Soft Rot of Ginger
Soft Rot of Ginger
Soft Rot of Ginger
((Zingiber
Zingiber officinale Roscoe)
N P Dohroo
Sandeep Kansal
Neha Ahluwalia
2012
N P Dohroo
Sandeep Kansal
Neha Ahluwalia
2012
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc., Zingiberaceae) is an important commercial
crop in tropical and subtropical countries. The rhizome or modified underground stem
of ginger is used worldwide as a spice for flavouring a multitude of foods and food
products. It is also used in medicines, particularly in traditional medicines of India. India
is the largest producer and exporter of ginger in the world followed by China, Nigeria,
Indonesia, Bangladesh and Thailand. In India, Kerala state ranks first in terms of area
and total production. In Himachal Pradesh, ginger is grown in an area of 3,335 ha with a
production of 32,680 MT. It is a cash crop of mid and low hills of the state. Among
various diseases affecting ginger crop, soft rot is most destructive disease resulting in
30 to 80 per cent yield losses in various parts of the world. Soft rot of ginger caused by
Pythium spp. has become a major threat in almost all ginger growing areas of Himachal
Pradesh. The losses due to this disease have been reported to an extent of 20 to 70 per
cent depending upon the environment conditions and cultivation practices. Thus, there
is an urgent need to educate the farmers for managing this important disease.
In India, chemical control is a major approach for controlling soft rot of ginger
and a number of fungicide formulations have been evaluated and recommended for the
management of soft rot. However, the use of fungicides results in residue and
resistance problems besides their high cost. In recent years, the use of Trichoderma sp.
has gained importance and the use of plant extracts is also found to be effective under
the present host pathogen combination. It is necessary to develop methods to enhance
the efficiency of biocontrol agents and to attain consistency in their performance over a
wide range of agroclimatic conditions.
Thus standardization of the eco-friendly approaches for the management of
soft rot of ginger will enhance the farm income of ginger growers. This calls for
expanding the horizons for the ginger research and reorient the strategies for the
management of soft rot of ginger. Hence, the booklet on status of ginger will be of
immense help to the users including scientists, farm functionaries and farmers to
acquaint themselves with the recent updates in the utilization of eco-friendly
approaches for the management of soft rot of ginger. All the authors deserves
appreciation for their efforts made during the conduct of project research work and
compiling the relevant information in the form of this booklet for the benefit of farming
community. The university is grateful to the ICAR, New Delhi and Director-cum-Nodal
Officer, CPRI, Shimla for financial help to network project on Management of soft rot of
ginger.
(K R Dhiman)
Vice Chancellor
INTRODUCTION
India is considered as 'The land of spices' and enjoys a unique position in
the production and export of ginger from time immemorial. This crop is cultivated
for their underground rhizomes, which is used in many ways. Ginger is used as a
flavoring agent, preservative and for the preparation of pickles as well as soft
drinks. The refreshing pleasant aroma, biting taste
and carminative property of ginger make it an
indispensable ingredient of food processing
throughout the world. Fresh ginger and its powder
from dry ginger, oleoresin and oil are used in national
and international markets. Fresh ginger is unique for
its flowery flavor and spicy taste. It is also used in
jams and marmalades. The syrup in which ginger is
preserved is valued for pickle and sauce making. It is
also used in the production of ginger bread.
Ginger is obtained from the underground stems or rhizomes of Zingiber
officinale Rosc. which is an herbaceous tropical perennial belonging to the family
Zingiberaceae. It is usually grown as an annual crop. The whole plant is
refreshingly aromatic but it is the underground rhizome (raw or processed) which
is valued as spice. Its medicinal value is increasingly being recognized
nowadays. Ginger has originated in South- East Asia. The name itself supports
this view. The Sanskrit name 'Singabera' has given rise to Greek 'Zingiberi' and
later the generic name Zingiber.
Ginger is cultivated in several parts of the world, and the most important
countries being viz., India, China, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Indonesia, Bangladesh,
Australia, Fiji, Jamaica and Nepal. Among these, India and China are the
dominant suppliers of ginger to the world market. In terms of quality, Jamaican
and Indian ginger are considered to be of superior quality followed by West
African type. Jamaican ginger possesses delicate aroma and flavor and is
sometimes considered as first grade ginger. Indian ginger enters the world
market as 'Cochin' and 'Calicut' ginger.
At present, India is the largest producer of ginger in the world accounting
for about one-third of the total world output. It is followed by Thailand and Japan.
