RESERVOIRS

Planning of reservoirs
known constraints (socio-economic), desired benefits
Reports of any previous investigations and studies, if any.
Reports on projects similar
Topographical data in the form of maps and satellite pictures, which may
be integrated within the GIS.
Geological data in the form of maps and borehole logs, along with the
values of relevant parameters.
Seismic activity data of the region that includes recorded peak
accelerations or ground motion record.
Meteorological and hydrological data - of available parameters like
rainfall, atmospheric and water temperatures, evaporation, humidity,
wind speed, hours of sunshine, river flows, river levels, sediment
concentration in rivers, etc.

For water supply projects, data on population and future population

growth based on some acceptable forecast method, industrial water
requirement and probable future industrial development.
For irrigation projects, data on soils in the project area and on the crops
already grown, including water requirement for the crops.

For hydropower projects, data on past demand and forecasts of future

public and industrial demand for power and energy; data on existing
transmission systems, including transmission voltage and capacity.

Data on flora and fauna in the project and on the fish in the rivers and
lakes, including data on their migratory and breeding habits.

Data on tourism and recreational use of rivers and lakes and how this may
be encouraged on completion of the proposed reservoir.

Reservoir

Spillway crest
Upstream

Dam body

Spillway

Downstream

Categories:
Storage
Distribution
Flood Control
Multipurpose
Investigations
Engineering survey
Geological
Hydrological

Elevation-Area-Volume Curves
Area-elevation curve:

is obtained by measuring the area enclosed within each

contour in the reservoir site using a planimeter/RS&GIS.
Usually a 1/5000 scaled topographic map
Elevation-storage curve:
is the integration of an area-elevation curve.

The storage between any two elevations can be

obtained by the product of average surface area at two
elevations multiplied by the difference in elevation.

Elevation-Area-Volume Curves

ELEVATION ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL (m)

To determine reservoir volume with given location & dam height

Max. Operating Level
Spillway Crest

Area

Volume
Minimum Operating Level

Zero Pool

VOLUME (106 m3)

Typical reservoir elevation-area-volume curves

Total reservoir storage components:

a) Normal pool level
b) Minimum pool level
c) Active storage

d) Dead storage
e) Flood control storage
f) Surcharge storage

Storage zones in a reservoir

Maximum pool level
Surcharge storage
Flood control storage

Flow

Retarding pool level

Spillway crest
Normal pool level

Active storage or Useful storage

Sluiceway
Minimum pool level
Dead storage

Sediment accumulation

 Normal pool level is the maximum elevation to

which the reservoir surface will rise for ordinary
reservoir operations.
Minimum pool level is the lowest allowable
elevation to which the reservoir surface level can
fall.
Dead storage is located below minimum pool level.
The top elevation is dictated by amount of
sediment accumulation at the end of the life time
of reservoir.

Therefore, the elevation of the lowest sluiceway

must be located at least at minimum pool level.
Water stored below this level is not available for
any use.
The storage between minimum and normal pool
levels is named as useful or active storage.
The flood control storage occupies between the
retarding and normal pool levels.
The surcharge storage stays between retarding
and maximum pool level.

General guidelines for a reservoir location:

Cost of the dam
Cost of real estate

Topographic conditions to store water

Possibility of deep reservoir
Avoiding from tributary areas
Quality of stored water

Reliable hill-slopes

Reservoir Yield
Yield: Amount of water that reservoir can deliver in a prescribed
interval of time.

The yield is based on

inflow
capacity

Firm (safe) yield: Amount of water that can be supplied during a

critical period.
Can be never determined by certainty

Target yield: specified for a reservoir based on the estimated demands

in most cases.
Secondary yield: Water available in excess of safe yield during high flow
periods

Selection of Capacity of a Storage

Reservoir
Designing the capacity of a storage reservoir involves with determination of the
critical period during Inflow < Demand
IS: 5477 Fixing the capacities of reservoirs- Methods

(Part 1): 1999 General requirements

(Part 2): 1994 Dead storage
(Part 3): 1969 Live storage
(Part 4): 1911 Flood storage

There are 4 approaches to determine the

capacity
1)

Mass curve (Ripple diagram) method;

2)

Sequent-peak algorithm;

3)

Operation study;

4)

Optimization analysis

1)

Mass curve (Ripple diagram) method

Features of Mass Curve
Cumulative plotting of net reservoir inflow.
Slope of mass curve gives the value of inflow
(S) at that time.
Slope of demand curve gives the demand
rate (D) or yield.

