CHEMISTRY

Introduction :
There are a large number of objects around us which we can see and feel.
Anything that occupies space and has mass is called matter.
Ancient Indian and Greek Philosophers beleived that the wide variety of object around us are made from
combination of five basic elements : Earth, Fire, Water, Air and Sky.
The Indian Philosopher kanad (600 BC) was of the view that matter was composed of very small, indivisible
particle called parmanus.
Ancient Greek Philosophers also believed that all matter was composed of tiny building blocks which were
hard and indivisible.
The Greek philosopher Democritus named these building blocks as atoms, meaning indivisible.
All these people have their philosophical view about matter, they were never put to experimental tests, nor
ever explain any scientific truth.
It was John Dalton who firstly developed a theory on the structure of matter, later on which is known as
Daltons atomic theory.

DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY :

Matter is made up of very small indivisible particles called atoms.

All the atoms of a given element are identical in all respect i.e. mass, shape, size, etc.

Atoms cannot be created or destroyed by any chemical process.

Atoms of different elements are different in nature.

Classification of matter

on the basis of physical behaviour

on the basis of chemical behaviour

Solids

Pure substances

Liquids

Gases

Element

Mixtures

Compound

Basic Definitions :
Relative atomic mass :
One of the most important concept come out from Daltons atomic theory was that of relative atomic mass
or relative atomic weight. This is done by expressing mass of one atom with respect to a fixed standard.
Dalton used hydrogen as the standard (H = 1). Later on oxygen (O = 16) replaced hydrogen as the reference.
Therefore relative atomic mass is given as
On hydrogen scale :

Relative atomic mass (R.A.M) =

Mass of one atom of an element

mass of one hydrogen atom

On oxygen scale :
Relative atomic mass (R.A.M) =

Mass of one atom of an element

1
mass of one oxygen atom
16

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CHEMISTRY

The present standard unit which was adopted internationally in 1961, is based on the mass of one
carbon-12 atom.

Relative atomic mass (R.A.M) =

Mass of one atom of an element

1
mass of one C 12 atom
12

Atomic mass unit (or amu) :

th

1
mass of one atom of carbon-12 isotope.
12

The atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to

1 amu =

1
mass of one C-12 atom
12

~ mass of one nucleon in C-12 atom.

= 1.66 1024 gm or 1.66 1027 kg

one amu is also called one Dalton (Da).

Today, amu has been replaced by u which is known as unified mass

Atomic & molecular mass :

It is the mass of 1 atom of a substance it is expressed in amu.

Atomic mass = R.A.M 1 amu

Relative molecular mass =

mass of one molecule of the subs tan ce

1
mass of one C 12 atom
12

Molecular mass = Relative molecular mass 1 amu

Note : Relative atomic mass is nothing but the number of nucleons present in the atom.
Example-1

Find the relative atomic mass of O atom and its atomic mass.

Solution

The number of nucleons present in O atom is 16.

relative atomic mass of O atom = 16.

Atomic mass = R.A.M 1 amu = 16 1 amu = 16 amu

Mole : The Mass / Number Relationship

Mole is a chemical counting S unit and defined as follows :
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many entities (atoms, molecules or other
particles) as there are atoms in exactly 0.012 kg (or 12 gm) of the carbon-12 isotope.
From mass spectrometer we found that there are 6.023 1023 atoms present in 12 gm of C-12 isotope.
The number of entities in 1 mol is so important that it is given a separate name and symbol known as
Avogadro constant denoted by NA.
i.e. on the whole we can say that 1 mole is the collection of 6.02 1023 entities. Here entities may represent
atoms, ions, molecules or even pens, chair, paper etc also include in this but as this number (N A) is very
large therefore it is used only for very small things.

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HOW BIG IS A MOLE ?

Amount of water in
world's oceans (litres)
Avogadro's number

Age of earth (seconds)

Population of earth

602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
Distance from earth
to sun (centimeters)

Note : In modern practice gram-atom and gram-molecule are termed as mole.

