SUBMITTED TO J.

THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

Modeling and Control of Microgrid: An overview

M. S. Mahmoud , S. Azher Hussain , M A. Abido

AbstractA Microgrid (MG) is a building block of future

smart grid, it can be defined as a network of low voltage power
generating units, storage devices and loads. System of Systems
(SoS) is another concept involving large scale integration of
various systems. In this paper, we provide an overview of recent
developments in modeling and control methods of microgrid as
well as presenting the reason towards incorporating MG into the
existing grid. Various SoS control strategies when applied to MG
are discussed.
Index TermsDistributed Generation, Microgrid, SoS, Decentralized Control, Multi-Level Control, Networked Control
System.

I. I NTRODUCTION
The burden on the transmission network is increasing at an
unexpected pace due to the increasing demand of power. Since
updates to the transmission network are economically challenging, microgrids have evolved to become an economically
viable alternative. In microgrids, generating units are commissioned within the scope of the conventional distribution
network so that power can directly flow from the generators
to the load without having to pass through the transmission
network. The other advantage of using such an architecture
is that loads can be served even if the transmission network
is down due to a fault, increasing the overall reliability of
the system. A Microgrid is generally known as the system
consisting of small distributed generating stations along with
the loads which is capable of going into islanded operation at
times of need [1].
Among the many benefits of having a microgrid, one is that
it facilitates distributed generation (DG) and high penetration
of renewable energy sources [2]-[4]. They increase power
quality and reliability of electric supply. A microgrid having
renewable energy sources will help to alleviate some of the
environmental issues related to burning fossil fuels. There is
extensive literature on the various challenges posed by microgrids. Despite having some benefits of microgrid architecture
in the grid environment, there are some challenges related to
this also. Implementation is an issue. Microgrid protection is
also considered one of the most important challenges facing
the implementation of microgrids. Once a microgrid is formed,
it is important to assure that the loads, lines, and DGs on
the island are protected because conventional unidirectional
power flow protection method is no longer viable [5]. Solid
regulatory base is another issue related to microgrids. It is
known tha energy related industries established policies and
solid regulatory base in place which became important for
ManuscriptMsM-Azhar-Abido-JFI.tex
Systems Engineering Department, KFUPM, P. O. 5067, Dhahran 31261,
Saudi Arabia, email: msmahmoud@kfupm.edu.sa
Electrical Engineering Department, KFUPM, P. O. 985, Dhahran 31261,
Saudi Arabia

the growth in market. Government organizations should ensure

that these regulatory policies should include guidelines and
schemes to implement microgrid technologies
Control of the voltage and frequency during islanded operation of DGs is also a major challenge. A method for
intentionally islanding a single DG to feed a local load was
proposed in [6]. A much more complex and challenging task is
to operate more than one DG on the island. With more than one
DG on the island, it is necessary to regulate the voltage during
microgrid operation, which could be achieved by using a
voltage versus reactive power droop controller [7]. There needs
to be an algorithm that should complete the resynchronization
process once the grid is restored. A supervisory control mechanism will monitor the overall process and provide information
to the local controller to respond accordingly.
The concept of Power grid is based on the technology
introduced around 120 years ago. It is facing lot of issues
in keeping up with modern challenges. One of the main
challeges is to guarantee electricity supply to customers and
maintaining long-term energy security. Therefore increased
Zs
world
reliability/efficiency is very much needed in todayA
where the demand of electricity is ever-growing. Microgrids
(MG) incorporate various distributed generator (DG) units
into the utility grid and solves and solves many problems of
existing power systems. It is also the vital building block of
the future Smart Grid [7].
On another front, the concept of System of systems (SoS)is
gaining rapid interest in the field of research and can also
possibly lead to a new branch of engineering known as SoS
Engineering. This branch is related to systems engineering
and deals with the optimization of a network of interacting
systems. Any large scale integrated system or any complex
system can be viewed as an example of SoS [8], [9]. A
microgrid can be viewed as a System of System (SoS).
In this paper, motivation towards development of MG and an
overview will be presented on the two key aspects,modeling
and control, of MG. Recent developments in these two key
aspects will be presented. A better control strategy, by viewing
MG as a special case of SoS, will be discussed.
II. D ISTRIBUTED G ENERATION : A PPLICATIONS AND
I SSUES
The existing grid has small number of producers, long
distribution ways and high maintenance cost, it is also difficult
to achieve load balancing. Moreover, the depleting fossil fuels
and the adverse effect on environment by its consumption
has gain multi-national interest in reducing the excess use of
nonrenewable energy resources and many nations are keeping
tap on CO2 emissions [10].
The main concerns with the existing centralized power

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

system grid are summarized below [11]

Increasing demand and lack of high reliability
No scope of expansion on power system expansion
Limitations of centralized power system planning
Risks of volatile bulk power markets
Security Threats
Limited power quality
Environmental effect (Release of CO2 , Nuclear waste
etc.)
All the above issues urges the need to incorporate Distributed Generating (DG) units into the existing power systems
[12]. The concept of DG is of early 1990s, it has multiple
advantages for both source and consumers [13]. In literature,
there exists various definitions of DG which are summarized in
[14]. DG is defined as , "Generation of electricity by facilities
that are sufficiently smaller than central generating plants so
as to allow interconnection at nearly any point in the power
system"[15].
DG units are the emerging micro-generating technologies
such as microturbines, fuel cells, Internal Combustion (IC)
engines. It also make use of renewable energy sources such
as Photo Voltaic (PV) arrays and wind turbines. The DG
units have low emission rates, environment friendly and are
economical.The introduction of DG units should reduce the
pressure on central power grid principally but in technically
speaking, penetration of distributed generation into the power
grid creates a new class of issues different from those found
in traditional power sources. Random applications of DG
units will cause as many issues as it may solve [16]. Some
of the problems are discussed below

First of all, DG units operates close to the distribution

voltage level of 480V as it is geographically located near
the loads and provides a DC or variable frequency AC
output and hence requires power electronic devices in
order to interface with the power-grid/load. The power
electronic interface leads to development of new control
strategies [17].
The output of renewable energy systems fluctuates with
conditions of weather which is also a debatable issue
when DG units are connected to power grid [18].
The existing power grid follows a multi-level flow of
power from transmission to distribution network, any
change in power flow causes problems because DG units
behavior is different than a conventional load [10].
Finally, the initial energy balance for a new load is taken
care by the power stored in the generator inertia and
the micro generating units are inertia less. This lack of
inertia is the major problem leading to power imbalances
between the generation and load. There are also number
of barriers in form of technical, business and regulatory
issues when it comes to connecting DGs to electrical
grid [17].
To overcome these issues and to utilize the potential of
distributed generation, the concept of MicroGrid was introduced in [17]. Using power electronic devices in addition with

Distributed Energy Resources (DER), integration of DG into

the utility grid is possible. Power electronic devices improve
the flexibility and adaptability of the system by converting the
power from source to a fixed frequency AC power. They also
provide various ancillary services to the grid [19]-[20].