Mass curve (Ripple diagram) method

The difference between the lines (a+b) tangent
to the demand line (D) drawn at the highest
and lowest points (A and B, respectively) of mass
curve (S) gives the rate of withdrawal from
reservoir during that critical period.
The maximum cumulative value between
tangents is the required storage capacity (active
storage).

Mass curve method

Mass curve analysis

2)Sequent-Peak Analysis

The mass curve approach is easy to use when short periods of data
are to be analyzed.

SPA is a modification of the Mass Curve analysis for lengthy time

series and particularly suited to computer coding.

The steps of sequent-peak analysis are as follows:

Plot (Inflow-Withdrawal) : in symbolized fashion (S-D)

Sequent-peak
Sequent-peak

Sequent-peak
Maximum storage

(FLOW-DEMAND)

1)

Illustration of the sequent peak algorithm

Time

2)

Locate the initial peak and the next peak

3)

Compute the storage required which is the difference between the

initial peak and the lowest trough in the interval,

4)

Repeat the process for all sequent peaks,

5)

Determine the largest value of storages as STORAGE CAPACITY

Analytical solution to SPA is good for computer

coding
Equations below are used:
Vt = Dt St + Vt-1
if positive
Vt = 0
otherwise
Vt : required storage capacity at the end of
period t
Vt-1 : required storage capacity at the end of
previous period t
Dt : release during period t
St : inflow during period t

3)OPERATION STUDY
It is presumed that the reservoir is adequate if
the reservoir can supply all types of demands
under possible losses such as seepage and
evaporation.
The operation study is based on the solution of
the continuity equation.
dV
I Q
dt

Where dV is differential storage during time dt

I and Q are the instantaneous total inflow
outflow, respectively.

is used to
a) Determine the required capacity,
b) Define the optimum rules for operation,
c) Select the installed capacity for powerhouses,
d) Make other decisions regarding to planning.

is carried out
1)

only for an extremely low flow period and presents the required
capacity to overcome the selected drought;

2)

for the entire period and presents the power production for each
year.

4)OPTIMIZATION ANALYSIS &

STOCHASTIC MODELS
Reliability of Reservoir Yield

Sediments eventually fill all reservoirs

determine the useful life of reservoirs
important factor in planning

River carry some suspended sediment and move

bed load (larger solids along the bed).

Large suspended particles + bed loads deposited at

the head of the reservoir & form delta.

Small particles suspend in the reservoir or flow

over the dam.
IS: 12182 - 1987 Guidelines for determination of effects of
sedimentation in planning and performance of reservoir

 Bed

load 5 to 25 % of the suspended load in the plain

rivers

50 % of the suspended load in the mountainous

rivers

Sedimentation stored behind a dam

RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION RATE

based on survey of existing reservoirs, containing
* Specific weight of the settled sediments

* % of entering sediment which is deposited

TRAP EFFICIENCY:
% of inflowing sediment retained in the reservoir
function of the ratio of reservoir capacity to
total inflow.

IMPORTANT NOTES:

Prediction of sediment accumulation

-- Difficult due to high range of variability in

sediment discharge
SOLUTION: Continuous hydrologic simulation models
-- used for prediction purposes
< But, at least, 2-3 years daily data are needed for
calibration of the model. >

Relationship between discharge and sediment load

Another formula for sediment load prediction

Y= mean sediment yield in m3

A= drainage area in km2

IMPORTANT NOTES:

To control amount of entering sediment:

(a) Upstream sedimentation basins,
(b) Vegetative screens,
(c) Soil conservation methods (i.e., terraces),
(d) Implementing sluice gates at various levels.
(e) Dredging of settled materials, but not economical!