Gram Atomic Mass :

The atomic mass of an element expressed in gram is called gram atomic mass of the element.
or
It is also defined as mass of 6.02 1023 atoms.
or
It is also defined as the mass of one mole atoms.
For example for oxygen atom :
Atomic mass of O atom = mass of one O atom = 16 amu
gram atomic mass = mass of 6.02 1023 O atoms
= 16 amu 6.02 1023
= 16 1.66 1024 g 6.02 1023 = 16 g
(
1.66 1024 6.02 1023 ~ 1 )

Example-2
Solution

How many atoms of oxygen are their in 16 g oxygen.

Let x atoms of oxygen are present
So, 16 1.66 1024 x = 16 g
1

x=

1.66 x 10 24

= NA

Gram molecular mass :

The molecular mass of a substance expressed in gram is called the gram-molecular mass of the substance.
or
It is also defined as mass of 6.02 1023 molecules
or
It is also defined as the mass of one mole molecules.
For example for O2 molecule :
Molecular mass of O2 molecule = mass of one O2 molecule
= 2 mass of one O atom
= 2 16 amu
= 32 amu
gram molecular mass = mass of 6.02 1023 O2 molecules = 32 amu 6.02 1023
= 32 1.66 1024 gm 6.02 1023 = 32 gm

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CHEMISTRY
Example-3
Solution

The molecular mass of H2SO4 is 98 amu. Calculate the number of moles of each element in 294 g of
H2SO4.
Gram molecular mass of H2SO4 = 98 gm
294
moles of H2SO4 =
= 3 moles
98
H2SO4
H
S
O
One molecule
2 atom
one atom
4 atom
1 NA
2 NA atoms
1 NA atoms
4 NA atoms
one mole
2 mole
one mole
4 mole
3 mole
6 mole
3 mole
12 mole

Gay-Lussacs Law of Combining Volume :

According to him elements combine in a simple ratio of atoms, gases combine in a simple ratio of their
volumes provided all measurements should be done at the same temperature and pressure
H2 (g)

1 vol

Cl2 (g)

2HCl

1 vol

2 vol

Avogadros hypothesis :
Equal volume of all gases have equal number of molecules (not atoms) at same temperature and
pressure condition.
S.T.P. (Standard Temperature and Pressure)
At S.T.P. condition :

temperature = 0C or 273 K
pressure = 1 atm = 760 mm of Hg
and volume of one mole of gas at STP is found to be experimentally equal to 22.4 litres which is known as
molar volume.

Note : Measuring the volume is equivalent to counting the number of molecules of the gas.

Example-4

Calculate the volume in litres of 20 g hydrogen gas at STP.

Solution

No. of moles of hydrogen gas =

20 gm
Mass
= 2 gm = 10 mol
Molecular mass

volume of hydrogen gas at STP = 10 22.4 lt.

Y-map : Interconversion of mole - volume, mass and number of particles :

Number

N
A

Mole

mol. wt.
At. wt.

lt
2.4
2
lt
2.4
2

Volume at STP

mol. wt.
At. wt.

Mass

The laws of chemical combination :

Atoine Lavoisier, John Dalton and other scientists formulate certain law concerning the composition of
matter and chemical reactions. These laws are known as the law of chemical combination.

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CHEMISTRY
(i) The law of conservation of mass :
In a chemical change total mass remains conserved.
i.e. mass before reaction is always equal to mass after reaction.

Example-5

H2 (g)

1
O2 (g)
2

Solution

H2O (l)

H2 (g)
Before reaction initially
After the reaction

1 mole
0

1
O2 (g) H2O (l)
2
1
mole
0
2
0
1 mole

mass before reaction = mass of 1 mole H2 (g) +

1
mole O2 (g)
2

= 2 + 16 = 18 gm
mass after reaction = mass of 1 mole water = 18 gm

(ii) Law of constant or Definite proportion :

All chemical compounds are found to have constant composition irrespective of their method of preparation
or sources.
Example :
In water (H2O), Hydrogen and Oxygen combine in 2 : 1 molar ratio, this ratio remains constant whether it is
tap water, river water or sea water or produced by any chemical reaction.
Example-6
Solution