The productivity of ginger in India is 40,903 MT with annual income 44.04 crores
in the year 2010-2011. In India, major ginger growing states are Kerala, Sikkim,
Meghalaya, West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Himachal Pradesh. The crop occupies maximum area and
production in Kerala while maximum productivity is in Meghalaya. Kerala
contributes maximum dry ginger which is marketed internationally under the
trade name Cochin ginger. However, India enjoys a unique position in the
production of ginger from time immemorial.
Soft rot is one of the major constraints for growing a healthy and clean
ginger crop. Even though other important diseases do exist in this crop e.g
yellows, Phyllosticta leaf spot and bacterial wilt, yet, soft rot is a very important
disease of ginger in view of severe losses (40%) caused to the crop. It occurs in
several parts of India wherever this crop is grown viz. Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and
Karnataka etc. Soft rot of ginger caused by Pythium spp. has become a major
threat in almost all ginger growing areas of Himachal Pradesh.These diseases
occur in several parts of India wherever the crop is grown. The term rhizome rot
is loosely used for all the diseases affecting the rhizome irrespective of
pathogens involved, since the ultimate result is the partial or total loss to the
rhizome. However, soft rot is strictly used for Pythium which is responsible for
the disease development.
Symptoms and etiology:
Ginger is susceptible to infection throughout its growing period. Almost all
parts of the plant including sprouts, roots, developing rhizome and collar region
of the pseudostem are vulnerable to infection. Both pre and post emergence rots
are noticed due to soft rot. Pre-emergence rot results when infected seed
rhizomes are planted. It may result through sprout infection and subsequent
rotting of infected sprouts. No plant emergence occurs if the sprouts are
diseased. New sprouts arising from the diseased rhizomes are also infected.
Post-emergence rot can occur at any time after tiller emergence. The pathogen
may reach the sprouting tillers on rhizome emergence through the collar region
finally affecting the rhizomes. Initial symptoms of the disease appear as
yellowing of leaves which gradually spreads down the leaf blade and leaf
sheath. In the early stages, a few tillers show symptoms of yellowing and the
middle portion of the lamina remains green while the margins become yellow.
The yellowing later spreads to all the tillers and leaves of plant from bottom
upwards and is followed by drooping, withering and drying. The collar region of
the pseudostems shows pale translucent brown colour which becomes water
soaked due to destruction of parenchymatous tissues. The infected shoot can
be easily pulled out from the soil. The infection from the collar region later
spreads to the rhizomes gradually. The rhizome has a discoloured appearance
before rot sets at the corners of new rhizomes. Faded brown to black patches
appear on the infected scales of rhizome. These rhizomes become water
soaked and mushy in appearance. The rotting smell of the diseased rhizomes
attracts dipteran flies which lay eggs and convert the whole rhizome into a bag of
maggots and these insects are thus confused as primary cause of the disease.
Besides, nematodes are also found in the diseased rhizomes which also help in
rotting as secondary invaders.
Mycelial
colonization in
host cells
Oospores
formation in
diseased tissue
Advanced stages
Causal organism
Several spp. of Pythium have been reported as
casual agents of soft rot in different parts of the world. Seven
species of Pythium were recorded in different parts of India.
Among these, Pythium aphanidermatum and P. myriotylum
are widely distributed whereas the other species are
restricted to certain pockets. The distribution of Pythium
spp. causing soft rot in India is given here under:
Morphological Characters
Colonies of P. aphanidermatum on corn meal agar with cottony aerial
mycelium, on potato-carrot agar with some loose aerial mycelium without a
special pattern. Main hyphae upto 10 m wide. Sporangia consisting of terminal
complexes of swollen hyphal branches of varying length and upto 20 m wide.
Oogonia terminal, globose, smooth, 20-25 m diameter. Antheridia mostly
intercalary, sometimes, broadly sac shaped, 10-14 m long and 10-14 m wide,
2 per oogonium, monoclinous or diclinous, oospores aplerotic (18-22 m)
diameter, wall 1-2 m thick.
Cultural characteristics
The mycelium of Pythium aphanidermatum is colourless, sometimes
lustrous, occasionally slightly yellowish- due to abundant oospores or hyphal
swellings or grayish lilac. The fungus produces aerial mycelium on corn meal
agar and potato- carrot agar whereas on oat meal agar it produces profuse
aerial mycelium.
Cultural characteristics
The disease is mainly soil borne and seed borne and occurs at random
and spreads contiguously to adjacent clumps. The wet soil conditions, high soil
moisture and relatively high soil temperature are the most important factors
influencing the development of soft rot in Himachal Pradesh. Irrigation water
from diseased field also helps in the spread of the disease. The fungus has been
found to grow over wide range of pH (3.0-9.0) and the best growth is obtained
between pH 7.0 - 8.0. Oospores production is maximum between pH 6.0 and
9.0. The fungus was also found to be pathogenic to sorghum, maize, barley, oat,
cotton, potato, tomato, carrot etc. When the ginger is intercropped with maize,
the disease manifests itself rapidly after the maize harvest.