III. M ICROGRID : D EFINITION AND A PPLICATIONS

A microgrid can be defined as, A network of low voltage
power generating units, storage devices and loads capable of
supplying a local area such as suburban area, an industry or
any commercial area with electric power and heat. The components of Microgrid are interfaced through quick response
power electronics and presents itself as a single entity and
therefore can be connected to traditional power grid or can
also be operated in stand-alone mode as a self-sustained power
system [7].
As stated in [17], "The heart of the microgrid concept is
the notion of a flexible, yet controllable interface between
the microgrid and the wider power system.". Microgrid acts
as a Good Citizen, that is, ideal conventional load behavior
towards the grid which is less troublesome than distributed
generation system. It also has environmental benefits because
it uses renewable energy sources.
Different countries around the world adopts various topologies and structure basing on their priorities on functionality
offered by microgrid. The research on microgrid is more active
in US, Canada, Europe and Japan. Several demonstration
projects and laboratory facilities are developed and a lot of research is in progress concerning various issues in the microgrid
[21]-[22]. Various objectives which can be achieved by the use
of microgrid are listed below, ride through capability provided
by energy-storage is a common objective of microgrid.

Reliability of power supply

Reduction of environmental impact of electric supply
Reduction of investment in plant, equipment and cost
Increase of energy efficiency Stable
Ensure diversity of energy supply
Power supply to a remote site
Ride-through capability provided by energy storage

The future Smart grid is expected to be a well organized

plug-and-play integration of microgrids connected via dedicated highways for exchange of command, data and power.
The emerging standards, research, development and demonstration are also discussed in [23].

IV. M ICROGRID : C OMPONENTS AND F ORMATION

A generalized structure of microgrid is shown in fig (1). The
microgrid can be connected to the utility grid through single
Point of Common Coupling (PCC). The isolating device is
used to isolate the microgrid from the utility grid.

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

Distributed Generation (DG) Unit

DC/AC

DC/DC

DC/AC

PCC
Isolating
Device
To Grid

Micro-turbine
Fuel cell

IC engine

DC/AC

Wind turbine

DC/DC

PV Array

DC/DC

Energy Storage Unit

Central Controller

DC/AC

Fig. 1.

Local Load

Generalized microgrid structure

The Distribution Generation (DG) unit is responsible for

generation of electricity. It consists of rotating type and
inverter type generating devices. Rotating type includes IC
engines, gas turbines, microalternator etc. whereas the inverter
type includes photovoltaic, fuel cells and wind turbines etc.
Both rotating and inverter type requires power electronic
converters for their interface. The power range of DG unit
components is small-scale ranging from 4KW-10000KW [11].
Energy storage unit is essential to balance the flow of
power at the onset of islanding mode of operation. It is
also used to control the flow of power to and from the
main grid. They help in improving the quality of power and
assist in voltage control. Batteries, flywheels, super-capacitors,
superconducting magnetic energy storage etc. can be used
to store the energy. All these devices again require power
electronic devices for their interface [11].
There has to be a Control System for the safe operation
of microgrid in various modes of its operation. This system
can be based on a central controller or distributed controller.
The selection of controller depends mainly on the operation
mode of microgrid and its requirements [24].Various control
strategies will be discussed in this paper in other sections.
The purpose of microgrid is not obtained until the customer
is served with nominal voltage and frequency by a stable
system during all the modes of operation [24].
V. MG: M ODES OF O PERATION
Microgrid can operate autonomously and can also be connected to the utility/main grid. In case any fault occurs
while operating in grid connected mode, microgrid has an
ability to disconnect itself from grid and operate independently
supplying its local load [25]. Therefore, the microgrid modes
of operation can be classified into grid connected, islanded,
transition between grid-connected mode to the islanded mode
and vice-versa [26].In any mode of operation, the heat generated by some of the micro-sources can be used to supply the
heat demand of the local load.
When functioning in parallel with the utility (main) grid,
it acts as a Model or Good citizen and the voltage and

frequency is controlled by main grid. Depending on load

of the main grid, it will either supply or absorb power and
act as either controllable load or controllable source. If any
fault or disturbance occurs in the main grid, microgrid has an
ability to disconnect and operate autonomously. This ability of
microgrid increases the quality of power to its local customer
by providing local voltage control. In this mode of operation,
the points to be noted are
The frequency and voltage magnitude are controlled by
utility grid
DG units supply the total or a part of the load
Islanding of microgrid can be due to unplanned faulty events
discussed in [26] and can also be due to planned actions
like maintenance etc. The microgrid controls the voltage and
frequency in autonomous mode by continuously adjusting the
output active and reactive power. This is very common mode
of operation. In this mode, it supplies a local load which is
closely located geographically. The local load can be a small
village, a university, an industry or a commercial building
etc. The main issues which the microgrid should address
in this mode is the management of voltage and frequency,
Quality of Power (QoP), balancing between load and supply,
communication among its components etc. In this mode of
operation, the points to be noted are
The DG units control the frequency and voltage magnitude
It supplies active and reactive power to the load
VI. M ICROGRID : OVERVIEW OF M ODELING
A microgrid integration of various units. Basically, it consists of DG unit, energy-storage unit, controller unit and
conventional load. The DG unit again compromises of various micro-generating devices. Therefore, microgrid modeling
varies from one configuration to other depending on the
components used. Various approaches for the modeling and
control of microgrid can be found in the literature [27]. We
will discuss the different models available in the literature.
A small signal dynamic analysis of an autonomous hybrid
system is performed in [28]. The configuration of the system
is shown in fig (2).

Fig. 2.