1.80 g of a certain metal burnt in oxygen gave 3.0 g of its oxide. 1.50 g of the same metal heated in
steam gave 2.50 g of its oxide. Show that these results illustrate the law of constant proportion.
In the first sample of the oxide,
Wt. of metal = 1.80 g,
Wt. of oxygen = (3.0 1.80) g = 1.2 g

wt. of metal
1.80g

1.5
wt. of oxygen
1.2g

In the second sample of the oxide,

Wt. of metal = 1.50 g,
Wt. of oxygen = (2.50 1.50) g = 1 g.

wt. of metal
1.50 g

1.5
wt. of oxygen
1g

Thus, in both samples of the oxide the proportions of the weights of the metal and oxygen a fixed.
Hence, the results follow the law of constant proportion.

(iii) The law of multiple proportion :

When one element combines with the other element to form two or more different compounds, the mass of
one element, which combines with a constant mass of the other, bear a simple ratio to one another.
Note : Simple ratio here means the ratio between small natural numbers, such as 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 1 : 3, later on this
simple ratio becomes the valency and then oxidation state of the element.
See oxidation number of carbon also have same ratio 1 : 2 in both the oxide.

Example-7
Solution

Carbon is found to form two oxides, which contain 42.9% and 27.3% of carbon respectively. Show
that these figures illustrate the law of multiple proportions.
Step-1
To calculate the percentage composition of carbon and oxygen in each of the two oxides.
First oxide
Second oxide
Carbon
42.9 %
27.3 %
(Given)
Oxygen
57.1%
72.7 %
(by difference)

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CHEMISTRY
Step-2
To calculate the masses of carbon which combine with a fixed mass i.e., one part by mass of
oxygen in each of the two oxides.
n the first oxide, 57.1 parts by mass of oxygen combine with carbon = 42.9 parts.

1 part by mass of oxygen will combine with carbon =

42 .9
= 0.751.
57 .1

n the second oxide. 72.7 parts by mass of oxygen combine with carbon = 27.3 parts.

1 part by mass of oxygen will combine with carbon =

27.3
= 0.376
72.7

Step-3.
To compare the masses of carbon which combine with the same mass of oxygen in both the oxides.
The ratio of the masses of carbon that combine with the same mass of oxygen (1 part) is .
0.751 : 0.376 or 2 : 1
Since this is simple whole number ratio, so the above data illustrate the law of multiple proportions.

Percentage Composition :
Here we are going to find out the percentage of each element in the compound by knowing the molecular
formula of compound.
We know that according to law of definite proportions any sample of a pure compound always possess
constant ratio with their combining elements.

Example-8

Every molecule of ammonia always has formula NH3 irrespective of method of preparation or sources.
i.e. 1 mole of ammonia always contains 1 mol of N and 3 mole of H. In other words 17 gm of NH 3
always contains 14 gm of N and 3 gm of H. Now find out % of each element in the compound.

Solution

Mass % of N in NH3 =

Mass of N in 1 mol NH3

100 = 14 gm 100 = 82.35 %
Mass of 1 mol of NH3
17

Mass of H is 1 mol NH3

3
Mass % of H in NH3 = Mass of 1 mol e of NH 100 =
100 = 17.65 %
17
3

Empirical and molecular formula :

We have just seen that knowing the molecular formula of the compound we can calculate percentage composition of the elements. Conversely if we know the percentage composition of the elements initially, we can
calculate the relative number of atoms of each element in the molecules of the compound. This gives us the
empirical formula of the compound. Further if the molecular mass is known then the molecular formula can
easily be determined.
The empirical formula of a compound is a chemical formula showing the relative number of atoms in the
simplest ratio. An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms present in
a compound.
The molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. The molecular
formula shows the exact number of different types of atoms present in a molecule of a compound.
The molecular formula is an integral multiple of the empirical formula.
i.e.
molecular formula = empirical formula n
where

molecular formula mass

n = empirical formula mass

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CHEMISTRY
Example-9
Solution

Acetylene and benzene both have the empirical formula CH. The molecular masses of acetylene
and benzene are 26 and 78 respectively. Deduce their molecular formulae.