Survival of pathogen
Pythium species survive between crops on infected seed rhizomes. It
survives as oospores in scales of the rhizomes. Pythium species are capable of
saprophytic survival in plant debris. They are normal inhabitants of many soils.
They produce oospores, the perennating structure of the fungi and may
reproduce on non-host crops and weeds. Saprophytic survival of fungus in soil
is influenced by environmental factors viz., soil temperature, moisture and
presence of other microbes. Severity of Pythium disease is more in areas where
rainfall is high or rhizomes are planted in heavy clay soil and poor drainage
affect the crop productivity.
Disease management
In vitro evaluation of chemicals, bioagents, and plant extracts
for the management of soft rot
Rhizome rot is considered as a complex disease problem. Ginger plant is
a delicate succulent herb. It easily succumbs to stresses, both environmental
and biological. Therefore, it is essential that disease management practices are
integrated within the framework of crop production strategy at all possible
stages of crop cycle for reducing the possibility of disease development by
adopting suitable cultural practices fungicides, botanicals and biological control
agents.
Chemicals
The use of fungicides has become an inevitable method in the
management of plant diseases particularly in ginger in the absence of
availability of resistant varieties for soft rot. Rhizome treatment along with soil
application, gives maximum protection against rhizome borne disease, which
can spread through rhizomes and soil. Use of chemicals in management of soft
rot consist of seed treatment with or without supplementary soil drench
application with fungicides before planting and to the standing crop, respectively.
The rhizome seed treatment is adopted to check seed borne inoculum and soil
drenches later applied during rainy season to check soil borne inoculum. In India,
chemical control is the major approach for controlling the soft rot of ginger and a
number of fungicide formulations have been evaluated or recommended for the
management of soft rot. However, the use of fungicides results in residue and
resistance problems besides their high cost.
In present investigation, initially in vitro evaluation of nine systemic and
non- systemic fungicides were tested at different concentrations by 'Poisoned
food technique'. The results revealed that, the effect of different fungicides on
growth of P. aphanidermatum, was significant. Among nonsystemic fungicides,
mancozeb completely inhibited the growth of P.aphanidermatum (100 %). In the
interaction studies, mancozeb, completely inhibited (100 %) the growth of
fungus at all the concentrations (50-400ppm), whereas copper oxychloride
inhibited only at higher dosage levels (300 & 400 ppm). Among systemic
fungicides pyroclostrobin completely inhibited the growth of P. aphanidermatum.
The combi-formulation of dimethomorph (9.0%) with mancozeb (60.0%) also
completely inhibited the growth of test fungus.
Rhizome treatment with the chemicals often provides some protection
against pre and post emergence damping off and soft rot. The efficacy of safer
fungicides viz strobilurins were evaluated as rhizome treatment against infection
of P. aphanidermatum in both pot and field experiments.
In the light of present day
constraints on plant disease control
practices especially those in the use of
pesticides, the scientists all over the
world are devising biological methods of
disease control as they are eco friendly
and cost effective. Biological control of
Pythium soft rot species is a very difficult
task because of rapid germination of
sporangia in response to rhizome or
root exudates followed by immediate
secondary infection during rainy season
and the ability to cause subsequent progress in infection leading to further long
term rhizome and root rots.
Plant Extracts
Green plants appear to be the reservoir of effective
chemotherapeutants and would constitute inexhaustible
source of harmless pesticides. In recent times, the
importance of using plant products against seed borne
pathogen has been evolved for replacing the existing
pesticides for several reasons. Among the plant species
screened so far, several of them were found to possess antimicrobial
compounds.
The results on in vitro efficacy of different plant extracts (onion, walnut,
lantana, soap nut, garlic and agave) at different concentrations against P.
aphanidermatum revealed that onion extract at all test concentration levels (2.510.0%) exhibited complete growth inhibition . Garlic extract also provided cent
per cent inhibition of test pathogen at all the concentrations. Besides, lantana
and agave are also potent to cause marked inhibition in the fungal growth and
exhibit increased inhibitory response with the increasing potency levels.
Bioagents
In spite of different constraints, this important disease has been controlled
with antagonistic fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes. In several cases, the extent
of disease control obtained is similar to those of standard fungicides. In recent
years, the use of Trichoderma has gained more importance and the use of plant
extracts is also found to be effective under the present host pathogen
combination. This antagonist act on the pathogens by different mechanisms viz.
competition through lysis, antibiosis, siderophore production and
hyperparasitism. Formulation of antagonistic organisms is available at cheaper
rate and these organisms when once introduced into the soil survive for a longer
period.
