying gas vary
along the tray
tra
2) Through-circulation drying
3) Material and energy balances in continuous dryers
4) Drying time in a continuous countercurrent dryer
5) Freeze drying calculations
41