Empirical Formula is CH
Step-1 The empirical formula of the compound is CH

Empirical formula mass = (1 12) + 1 = 13.

Molecular mass = 26
Step-2 To calculate the value of n
Molecular mass
26
n = Empirical formula mass =
=2
13
Step-3 To calculate the molecular formula of the compound.
Molecular formula
= n (Empirical formula of the compound)
= 2 CH = C2 H2
Thus the molecular formula is C2 H2
Similarly for benzene
To calculate the value of n
Molecular mass
78
n = Empirical formula mass =
=6
13
thus the molecular formula is 6 CH = C6H6

Example-10

Solution

An organic substance containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen gave the following percentage
composition.
C = 40.684% ; H = 5.085% and O = 54.228%
The molecular weight of the compound is 118. Calculate the molecular formula of the compound.
Step-1
To calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
Percentage At. mass Relative no.
Percentage
of element of element of atoms =
At. mass

Element

Symbol

Carbon

40.687

12

Hydrogen

5.085

Oxygen

54.228

16

Simplest
atomic ratio

Simplest whole
no. atomic ratio

40.687
= 3.390
12
5.085
= 5.085
1

3.390
3.389

=1

5.085
3.389

=1.5

54.228
= 3.389
16

3.389
3.389

=1

Empirical Formula is C2 H3 O2

Step-2 To calculate the empirical formula mass.

The empirical formula of the compound is C2 H3 O2 .

Empirical formula mass = (2 12) + (3 1) + (2 16) = 59.

Step-3 To calculate the value of n
Molecular mass
118
n = Empirical formula mass =
=2
59
Step-4 To calculate the molecular formula of the salt.
Molecular formula
= n (Empirical formula) = 2 C2 H3 O2 = C4 H6 O4
Thus the molecular formula is C4 H6 O4.

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CHEMISTRY
DENSITY :
It is of two type.

Absolute density
Relative density

For Liquid and Solids

Absolute density =

mass
volume

density of the substance

Relative density or specific gravity = density of water at 4C
We know that density of water at 4C = 1 g/ml.

For Gases :
Molar mass
Absolute density (mass/volume) = Molar volume

Relative density or Vapour density :

Vapour density is defined as the density of the gas with respect to hydrogen gas at the same temperature
and pressure.

dgas
Vapour density = d
H2
Mgas
Mgas
V.D. = M
=
H2
2
Mgas = 2 V.D.
Relative density can be calculated w.r.t. to other gases also.

Example-11

What is the V.D. of SO2 with respect to CH4

Solution

M.W. SO 2
V.D. = M.W. CH
4
V.D =

Example-12
Solution

64
=4
16

7.5 litre of the particular gas at S.T.P. weighs 16 gram. What is the V.D. of gas
7.5 litre = 16 gram
moles =

7.5
16

22.4 M

M = 48 gram

V.D =

48
= 24
2

Chemical Reaction :
It is the process in which two or more than two substances interact with each other where old bonds are
broken and new bonds are formed.

Chemical Equation :
All chemical reaction are represented by chemical equations by using chemical formula of reactants and
products. Qualitatively a chemical equation simply describes what the reactants and products are. However,
a balanced chemical equation gives us a lot of quantitative information. Mainly the molar ratio in which
reactants combine and the molar ratio in which products are formed.

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CHEMISTRY
Attributes of a balanced chemical equation:
(a) It contains an equal number of atoms of each element on both sides of equation.(POAC)
(b) It should follow law of charge conservation on either side.
(c) Physical states of all the reagents should be included in brackets.
(d) All reagents should be written in their standard molecular forms (not as atoms )
(e) The coefficients give the relative molar ratios of each reagent.

Example-13

Solution

Write a balance chemical equation for following reaction :

When potassium chlorate (KClO3) is heated it gives potassium chloride (KCl) and oxygen (O2).

KClO3 (s)
KCl (s) + O2 (g) (unbalanced chemical equation )

2KClO3 (s)
2 KCl (s) + 3 O2 (g) (balanced chemical equation)
Remember a balanced chemical equation is one which contains an equal number of atoms of each
element on both sides of equation.