In the present study, the fungal antagonists viz. Trichoderma harzianum,
T. viride, T. hamatum and Penicillium pinophilum were isolated from the farmer's
fields. These antagonistic were initially evaluated under in vitro studies for their
antagonistic properties against P. aphanidermatum and the most potent
antagonist was further evaluated for its efficacy against soft rot of ginger both in
pot culture experiment and in field studies.
The evaluation of fungal antagonist under in vitro study by dual culture
revealed that T. harzianum , T viride and T. hamatum resulted in significant
inhibition of the mycelial growth of all the six isolates of P. aphanidermatum. The
isolates of P. pinophilum were inhibitory to a lesser extent.
The in vitro evaluation of non-volatile substances produced by fungal
antagonists on the mycelial growth of P. aphanidermatum isolates revealed the
significant inhibitory response of different isolates of fungal antagonists on the
Growth inhibition of isolate of P. aphanidermatum (P2) by Trichoderma spp & Penicillium spp
Host Resistance
Host resistance is one of the components in any disease management
programme. It is the most economical and safest method of disease
management. The problem of soft rot poses economic loss to the farmers. Non
adoption of soft rot management procedure is one of the reasons for recurrence
of soft rot in the field. Use of tolerant variety in soft rot endemic area seems to be
an important measure for keeping the disease under check.
Genetic improvement, the most desirable method of disease
management, has been so far limited in ginger for two reasons. First, all ginger
cultivars available today are highly susceptible to soft rot and no resistance
source has yet been identified. Second, since ginger is vegetatively propagated
Field Studies
The results of the field study indicated that amongst the different ecofriendly treatments, the use of hot water rhizome seed treatment (47C for 30
min) in combination with soil application of T. harzianum @ 2.5 kg/50 kg FYM/ha
followed by four periodic drenching of COC @ 0.3% at 15 days interval during
rainy season proved most efficacious in limiting the soft rot disease besides
improving the yield and growth parameters of ginger plants. Besides, the
rhizome seed treatment with pyroclostrobin, a strobilurin compound @ 0.2% in
combination with four periodic drenching with COC @ 0.3% at 15 days interval
during rainy season also provided appreciable control of the soft rot disease.
The effectivity of the bioagents can be attributed due to their higher competitive
ability, stimulation and antibiosis effect on test pathogen. Hot water treatment
could be effective due to the inactivation of the rhizome borne inoculum of the
pathogen.
Shade drying
Cabriotop treatment @
0.2% for 30 min
Trichoderma harzianum
soil application
(2.5 kg/50kgFYM/ha)
ASSOCIATED MICROBIOTA
Rhizosphere is the region of the root and the soil that is influenced by
enhanced microbial activities. The relationship between the root and the
microorganisms depends upon the type of agro- ecological managements and
developmental stage of the plant. Agricultural management practices like
organic farming has a subject of interest for researchers in organic farming that
excludes the use of synthetic pesticides and has proved beneficial for
biodiversity. In most of the studies, it has been found that there is an average
increase of 30% more species diversity in organic farming compared to
conventional farming methods. In a long-term field trial in which organic and
conventional agricultural systems were compared, microbial biomass was
higher in soils from organic plots.
In present studies, the influence of chemical and non-chemical methods
of disease control on the status of microbiotic population was assayed
periodically to have a better insight of their effect on the soft rot disease
incidence and growth parameters of ginger in different treatment plots. The
microbial population was significantly higher in the rhizospheric soil treated with
non-chemicals (bioagents and botanicals) as compared to that of chemical
treatments.
The use of hot water rhizome seed treatment (47C) for 30 min in
combination with soil application of Trichoderma harzianum @ 2.5kg/50kg
FYM/ha during planting time followed by periodic drenching with copper
oxychloride (0.3%) reflected a significantly high actinomycetes and bacterial
population (45.87 x 105 cfu/g and 84.40 x 105 cfu/g) .
The application of hot water rhizome seed treatment (47C) for 30 min
followed by smearing of rhizome seed with garlic extract @ 25 % also exhibited a
high microbial count. The application of non chemical methods has positive
significant effect on population of actinomycetes, fungi and bacteria besides
resulting in higher yield and lesser soft rot disease incidence. The increase in
yield may be attributed to the improved physicochemical properties of the soil
which is instrumental in providing a suitable habitat to the soil microorganisms.
A) Nutrient Agar
C) Rose Bengal
RECOMMENDATIONS
Following recommendations have emerged out of Network project on
management of soft rot of ginger which are given below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the ICAR for financial help to this project under
Mini Mission-1Centrally Sponsored Scheme for Integrated Development of
Horticulture in Himachal Pradesh.