Configuration of a microgrid system [28]

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

The dynamics of all the DG units are approximated by a first

order linear model with a time constant and a gain factor while
the network is neglected [28], [29]. The transfer functions of
various components are obtained and time domain analysis is
performed by considering various components at each time.
The transfer functions of various components are given as
follows and fig (3) shows the configuration in one of the cases.
W ind T urbine : GW T G (s) =

KW T G
1 + sTW T G
Fig. 4.

KP V
P V System :
1 + sTP V
F uel Cell :

The dynamic model of Fig. 4 is represented by the following

nonlinear equations

KF C
1 + sTF C

Diesel Engine Generator :

Aqua Electrolyser :
Storage System :

Model of MG in [30], [32], [33]

Rt
vd
vt d
ditd
= itq
itd
+
dt
Lt
Lt
Lt

KDEG
1 + sTDEG

dvd
1
1
iL d
= itd
vd
dt
C
RC
C

KAE
1 + sTAE

vq
Rl
iL d
= iLq +

iLd
dt
L
L

Ksto
1 + sTsto

it q
Rt
vtq
= itd
itq +
dt
Lt
Lt
Rl
iL q
= iLd
iLq
dt
L

K WTG
1 + S WTG
PW

K WTG
1 + S WTG

K WTG
1 + S WTG

Fuel Cells

K FC
1 + S FC

Cvd = itq iLq

PAE

+
+

PFESS

Kn
+
+
+
+

- PS -

K FESS
1 + S FESS

1
D + MS

D f

PS*

Diesel Generator

K DEG
1 + S DEG

After performing the linearization, whose details can be seen

in [30], [32], [33] , the state space matrices are obtained as
mentioned below. The overall test system was simulated in the
Matlab Simulink and ATPDraw environment.

1- Kn

K AE
1 + S AE
K FC
1 + S FC

PWTG

+
+

PBESS

K BESS
1 + S BESS

PDEG

A=

1
C

BT =
Fig. 3.

Block diagram of a microgrid

Since a MG is a power generating unit, it can be represented

by a DC source. This concept of modeling a MG with an RLC
load in islanded mode is proposed in [30][31]. As shown in
Fig. 4, MG is represented by a DC source connected to a
voltage-sourced converter (VSC). The MG is connected to the
grid by means of a R-L filter, step-up transformer and a circuit
breaker. The circuit breaker is open when the MG is islanded.
The load which is passive RLC type is connected on the high
voltage side of the transformer. A control system is used to
control the VSC.

t
R
Lt

1
Lt

L1t

0
RLl

20

RLl

C1

0 0 0


X T = itd


itq

Rl C0
L
1
L

iLd

vd

0
R

02 C

1
RC


C= 0

0 0 1

This concept of representing MG as a combination of

DC source with VSC is also presented in [34], [35]. This
paper models the islanded operation of MG consisting of two
parallel DG units. Again the local load is a passive RLC
network located at the PCC. The schematic diagram of such
an arrangement is shown in Fig. 5. The MG structure is used
for the application of decentralized control and hence there is
a separate controller for each DG unit.

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

Fig. 5.

Radial configuration of DGs used in [34]

By applying KVL and KCL and further application of frame

transformation, gives the below dynamic equations governing
the MG
1
1
1
1
dVdq
=
Vdq it,dq1 IL,dq + It,dq2
dt
RC
C
C
C
1
Rt1
1
It,dq1
+ j0 It,dq1 =
Vdq
It,dq1 +
Vt,dq1
dt
Lt1
Lt1
Lt1

Fig. 7.

By combining individual sub-modules, the overall statespace model of MG is given below. The subscript represents
states of inverter, network and load. Detailed derivation and
information on the state-space matrices can be found in [36].

IL,dq
1
Rl
+ j0 IL,dq = Vdq
iL,dq
dt
L
L
it,dq2
1
Rt 2
1
+ j0 It,dq2 =

it,dq2 +
vt,dq2
dt
Lt2
Lt 2
Lt 2
The model is then represented in state space which is
simulated using Matlab SimPowerSystems toolbox [34].
A microgrid consisting of only inverter based DGs is
modeled in [36] [37]. Typical structure of such microgrid is
shown in Fig. 6. The modeling approach considered the full
dynamic model of the complete network rather than algebraic
equations.

x Inv
xInv
i networkdq = Amg inetworkdq
iloaddq
i loaddq

Inverter based MG structure in [36]

The approach of modeling was divided in three modules

namely inverter, network and loads. The inverter model compromises of dynamics of controller, output filter and coupling
inductor. The state equations of network and load are represented on one of the inverters reference frame which is assumed to be common reference. Then using the transformation
technique [38], all the other inverters are transformed to this
common frame. Each sub-module is modeled in state-space
form and combined together on this common reference frame.
Block diagram of state space model of the MG is shown in
Fig. 7.

(1)

A small signal dynamic model of MG which includes

synchronous generator based DG and power electronically
interfaced DG is presented in [39]. Fig. 8 shows the single
line diagram of the MG. DG1 is a synchronous machine
(diesel or gas-turbine generator) with excitation and governor
control system whereas DG2 is a dis-patchable source (microturbine or wind generator etc) equipped with a Voltage-Source
Converter (VSC). The system parameters are given in [26]

Fig. 8.
Fig. 6.

State-space model of MG in [36]

Small signal of synchronous generator model [39]

To obtain the linearized mathematical model of the above

system the following steps are followed
The ordinary differential equations (ODE) of DG units
including network components are developed in their
respective local dq0 reference frames
The obtained equations are transformed to the global dq0
frame of MG
Linearized about a nominal operating point and arranged
in the state space form
The dynamic model of DG1 in its local reference dq0 frame
is obtained from [40] and the dynamic model of DG2 can
be found in [41], [42]. The electrical network modeling is
carried out on the basis outlined in [43] and can be found in

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

[42]. The overall system model is represented by the block

diagram in Fig. 9. The small signal model was validated in
the PSCAD/EMTDC environment.

Fig. 9.