Interpretation of balanced chemical equations :

Once we get a balanced chemical equation then we can interpret a chemical equation by following
ways
Mass - mass analysis
Mass - volume analysis
Mole - mole analysis
Vol - Vol analysis (separately discussed as eudiometry or gas analysis)
Now you can understand the above analysis by following example
Mass-mass analysis :
Consider the reaction
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
mass-mass ratio: 2 122.5 :
or

According to stoichiometry of the reaction

2 74.5 : 3 32

Mass of KClO 3
2 122 .5
Mass of KCl = 2 74 .5
Mass of KClO 3
2 122.5
Mass of O 2 = 3 32

Example-14
Solution

367.5 gram KClO3 (M = 122.5) when heated. How many gram KCl and oxygen is produced.
Balance chemical equation for heating of KClO3 is
2KClO3
mass-mass ratio :

2 122.5 gm :

2KCl

3O2

2 74.5 gm : 3 32 gm

mass of KClO 3
2 122 .5
122 .5
367.5
=
mass of KCl = 2 74 .5 W
74.5
W = 3 74.5 = 223.5 gm
Mass of KClO 3
2 122 .5
2 122 .5
367.5
=

=
Mass of O 2
3 32
3 32
W
W = 144 gm

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CHEMISTRY

Mass - volume analysis :

Now again consider decomposition of KClO3
2KClO3

2KCl

3O2

mass volume ratio : 2 122.5 gm : 2 74.5 gm : 3 22.4 lt. at STP

we can use two relation for volume of oxygen

and

Example-15
Solution

Mass of KClO 3
2 122 .5
=
volume of O 2 at STP
3 22.4 lt

...(i)

Mass of KCl
2 74.5
volume of O 2 at STP = 3 22.4 lt

...(ii)

367.5 gm KClO3 (M = 122.5) when heated, how many litre of oxygen gas is produced at STP.
You can use here equation (1)
mass of KClO 3
2 122 .5
=
volume of O 2 at STP
3 22.4 lt

2 122 .5
367.5
= 3 22.4 lt
V

V = 3 3 11.2

V = 100.8 lt

Mole-mole analysis :
This analysis is very much important for quantitative analysis point of view. Students are advised to
clearly understand this analysis.
Now consider again the decomposition of KClO3 .
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
In very first step of mole-mole analysis you should read the balanced chemical equation like
2 moles KClO3 on decomposition gives you 2 moles KCl and 3 moles O2. and from the stoichiometry of reaction we can write
Moles of O 2
Moles of KClO 3
Moles of KCl
=
=
3
2
2

Now for any general balance chemical equation like

a A + b B c C + d D
you can write.
moles of B reacted
moles of C produced
moles of D produced
Moles of A reacted
=
=
=
a
b
c
d

Note : In fact mass-mass and mass-vol analysis are also interpreted in terms of mole-mole analysis you can use
following chart also.

Mass

At. wt. / Mol. Wt.

Mole

Mole-mole
relationship
of equation

Mole

t.
t. w
./A
t
w
ol.
m

Mass

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22.4 lt

Volume at STP

10

CHEMISTRY
Limiting reagent :
The reactant which is consumed first and limits the amount of product formed in the reaction, and is therefore, called limiting reagent.
Limiting reagent is present in least stoichiometric amount and therefore, controls amount of product.
The remaining or left out reactant is called the excess reagent.
When you are dealing with balance chemical equation then if number of moles of reactants are not in the
ratio of stoichiometric coefficient of balanced chemical equation, then there should be one reactant which is
limiting reactant.