Type of Dams
According to use
Storage, diversion, detention

Hydraulic design
Overflow : ogee spillway
Non-overflow: non-overflow spillway

Material:
Rigid : Gravity(Masonry, concrete), Arch dam, Buttress dam
Non-rigid: Earth dam, rock fill dam, timber, steel, rubber etc

The forces that give stability to the dam

include:
1. Weight of the dam
2. Thrust of the tail water
The forces that try to destabilize the dam
include:
1. Reservoir water pressure
2. Uplift
3. Forces due to waves in the reservoir
4. Ice pressure
5. Temperature stresses
6. Silt pressure
7. Seismic forces
8. Wind pressure

The seven types of load combinations are as follows:

1. Load combination A (construction condition): Dam completed but
no water in reservoir or tail water
2. Load combination B (normal operating conditions): Full reservoir
elevation, normal dry weather tail water, normal uplift, ice and silt (if
applicable)
3. Load combination C: (Flood discharge condition) - Reservoir at
maximum flood pool elevation ,all gates open, tail water at flood
elevation, normal uplift, and silt (if applicable)
4. Load combination D: Combination of A and earthquake
5. Load combination E: Combination B, with earthquake but no ice
6. Load combination F: Combination C, but with extreme uplift,
assuming the drainage holes to be Inoperative
7. Load combination G: Combination E but with extreme uplift (drains
inoperative)

WATER PRESSURE ON DAM

pressure at any depth h is given by h kN/m

UPLIFT PRESSURES

Type of Dams
Silt pressure
horizontal pressure :1360 kg/m.
vertical force:1925 kg/m.
Dead load
The density of concrete may be considered as 2400 kg/m.
Earthquake (seismic) forces
The earthquake acceleration is usually designated as a fraction of the
acceleration due to gravity and is expressed as g, where is the
Seismic Coefficient.

 The Seismic Coefficient Method (for dam height up to 100m)

=0
The Response Spectrum Method (for dams taller than 100m)
=Fo Sa/g

In the above expressions, = Soil-foundation system factor, which may be taken as

1.0 for dams
I = Importance factor, which may be taken as 2.0 for dams
0=The basic seismic Coefficient, the value of which for each of the five zones is

given the table

Fo= seismic zone factor
Sa/g=average acceleration spectra

F0 = The seismic Zone Factor for average acceleration spectra, the value
of which for each of the five zones is given in the following table:

Sa/g from Fig IS 1893-1984 recommends a damping of 5 percent for dams

 Sa/g = the average acceleration coefficient that has to be read from

Figure, corresponding to the appropriate natural period of vibration and
damping of the structure. The natural (or fundamental) period of vibration
of a gravity dam may be determined by the following expression:

Where T = The natural period of vibration of the dam, in seconds H = The

height of the dam, in m B = The base width of the dam, in m; m = Specific
weight of the material with which the dam is constructed. For concrete
dams, it may be taken as about 26.5KN/m3 g = Acceleration due to
gravity (=9.8m/s2) Es = Modulus of elasticity of the dam material. For
concrete dams, it may be taken as about 32.5 GPa

IS 1893-2002: Design spectrum

IS 1893-2002(Part 5): Design spectrum

 The horizontal force HB per unit length of the dam and its moment MB about
any point in the base of the dam is obtained by the following expressions:

Where W = Weight of the dam per unit length in KN/m

h = Seismic coefficient as obtained by the appropriate equation,
h = Height of the centre of gravity of the dam above the base, in m
lying at a depth y from the top of the dam, the horizontal force Hy per unit
length of the dam and the bending moment My may be obtained as follows

The hydrodynamic pressure generated due to the horizontal movement of the

water body in the reservoir and its consequent impinging against the dam may
to be calculated by the following formula.
=Cs h Where P = Hydrodynamic pressure, in KN/m2 at any depth y
below the reservoir surface