Block diagram of MG model [39]

fuel-cell (SOFC) is described in detail with the values of each

parameters in [47], [48]. A gas turbine (GAST) was used
for the primary unit of microturbine. The dynamic model of
GAST is adopted from [47]. A fifth-order induction generator
connected directly to the network serves as a wind generator.
This model was available in Matlab Simulink toolboxes. An
empirical model for the PV generator based on experimental
results was adopted from [49].
Flywheels and batteries are used for the modelling of
storage devices. They were modeled as a constant dc voltage
sources and were coupled to the electrical network using power
electronic interface.
The inverter modelling can be derived as per two control
strategies, PQ inverter control modeling [50] and Voltage
Source Inverter Control (VSI) model [51], [52]. Inverters are
modeled based only on their control functions for the purpose
of analyzing the dynamic behavior of MG [26], [53], [54],
[55], [56]. Two types of loads were considered, one is constant
impedance load and other is motor load.
An LV test network was built in Matlab/Simulink SimPowerSystemsenvironment. The implementation of this network is
shown in Fig. 11 whose detailed description can be found in
[57] and [58].

The same MG structure is taken into account in [26] and

the stability analysis for various transient conditions such
as energizing load, transition from grid-connected mode to
islanded mode and vice-versa is performed. An operational
architecture developed within EU R&D microgrids projects
[44], [45] is adopted in [46]. This concept is shown in Fig.
10. It is a multi-level type control and management scheme
supported by a communication infrastructure.
PV

DC

Flywheel

AC
AC

MV

LV

DC

MC
LC

MGCC

LC

AC

DC

Battery

LC
CHP
LC
MC

AC

DC
Fuel Cell

AC

DC
LC

Microturbine

Fig. 10.

MG structure in [46]

The head of this multi-level control system is MicroGrid

central controller (MGCC) installed at the MV/LV substation
and centrally controls the MG. Load controllers (LC) and microsource controller (MC) forms the second level of Hierarchy
and exchange information with the MGCC. LC acts as an
interface to controllable loads and MC controls the active and
reactive power of each microsource. Both LC and MC receives
their set-points from MGCC.
The dynamic modeling of each DG components was picked
from different literature. The dynamic model of solid oxide

Fig. 11.

Implementation of MG on LV network

A low voltage MG with three unbalanced phases

was proposed in [59], Fig. 12 shows the Matlab
Simulinkimplementation of the structure used. Inverters
droop controls were used to interface DGs and loads were
modeled as constant power. Simulations were carried out for
both grid connected and isolated modes. This model has an
advantage of modeling small unbalanced networks but lacks
the analytic details required for stability analysis.

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

to stabilize the operation of microgrid. When designing a

controller, operation mode of MG plays a vital role. Therefore,
after modelling the key aspect of the microgrid is control. In
this section we will discuss the various control paradigms.

A. Microgrid Control: Grid-connected Mode

Fig. 12.

MG network and Matlab/Simulink structure used in [59]

A new method to form the system matrices of large MGs

in islanded mode is discussed in [60]. The MG under consideration has DGs power electronically interfaced and hence
the dynamics are similar to that shown in [36]. There were
two types of DGs, one was PQ regulated and other was Vf
regulated which are introduced in [39].
The proposed modeling approach is based on four denAned

complex vectors. These vectors allow for complex-valued

system matrices to be formed in a quite automated way.
Moreover, a convenient partition of the system matrices is
proposed, which in turn allows fast and easy modinAcations.

Additionally, a multivariable methodology is proposed to simultaneously determine the control system gains in an optimal
sense.
An alternative approach is based on the "hub model" for
microgrids [61] in which the couplings between an integrated
electricity and natural gas system to yield optimal operation
are modeled by energy hubs. It turns out that this concept
serves as interface between the loads and the transmission
infrastructures and supports the application of distributed control schemes. Similarly, hybrid modeling control techniques
are applied to a two generator power system connected to the
grid and the plant consists of a solar field and a secondary
power source formed by an electrolyzer, hydrogen tank and
fuel cell stack. It is shown that the system has essentially
hybrid dynamics, as it can operate in four distinct modes,
depending on the power circuit configuration and the fuel cell
stack state [62]. With focus on bulk power flow of microgrids,
research investigations are reported in [63], [64] in which an
optimal design of an electrical microgrid and sizing of its components is sought to balance capital investment with expected
operational cost while meeting performance requirements. In
[65], an comprehensive review on current control technology is
presented with emphasis on challenges of microgrid controls.
The impact of frequency and voltage regulation on the optimal
design of an autonomous military microgrid, comprised of a
solar panel and vehicles as power sources, with each vehicle
incorporating a battery and generator, is developed in [66],
[67]
VII. M ICROGRID - OVERVIEW OF C ONTROL
The control strategies for microgrid depends on the mode
of its operation. The aim of control technique should be

In grid connected mode, microgrid acts as a controllable

load/source. It should not actively regulate the voltage at
the point of common coupling (PCC). Its main function is
to satisfy its load requirements with good citizen behavior
towards main grid. The balance between generation and demand, control of the parameters of the system is taken care
by the utility grid. The voltage and frequency reference of the
microgrid is also set by the main grid. Therefore the main
task of a DG unit is to control the output real power (P) and
reactive power (Q) [68]-[69]. The P, Q generated by a DG
can be controlled either by current-based or by voltage-based
power flow control [70].

B. Power flow control by current regulation

The control scheme for power flow control through current
regulation is illustrated in Fig. 13. It is desired to control both
the real and reactive power. The real power control loop is used
to obtain the synchronous frame d-axis reference current and
reactive power control loop is used to obtain the q-axis current.
The synchronous d-q frame current can then be controlled in
a closed loop manner [69].

Fig. 13.

PQ power control through output current regulation[70]

C. Power flow control by voltage regulation

The other method to control the power flow is based on
the output voltage of DG. Therefore it is know as power flow
control through voltage regulation. It can be shown that real
power (P) flow is proportional to the voltage phase angle
() and reactive power (Q) flow is proportional to voltage
difference (Vl - Vg ), where Vl is DG voltage and Vg is PCC
voltage and is the phase angle difference between these two
voltages. Therefore the flow of P can be regulated using
and flow of Q can be regulated using Vl - Vg . This scheme
is illustrated in Fig. 14. To improve the accuracy of reactive
power control, integral control can be included into the reactive
power controller [68], [71], [72].

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

2) Microsource Controller : It includes Generator Agent,

Schedule Agent, Bid Agent
3) Load Controller : It includes Load Agent, Status Agent,
Switch Agent
The effectiveness and applicability of the introduced software has been evaluated on a laboratory environment.