Example-16

Three mole of Na2 CO3 is reacted with 6 moles of HCl solution. Find the volume of CO2 gas produced
at STP. The reaction is
Na2 CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O

Solution

From the reaction :

given moles
given mole ratio
Stoichiometric coefficient ratio

Na2 CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O

3 mol
6 mol
1
: 2
1
: 2

See here given moles of reactant are in stoichiometric coefficient ratio therefore none reactant left over.
Now use Mole-mole analysis to calculate volume of CO2 produced at STP

Moles of Na 2CO 3
Mole of CO 2 Pr oduced
=
1
1
Moles of CO2 produced = 3
volume of CO2 produced at STP = 3 22.4 L = 67.2 L
Example-17

Solution

6 moles of Na2 CO3 is reacted with 4 moles of HCl solution. Find the volume of CO2 gas produced at
STP. The reaction is
Na2 CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
From the reaction :
Na2 CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
given mole of reactant
6
: 4
given molar ratio
3
: 2
Stoichiometric coefficient ratio 1
: 2
See here given number of moles of reactants are not in stoichiometric coefficient ratio. Therefore
there should be one reactant which consumed first and becomes limiting reagent.
But the question is how to find which reactant is limiting, it is not very difficult you can easily find it.
According to the following method.

How to find limiting reagent :

Step :
Step :
Step :

Divide the given moles of reactant by the respective stoichiometric coefficient of that reactant.
See for which reactant this division come out to be minimum. The reactant having minimum
value is limiting reagent for you.
Now once you find limiting reagent then your focus should be on limiting reagent
From Step &
Na2 CO3
HCl

6
4
=6
= 2 (division is minimum)
1
2
HCl is limiting reagent
From Step
Moles of CO 2 produced
Mole of HCl
=
2
1
mole of CO2 produced = 2 moles
volume of CO2 produced at S.T.P. = 2 22.4 = 44.8 lt.
From

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CHEMISTRY
Principle of Atom Conservation (POAC) :
POAC is conservation of mass. Atoms are conserved, moles of atoms shall also be conserved in a chemical
reaction (but not in nuclear reactions.)
This principle is fruitful for the students when they dont get the idea of balanced chemical equation in the
problem.
The strategy here will be around a particular atom. We focus on a atom and conserve it in that reaction. This
principle can be understand by the following example.
Consider the decomposition of KClO3 (s) KCl (s) + O2 (g)

(unbalanced chemical reaction)

Apply the principle of atom conservation (POAC) for K atoms.

Moles of K atoms in reactant = moles of K atoms in products
or moles of K atoms in KClO3 = moles of K atoms in KCl.
Now, since 1 molecule of KClO3 contains 1 atom of K
or 1 mole of KClO3 contains 1 mole of K, similarly,1 mole of KCl contains 1 mole of K.
Thus, moles of K atoms in KClO3 = 1 moles of KClO3
and moles of K atoms in KCl = 1 moles of KCl.

moles of KClO3 = moles of KCl

or

wt. of KCl in g
wt. of KClO 3 in g
=
mol. wt. of KCl
mol. wt. of KClO 3

The above equation gives the mass-mass relationship between KClO3 and KCl which is important in
stoichiometric calculations.
Again, applying the principle of atom conservation for O atoms,
moles of O in KClO3 = 3 moles of KClO3
moles of O in O2 = 2 moles of O2

Example-18

Solution

3 moles of KClO3 = 2 moles of O2

or

wt. of KClO 3
vol. of O 2 at NTP
=2
mol. wt. of KClO 3
s tan dard molar vol. (22.4 lt.)

The above equations thus gives the mass-volume relationship of reactants and products.

27.6 g K2CO3 was treated by a series of reagents so as to convert all of its carbon to K2 Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2.
Calculate the weight of the product.
[mol. wt. of K2CO3 = 138 and mol. wt. of K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2 = 698]
Here we have not knowledge about series of chemical reactions
but we know about initial reactant and final product accordingly
Several
K2CO3
K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2
Steps

Since C atoms are conserved, applying POAC for C atoms,

moles of C in K2CO3 = moles of C in K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2
1 moles of K2CO3 = 12 moles of K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2
( 1 mole of K2CO3 contains 1 moles of C)
wt. of K 2CO 3
wt. of the product
=
12

mol. wt. of K 2CO 3

mol. wt. of product
wt. of K2Zn3 [Fe(CN)6]2 =

27.6
698

= 11.6 g
138
12

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CHEMISTRY
Solutions :
A mixture of two or more substances can be a solution. We can also say that a solution is a homogeneous
mixture of two or more substances, Homogeneous means uniform throughout. Thus a homogeneous
mixture, i.e., a solution, will have uniform composition throughout.