 Cs = Coefficient which varies with the shape of the dam and the
depth of the reservoir, which may be found by the method
indicated below = Unit weight of water, in KN/m3; h = Total water
depth in reservoir, in m
The variation of the coefficient Cs may approximately be found for
a dam with vertical or constant upstream slope as

Cm = Maximum value of Cs, obtained from Figure y = Depth of

horizontal section under consideration below the water surface, in
m
n = Total depth of water in reservoir

Wave pressure
IS: 6512-1984 Criteria for design of solid gravity dams
Stevenson formula (Davis and Sorenson 1969)

Hw = Height of wave, crest to trough, in m

F = Fetch of the reservoir, that is, the longest straight distance of the reservoir
from the dam up to the farthest point of the reservoir.

When the fetch exceeds 20Km, the above formula can be approximated as

Where V = wind speed along the fetch, in km/h

 The pressure intensity due to waves (Pw, in KN/m2) is given by

the following expression
Where Hw is the height of wave in m. and occurs at 1/8Hw
above the still water level
The total wave pressure Pw per unit length (in KN/m) of the dam
is given by the area of the triangle 1-2-3 as given in Figure

The Centre of application is at a height of 0.375Hw above the

still water level

 Free board
Free board is the vertical distance between the top of the dam and the
sill water level.
IS:6512-1984 recommends that the free board shall be wind set-up plus
4/3 times wave height above normal pool elevation or above
maximum reservoir level corresponding to design flood, whichever gives
higher crest elevation
The Zuider Zee formula (Thomas, 1976) and recommended by IS: 65121984 may be used as a guide for the estimation of setup(S):

S = Wind set-up, in m
V = Velocity of wind over water in m/s
F = Fetch, in km D = Average depth of reservoir, in m, along maximum
fetch
A = Angle of wind to fetch, may be taken as zero degrees for maximum
set-up
K = A constant, specified as about 62000
The free-board shall not be less than 1.0m above MWL

Stability analysis of gravity dams

1. Rotation and overturning

factor of safety 1.5

2. Translation and sliding

3. Overstress and material failure
methods
Graphical
Analytical
Trial load twist method (Ex:Arch dam)
Slab analogy method
Lattice analogy method
Experimental : Direct and Indirect

 Where F and Fc are the Partial Factor of Safety in respect of

friction and Partial Factor of Safety of cohesion. IS: 6512-1984
recommends these values to be as given in the following table

horizon with low shear resistance,

The net shear force would now be equal to:

Where W is the weight of the wedge; is the assumed angle of sliding failure,
is the net destabilizing horizontal moment; and is the internal friction within the rock
at plane B-B. The net cohesive force along plane B-B is determined as equal to C.ABB. Here, C is the cohesion of material and AB-B, the area, along plane B-B.

Failure against overstressing

Normal stresses on horizontal planes

Where V = Resultant vertical load above the plane considered

T = Thickness of the dam block, that is, the length measured from heel to toe
e = Eccentricity of the resultant load
y = Distance from the neutral axis of the plane to the point where ( ) is being
determined
At the heel, y = -T/2 and at toe, y = +T/2. Thus, at these points, the normal
stresses are found out as under:

The eccentricity e may be found out as:

 Shear stresses on horizontal planes

Where yz D = (zD pD) tanD, the shear stress at

downstream face yz U = - (zU pU) tanD, the shear stress
at upstream face
H = the height of the dam
The shear stress is seen to vary parabolically from yz U at the
upstream face up to yz D
at the downstream face.
Normal stresses on vertical planes

Principal stresses

 Permissible stresses in concrete

IS: 6512-1984, the following have to be followed for allowable

compressive and tensile stresses in concrete

maximum computed stress in the dam or 14N/mm2,

whichever is more. The allowable working stress in any part of the
structure shall also not exceed 7N/mm2

fc is the cube compressive strength of concrete.