E. MAS based distributed control

A distributed control approach based on Multi Agent System (MAS) for microgrids is proposed in [74], where advantages of MAS technology is utilized for controlling microgrids.
As shown in Fig. 16, a fully decentralized approach is adopted
with 3 distinguished control level.
Fig. 14.

PQ power control through output voltage regulation [70]

Power control through voltage regulation is more sensitive

than current regulation to the line impedance between the DG
and the PCC.
D. Agent based control
Microgrid management system was developed using agent
based technology in [73]. Microgrid agents were developed on
JADE (Java Agent Development Framework). The proposed
system has several functionalities like SCADA system, selling
bids managing system, load shifting system etc. The software
architecture of the management system is shown in Fig. 15.

AMS

DF

Pulling
Agent

DB
Agent

Shifting
Agent

Curtail
Agent

Fig. 16.

DB

Central
Agent

Microgrids Agent Platform

Micro-source Controller
Normal Controller
Sch
Agent
Bid
Agent

Micro-source Controller
Load Controller
Status
Agent
Switch
Agent

Gen
Agent

XML-PRC

Load
Agent

XML-PRC

Bid

DC

Fig. 15.

AC

Load

Architecture of management system

Microgrid agent platform consists of following components

1) Microgrid Central Controller (MGCC) : It includes
Pulling Agent, Database Agent, Control Agent, Shifting
Agent, Curtailment Agent

Control levels of MAS environment

Distribution Network Operator (DNO) and Market Operator

(MO)are at medium voltage level and does not belong to
microgrid. DNO refers to the operational functions of the
system and is responsible for technical operation of one or
more microgrids whereas one or more MO are responsible for
market functions of the area.
Microgrid Central Controller (MGCC) is the main interface
between DNO/MO and the microgrid. Its main function is to
optimize the operation of microgrid and coordinate the local
controllers.
On the lower level, Load Controllers (LC) control the DG,
production, storage and some of the local loads.
Using MAS technology, model of the system is obtained
in detail where every agent uses the the exact piece of
information it needs, leaving the technical details for the
agents that are below it in the organization chart. The paper
proposes three types of agent. Control Agent which controls
physical units of the system directly. Management Agents
which manage the microgrid and takes the decision. Ancillary
Agents which performs tasks like communication and storage
of data. The proposed MAS platform is depicted in the Fig.
17.

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

G. Microgrid control : autonomous/islanded mode

Fig. 17.

Types of MAS agents

In [74], internal operation of the microgrid and its participation in energy market was focused particularly. The algorithm
is proposed so that the every DER or controllable load decides
what is best for it.
F. H control
A new power balancing method based on H control theory
is proposed in [75]. The power fluctuations were considered as
the disturbances added to the MG. Fig. (18) shows the block
diagram of MG structure.

In the autonomous or islanded mode of operation, microgrid

supplies its local load and is not connected to the utility grid.
The main challenges in this mode are
1) Voltage and frequency control
2) Balance between supply and demand
3) Power quality
4) Issues relating to Microsources
5) Communication among microgrid components
Lot of research has been done on control of microgrid in
Autonomous/Islanded operation [78] which will be discussed
in this section. The two main control strategies PQ and VSI
control is discussed first, detailed description and explanation
on these two controls can be found in [55].
When connected to grid, all the DGss can operate in PQ
control mode because the voltage and frequency is dictated by
the utility grid but at least one DG has to follow VSI control
in islanded mode since the voltage and frequency reference is
set by the MG.
H. PQ and VSI control

Fig. 18.

Structure of MG [75]

The aim of PQ control is to provide constant active and reactive power at a desired power factor [46], [60]. The reference
values of power is defined by a local controller or centrally
from the MGCC. This scheme can be implemented as a current
controlled voltage source or voltage controlled current source
as discussed earlier in section VII,A-(1). Current or voltage
components in direct (Id or Vd ) and in quadrature (Iq or Vd )
with inverter terminal voltage are computed based on method
given in [50].

where Gge and Gbt are the first order transfer function
representation of gas turbine [76] and Kge and Kbt are
controller gains for gas turbine and battery, respectively. F
is the low/high pass filter gain.
Using the Robust Control Toolbox of MATLAB, the controller gains Kge and Kbt were determined as standard controllers. Fig. 19 shows the block diagram of these controller
designs, where W with subscript 1, 2 and 3 are weighing functions for tracking performance, gain margin of the microgrid
system, and robustness for power fluctuations respectively.

Fig. 20.

Fig. 19.

Design of H controllers [75]

In [77], technical challenges and stability of DGs when

connected into the distribution system is detailed. Since high
penetration of the DGs can be considered as a microgrid the
same technical challenges can be assumed correct for a grid
connected microgrid.

PQ Control Scheme [46]

Fig. 20 shows the control block for this strategy using

current control. The direct component (Id ) of the current
is used for the control of active power and the quadrature
component (Iq ) is used for the reactive power control.
Voltage source inverter (VSI) matches the behavior of a
synchronous machine controlling the voltage and frequency
on the ac system [53], [79], [50]. It acts as a voltage source
whose output voltages magnitude and frequency is controlled
through Vf droop characteristics which are shown in fig. (21).
Hence, this method is also known as Droop Method.

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

10

Microsource controller based on droop characteristics is

shown in Fig. 23. P,Q and V are calculated and then the droops
are implemented in two separate blocks. Then the controller
generates the voltage at desired magnitude and frequency at
the inverter terminals.

Fig. 21.

V and f characteristics
Ereq

Inverter Current

In VSI control, voltage is related to reactive power (V Q)

whereas frequency/phase shift is related to active power (f
P ) by the below shown equations.

Reactive Power (Q)

Calculation

Input
Voltage

f = f0 Kp P
V = V0 Kq Q

Q-V Droop

Dynamic
Controller
|V|

Inverter or Line
Current

where Kp and Kq are respective slopes of droop

characteristics and f0 and V0 are the idle values of frequency
and voltage [51]. The microsources will change their output
by P (or Q) when the frequency (or voltage) changes by
f (or v) from the nominal values f0 (or v0 ).

Voltage (E)
Calculation

Fig. 23.