Properties of a solution :

A solution is clear and transparent. For example, a solution of sodium chloride in water is clear and
tranparent.
The solute in a solution does not settle down even after the solution is kept undisturbed for some
time.
In a solution, the solute particle cannot be distinguished from the solvent particles or molecules even
under a microscope. In a true solution, the particles of the solute disappear into the space between
the solvent molecules.
The components of a solution cannot be separated by filtration.

Concentration terms :

The following concentration terms are used to expressed the concentration of a solution. These are
Molarity (M)
Molality (m)
Mole fraction (x)
% calculation
Normality (N)
ppm
Remember that all of these concentration terms are related to one another. By knowing one concentration term you can also find the other concentration terms. Let us discuss all of them one by one.

Molarity (M) :
The number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1 L (1000 ml) of the solution is known as the
molarity of the solution.
i.e., Molarity of solution =

number of moles of solute

volume of solution in litre

Let a solution is prepared by dissolving w gm of solute of mol.wt. M in V ml water.

w

Number of moles of solute dissolved =

M
w

V ml water have
mole of solute
M

w 1000
1000 ml water have M V
ml

w 1000
Molarity (M) = (Mol. wt of solute ) V
ml

Some other relations may also useful.

mass of solute
1000 = (Molarity of solution V )
Number of millimoles =
ml
(Mol. wt. of solute)

Molarity of solution may also given as :

Number of millimole of solute
Total volume of solution in ml

Molarity is a unit that depends upon temperature. It varies inversely with temperature .
Mathematically : Molarity decreases as temperature increases.
1
1
Molarity

temperature
volume

If a particular solution having volume V1 and molarity = M1 is diluted upto volume V2 mL than
M1V1 = M2V2
M2 : Resultant molarity

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If a solution having volume V1 and molarity M1 is mixed with another solution of same solute having
volume V2 mL & molarity M2
then
M1V1 + M2V2 = MR (V1 + V2)
MR = Resultant molarity =

M1V1 M2 V2
V1 V2

Example-19

149 gm of potassium chloride (KCl) is dissolved in 10 Lt of an aqueous solution. Determine the

molarity of the solution (K = 39, Cl = 35.5)

Solution

Molecular mass of KCl = 39 + 35.5 = 74.5 gm

149 gm

Moles of KCl = 74.5 gm = 2

2

Molarity of the solution =

= 0.2 M
10

Molality (m) :
The number of moles of solute dissolved in1000 gm (1 kg) of a solvent is known as the molality of
the solution.
number of moles of solute
i.e.,
molality = mass of solvent in gram 1000
Let Y gm of a solute is dissolved in X gm of a solvent. The molecular mass of the solute is M 0. Then Y/M0
mole of the solute are dissolved in X gm of the solvent. Hence
Molality =

Y
1000
M0 X

Molality is independent of temperature changes.

Example-20

225 gm of an aqueous solution contains 5 gm of urea. What is the concentration of the solution in
terms of molality. (Mol. wt. of urea = 60)

Solution

Mass of urea = 5 gm
Molecular mass of urea = 60
5
= 0.083
60
Mass of solvent = (255 5) = 250 gm

Number of moles of urea =

Molality of the solution =

Number of moles of solute

0.083
Mass of solvent in gram 1000 = 250 1000= 0.332.

Mole fraction (x) :

The ratio of number of moles of the solute or solvent present in the solution and the total number
of moles present in the solution is known as the mole fraction of substances concerned.
Let number of moles of solute in solution = n
Number of moles of solvent in solution = N

Mole fraction of solute (x1) =

Mole fraction of solvent (x2) =

also

n
nN
N
nN

x 1 + x2 = 1

Mole fraction is a pure number. It will remain independent of temperature changes.

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% calculation :
The concentration of a solution may also expressed in terms of percentage in the following way.

% weight by weight (w/w) : It is given as mass of solute present in per 100 gm of solution.
i.e.