Real Power (P)

Calculation

P Vs fq
Calculation

I
N
V
E
R
T
E
R

Vreq

Microsource controller using droops

A VSI model is shown in fig (22) [51], [52]. The active and
reactive powers are computed using the VSI terminal voltage.
The output voltage frequency f is determined by the active
power droops and magnitude V is determined by reactive
power droops. The output voltage are the reference signals
which control the VSI switching sequence.
J. New Q V droop control

Fig. 22.

Model of a VSI

The key point to be observed here is VSI uses the local

measurements at its terminals and reacts to any system disturbances quickly and hence does not require any communication
infrastructure [53], [79]. But there will be a communication
infrastructure within the DG for the optimal management
[46].A complete review of Vf control strategies can be found
in [80] and validation of Vf control in both grid and islanded
mode is performed in [24].
I. Autonomous control
The concept of utilizing VQ and Pf droops for controlling
the microgrid is also proposed in the [12], [16], [81]. They
propose an autonomous control for the peer-to-peer and plugand-play model of the microgrid components. The concept of
peer-to-peer allows the continuous operation of microgrid even
with loss of any component/DG because there are no master
controller or central storage unit. The concept of plug-andplay ensures that any component can be added at any point in
the system without re-engineering the controls.

In islanded mode, the reactive power sharing is highly

dependent on impedance of power line. Due to the different
distances among DERs interface converters (DICs), the equivalent transmission line impedance could be unequal [51]. Pf and
QV droop characteristics are used in DER interface converters
for power sharing operations [82], [81]. The Pf droop control
provides an accurate real power sharing among the DICs but
the problem arises in QV droop control. Because of these
unequal impedance load sharing performance of QV control
can be affected. Various control methods addressing this issue
has been proposed [83], [84], [85] but with some constraints.
Therefore a new droop control method for the islanded
operation of MG is proposed in [86] to overcome the effect
of line impedance on the reactive power flow, this method is
known as Q-V droop control method where V represents the
rate of change of voltage. By regulating the voltage with V ,
the reactive power sharing can be made independent of the line
impedance. The operation principle of the proposed method is
shown in fig (24).

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

Vx,abc

Droop Controller

Vsx,qd

abc/ dqs

V e x ,qd

abc/ dqe

i x,qd

s + wf

P&Q
Calcula
tion

abc / dq s

P-f
Droo
p
contr
ol

Px

wf

abc/ dqs

ix,abc

Px,inst

Q-V
Droop
contro
l

wf
s + wf

allows a DG to control its real & reactive power components

in grid-connected mode and to control the voltage & frequency
in autonomous mode.

Ve*x,qd
+

Sine
wav
e

Vx

PI

qd e / dq s

Vex,qd

i s * x , qd

Qx

Qx,inst

x ,qd

fx

11

Vsx,qd
isx,qd

Current
Regulat
or
&PWM
Modulat
or

Vax
*
ax

+
*
x

KresQRx

1
s

Qex

+
-

Qx
V*restoration

Fig. 24.

D Qx

+
nx

Vx

1
s

+
-

Vx

Va
Q-V*droop Control

Block diagram of DIC with QV droop control [86]

K. Control design based on transfer function

Fig. 26.

Block diagram for the frequency control [31]

The proposed VSC frequency control is similar to that of a

synchronous machine and is shown by the block diagram in
fig (26). In grid-connected mode, the frequency at PCC (pcc )
is equal to the grid frequency and hence have no impact on
the system dynamics and only the output real power reference
has to be set. In autonomous mode, is same as VSC frequency
determined by the droop characteristics.

Controller based on the transfer function of the plant is

designed in [30], [33], this is adopted from the classical
feedback control approach presented in [87].

Fig. 27.
Fig. 25.

Control strategy [30], [33]

For the islanded mode of operation, fig(25) shows the

structure of controller. Reference angle is provided by a three
phase PLL. The q component of load voltage is set to zero
and d component is regulated to the desired peak value.
Regulation of vd is done by comparing with reference signal
and the error is applied to the controller. The controller then
provides inputs to the gating signal generator of the VSC
(Fig. 4). More details can be found in [30], [33].
Instead of using frequency droops, an internal oscillator is
used to design a multivariable controller in [32]. The function
of this oscillator is to control the frequency in open loop way.
The robust servomechanism controller was designed using the
parameter optimization methods [88], [89] in addition with
non-conservative robustness constraint [90].
VIII. MG - C ONTROL IN B OTH M ODES
A novel control strategy which can be applied to MG in
both the modes is introduced in [31]. This scheme of control

Block diagram for the Voltage control [31]

The block diagram in fig (27) shows the proposed voltage

control scheme. During grid-connected mode, output reactive
power of VSC at PCC is set while in autonomous mode,
the DG has to supply the load with reactive power, which is
achieved by setting E2 to zero and only E1 remains effective.
IX. S YSTEM OF S YSTEMS - I NTRODUCTION
To understand the concept of system of systems (SoS) or
cyberphysical system (CPS), let us consider an airplane which
is an example of large scale complex system. Various parts
of airplane are operated by different systems but the plane
flies only when all its systems operate collectively and does
not fly if they operate individually. Therefore, a SoS is the
large-scale integration of many systems that combine their
capabilities together to form a more complex system offering
more functionalities than the individual sum of the constituent
systems [91].
SoS is inherently multidisciplinary. The synthesis of multi
systems requires the study of their interdependency because
each effects the other. This will result in different problems
ranging from modeling to control. Therefore almost all the

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

key issues of systems engineering have to be revised. The

methodology of developing models, tools and control of SoS
is typically referred to as system of systems engineering. SoS
methodology finds large number of applications in the defense
sector but recently it is also being used in auto transportation,
space exploration, search and rescue and many other nondefense areas [92].
For SoS engineering branch, all aspects of systems engineering have to be revised. But the main problem arises in the two
key aspects which are modeling and control. The challenge in
modeling point of view lies in the indirect effects, the cause
and effect need not be directly related, any change here can
produce effect over there because of their interdependency.It is
clear that these systems are very large and posses unpredictable
behavior which is difficult to model. SoS models available so
far are still immature and there should be focus on additional
development. These models are quite complex and needs a
multidisciplinary approach [92], [93], [94], [95], [96].
Control is perhaps the most critical challenge facing SoS
designers. Due to the difficulty or impossibility of developing
a comprehensive SoS model, either analytically or through
simulation, SoS control remains an open problem and is, of
course, different for each application domain. Moreover, realtime control which is required in almost all application domains of interdependent systems poses an especially difficult
problem [97], [98].

12

System of Systems

Controller:1
Fig. 28.

A robust decentralized control strategy is proposed in [34]

for the islanded operation of a MG. The proposed model of
MG is shown in fig (5). It is shown that the MG can be
represented by an interconnected composite system consisting
of two subsystems [99] and each subsystem can be controlled
using the local controllers.
The dynamic model of the MG is decomposed into two
subsystem as follows

The key issue of SoS, which is control, faces a main challenge of developing a comprehensive SoS model, analytically
or by simulation. Availability of a proper model is necessary
to design a controller. If a proper mathematical model is
available then there are several available control strategies.
Also control strategy for each system is not only dependent
on its own sensory information but also on the communication
links among its neighboring systems or components, this is
another difficulty which rises from the control point of view.
Control of SoS, which is different for each application domain,
is still an open research area. In this section we will discuss
several potential control strategies.

Decentralized SoS control scheme

B. MG - Decentralized control

X. S O S C ONTROL - A PPLICATION TO MG

Controller:n

Master Subsystem
Slave subsystem

Since the two subsystems are controllable and observable,

it is shown that the composite system is stabilizable by using
only local controllers i.e., decentralized control strategy can
be applied.
For the master subsystem, an H controller was designed
to meet the robust characteristics [100]. This control strategy
fulfills the voltage and frequency requirements of the load.
The configuration of H control is shown in Fig. 29. Matlab
LMI toolbox is used to synthesize H controller [101].

A. Decentralized control
Another control lacking real-time consideration is decentralized control [92]. In this scheme of control, SoS is assumed
to be having multiple input and output variables. The control
design aims at assigning proper inputs for proper controller
which can observe a set of outputs. Thus there are multiple
controllers, each one controls a particular operation of SoS.
As it can be seen in Fig. 28, this scheme avoids storage of
data.

Fig. 29.

H Control for Master subsystem [34]

A simple PI controller was designed for the slave subsystem

using the conventional dq current control method [102], [103].
This is depicted in Fig. 30. The overall model and its controllers were simulated in Matlab/SimPowerSystems toolbox.

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

13

Fig. 32.

Fig. 30.

dq Current control method for slave subsystem [34]

A fundamental concepts of Power Management System

(PMS) and robust decentralized control strategy for the islanded MG is proposed in [104]. The schematic diagram of
proposed control is illustrated in fig (31). It consists of a
PMS, Local Controller (LC) for each DER and MG frequency
control and synchronization scheme.

Inverter Control scheme in [105]

Droop based inverter control scheme is adopted [106], [36].

The controller of each individual inverter consists of three
parts, i.e., the power controller, voltage controller, and current
controller. Only the stability of power controller is considered
whereas the voltage and current controllers are based on
traditional PI controllers. A fully decentralized communication is considered which implies any inverter only needs to
communicate with its immediate neighbors to calculate the
total power generation of all DG units. Stability analysis with
and without incorporating communication delay is presented.
A novel decentralized controller for load sharing among
parallel connected inverters in an islanded MG is proposed
in [107]. The controller has 3 nested loops
1) Inner loop

Regulates the output voltage of inverter

Voltage gain is responsible for good output voltage
tracking

2) Resistive output impedance loop

Fig. 31.

PMS and control scheme in [104]

3) P/Q sharing outer loop

A low bandwidth communication system is used to supply

the instantaneous values of real/reactive power of each DER
unit and load to the PMS. The PMS determines the set points
of real, reactive power and voltage for the PC buses and
transmits to LCs which measures the magnitude of voltage
at its PC bus provides voltage tracking based on the received
reference set point.
A decentralized inverter control based on wireless communication is proposed in [105]. wireless communication is used
to enhance the stability of droop based decentralized inverter
control. A wireless network is developed so that each inverter
can communicate with a certain set of inverters. Fig. 32 shows
the block diagram on inverter control.

Reduces the impact of line impedance unbalance

Used to fix the output impedance of the inverter in
terms of magnitude and phase
The output impedance presented to harmonic components can be fixed
Used to obtain proper P/Q sharing
Droop/boost control scheme is used

C. Multilevel control
As discussed earlier SoS is integration of large-scale systems and large-scale systems can be decomposed into subsystems. MultiLevel control assumes SoS is characterized by N
finite set of subsystems coordinated by system coordinator as
shown in Fig 33. By employing any optimal control method
the subsystems can be optimized and repeatedly performing
the modeling, the interactions between the coordinator and
subsystems can be converged to an optimal solution. In literature, multi-level control is obtained by classical steady state
approach but lot issues has to be dealt while its implementation
in real time [92], [93], [94], [95], [96].

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

14

System of Systems

external centralized controller to correct the errors produced

by the primary control. Both controls are depicted in Fig 35.

Coordinator Systems Layer

Subsytems
Layer
Fig. 35.
Fig. 33.

Primary and secondary control

Multilevel SoS control

D. MG - Multilevel control
In this scheme of control there are three main levels namely
primary control, secondary control and tertiary control as
shown in fig (33) [108], [109].

The tertiary control level comes into play mainly when the
MG interacts with the utility grid. The key points related to
Tertiary control are listed below
1) Controls the power flow between MG and the utility grid
2) Send the frequency and voltage references to the secondary control
3) Can perform islanding detection or voltage harmonic
reduction
4) Can also improve the quality of power at PCC
The proposed multilevel control scheme allows the system
to integrate more and more MGs and with this scheme of
control microgrids can operate in both grid connected and
islanded mode.
E. Networked Control Systems

Fig. 34.

Structure of multilevel control scheme

The key points related to Primary Control are listed below

1) Used to share load between converters
2) Improves the system performance and stability
3) Regulate the output frequency and voltage magnitude
4) Droop-control method is often used
5) Can also include virtual impedance control loop to
provide proper output impedance
The key points related to Secondary Control are listed below
1) Restores the f and V to nominal values whenever load
change occurs
2) Removes any steady-state error introduced by the droop
control
3) During transition from islanded to grid-connected mode,
this control can perform synchronization to the main grid
before interconnection
4) Make use of low bandwidth communication
5) More global responsibilities
The primary control loop makes use of only local output
voltage and current to perform calculations of droop control
method whereas the secondary control level consists of an

In modern control systems, we find more and more application of networks owing to impressive advancements in
network technology. One such example is Networked Control
System (NCS). In NCS, the feedback channel is closed using
a real time communication network and all the data among
the components of system is exchanged through this communication network [110]. In [111], NCS is properly defined
as, "Network Control Systems (NCS) are spatially distributed
systems in which the communication between sensors, actuators and controllers occurs through a shared band limited
digital communication network". This definition explains that
the components of NCS are distributed and may operate
asynchronously to reach some overall objective [112].
One of main issues in NCS is the transmission delays and
packet dropouts, therefore the challenge in NCS for SoS is to
develop an SoS distributed control system which can overcome
these issues. As mentioned in [113], these communication
infractions can be compensated by
1) Adjusting control power and controlling distances between systems (power control)
2) Trading off modulation, coding, and antenna diversity
versus throughput (adaptive modulation coding)
3) The (non-wireless) intra-feedback (on-board hardware)
loop of the autonomous control within Si is lower
latency than the inter-wireless distributed control loop
between Si and Sj or the inter-wireless System of
systems controller and the Si controller

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

Another way to check on these communication is to design

a wireless network control system (WNCS) taking account of
all the aspects of the ad hoc network [114]. In this design,
the distributed control will generate two components at each
sampling period, one is local controller which is classical or
modern control and the other is correction component of the
controller which compensates for the ad hoc network quality
of service (QoS) parameters. As shown in Fig. 36, with the
combination of a local controller, correction component and
adaptive sampler the stability and robustness will be enhanced.

15

from DG units using the communication system, average them

and generates the proper control signal for the primary control
level. The schematic diagram of this proposed control scheme
can be seen in Fig. 39 and the detailed explanation can be
found in [115].
Synchronous Signal

Controller realized by
a PC
Ethercat
Frame

Inverter Module with Local Controller

Computer

Central
Controllert

...

ca

sc

Local
Controller

Fig. 38.

Fig. 36.

NCS for SoS with sampler

F. MG - Networked Control
In previous section multilevel control scheme for MG is
discussed. The primary and tertiary control levels are decentralized and centralized respectively because one aims
at the control of DG and other at global optimization of
MG. Conventionally secondary control is implemented in the
MGCC but recently a new distributed control scheme for
the secondary known as networked control system (NCS) is
proposed in [115] which is shown in Fig. 37.

Control of parallel multi-inverter system [116]

In another approach, a real time network is used for the

control of parallel multi-inverter system [116]. Microgrid
makes use of this type of inverter connections to deliver
energy.
The considered system is shown in Fig. 38. It consists of a
central controller, communication network and inverters with
their local controllers. The control strategy is as follows, local
controllers sends the voltage and current measurements to the
central controller via network frame. A closed loop control
inside the central controller produces the satisfactory PWM
duty ratio for each inverter module and sends it back to local
controller via another network frame. This is a centralized
control strategy where central controller has all the central
information.
A PID controller is used to achieve better inverter performance [117] and D-partition method is used to determine
the stability region of PI controller [118]. It was found that
network induced delay brings about a considerable effect on
closed loop control of a single inverter. The practical model
implementing the NCS is shown in Fig. 40.
XI. C OMPARATIVE A NALYSIS

Fig. 37.

Networked controlled microgrid [115]

This strategy is proposed for power electronically based

MGs. The primary and secondary control are implemented in
DG unit. The primary control which is generally droop control
is already discussed in section VII. The secondary control has
frequency, voltage and reactive power controls in a distributed
manner. The secondary control gathers all the measurements

After discussing the control techniques, it is worth performing the comparative analysing of the control techniques which
are most commonly used. In this section, we will classify the
control techniques considering vital aspects for the purpose of
simplification and better understanding. Control strategies for
MG are very vast and detailed comparison of each techniques
with another is out of scope of this paper.
MG control (depending on architecture) can be generally
classified into two main streams namely Centralized, Distributed (or Decentralized). Multi-Level control is also most
widely used one but again depending on architecture of
control levels, even this control techniques falls in former
mentioned categories. For instance in multi-level control, the
secondary control level can be single (Centralized) [109] or

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

Fig. 39.

16

Distributed secondary control [115]

Central Controller

iref
Current
Reference

Ethernet Communication

Disturbance
He-13
Z

+
Uref

1i

ide
+

Zd

Voltage Reference

Zload

iref
Current
Reference

Ethernet Communication

Disturbance
He-13

ide
+
Z

+
Uref

iref

Zd

Voltage Reference

2
i

Ethernet Communication

Current Reference

Disturbance
ide

He-13
+
Z

+
Uref

Voltage Reference

Fig. 40.

NCS controlled parallel multi-inverter model [116]

Z
Zd

3i

SUBMITTED TO J. THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE: REVISED

it can be implemented in a distributed way [115]. Fig. (41)

shows the performance of the controller when implemented in
centralized and decentralized manner. The time delay in the
communication network is taken in account here. It is obvious
from the figure that, the control implemented in distributed
way is better.

17

are presented in both grid-connected and autonomous mode.

The control techniques of microgrid available in literature for
various modes of operation are also discussed. The microgrid
can be viewed as a special case of SoS. It can be concluded
that using networked control system, a better control of
microgrid can be obtained.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Associate Editor and
the reviewers for their constructive comments on our initial
submission. This work is supported by the deanship for
scientific research (DSR) at KFUPM through group research
project RG-1316-1.
R EFERENCES

Fig. 41.

Performance analysis of centralized and distributed controllers

Depending on the power sharing, the methods available in

literature can be broadly divided in two groups, one using communication medium and another is non-communication based.
Because of thier inherent advantages, only communicationless control which is also known as Droop-based Control is
used. It was initially proposed in [79] and since then there
were many variations performed keeping the basic idea droop
control [71], [10], [86]. One such comparision is shown in Fig
(42). A modified droop control technique, designed to improve
the reactive power sharing among the DG units, is proposed
and analysed with the conventional one [86].

Fig. 42.

Performance analysis of primary controllers

XII. C ONCLUSIONS
The role of Microgrid in penetration of DGs in the present
utility network is discussed. Modeling of microgrid is a key aspect and the recent developments in the modeling of microgrid

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