% weight by volume (w/v) : It is given as mass of solute present in per 100 ml of solution.
i.e.,

Solution

Example-22
Solution

% w/v =

mass of solute in gm
100
volume of solution in ml

% volume by volume (v/v) : It is given as volume of solute present in per 100 ml solution.
i.e.,

Example-21

mass of solute in gm
% w/w = mass of solution in gm 100

volume of solute in ml

% v/v = volume of solution in ml 100

0.5 g of a substance is dissolved in 25 g of a solvent. Calculate the percentage amount of the

substance in the solution.
Mass of substance = 0.5 g
Mass of solvent = 25 g
0 .5
100 = 1.96

percentage of the substance (w/w) =

0.5 25
20 cm3 of an alcohol is dissolved in80 cm3 of water. Calculate the percentage of alcohol in solution.
Volume of alcohol = 20 cm3
Volume of water = 80 cm3
20
100 = 20.

Percentage of alcohol =
20 80

Miscellaneous :
AVERAGE/ MEAN ATOMIC MASS :
The weighted average of the isotopic masses of the elements naturally occuring isotopes.
a1x1 a 2 x 2 ..... an x n
Mathematically, average atomic mass of X (Ax) =
100
Where :
a1, a2, a3 ........... atomic mass of isotopes.
and
x1, x2, x3 ........... mole % of isotopes.

Example-23

Naturally occuring chlorine is 75% Cl35 which has an atomic mass of 35 amu and 25% Cl37 which
has a mass of 37 amu. Calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine (A) 35.5 amu
(B) 36.5 amu
(C) 71 amu
(D) 72 amu

Solution

(A) Average atomic mass =

=

% of isotope x its atoms mass % of I isotope x its atomic mass

100
75 x 35 25 x 37
= 35.5 amu
100

Note : (a) In all calculations we use this mass. (b) In periodic table we report this mass only.

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CHEMISTRY
MEAN MOLAR MASS OR MOLECULAR MASS:
The average molar mass of the different substance present in the container =

n1M1 n 2M2 ......nnMn

.
n1 n 2 ....nn

Where :
M1, M2, M3 ........... are molar masses.
n1, n2, n3 ........... moles of substances.
Example-24

The molar composition of polluted air is as follows :

Gas
At. wt.
mole percentage composition
Oxygen
16
16%
Nitrogen
14
80%
Carbon dioxide
03%
Sulphurdioxide
01%
What is the average molecular weight of the given polluted air ? (Given, atomic weights of C and S
are 12 and 32 respectively.
jn

n M
j

Solution

Mavg =

j n

j1
jn

Here

n
j1

= 100

j 1

Mavg =

16 x 32 80 x 28 44 x 3 64 x 1
512 2240 132 64
2948
=
=
= 29.48 Ans.
100
100
100

MISCELLANEOUS SOLVED PROBLEMS (MSPS)

1.

Find the relative atomic mass, atomic mass of the following elements.
(i) Na

(ii) F

(iii) H

(iv) Ca

(v) Ag

Sol.

(i) 23, 23 amu

(ii) 19, 19 amu (iii) 1, 1.008 amu , (iv) 40, 40 amu, (v) 108, 108 amu.

2.

A sample of (C2H6) ethane has the same mass as 107 molecules of methane. How many C2H6 molecules
does the sample contain ?

Sol.

Moles of CH4 =

10 7
NA

107
Mass of CH4 =
16 = mass of C2H6
NA

3.

Sol.

10 7 16
N A 30

So

Moles of C2H6 =

So

10 7 16
No. of molecules of C2H6 =
NA = 5.34 106.
N A 30

From 160 g of SO2 (g) sample, 1.2046 x 1024 molecules of SO2 are removed then find out the volume of left
over SO2 (g) at STP.
160
Given moles =
= 2.5.
64
1.2046 10 24
Removed moles =
= 2.
6.023 10 23
so left moles = 0.5.
volume left at STP = 0.5 22.4 = 11.2 lit.

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4.

14 g of Nitrogen gas and 22 g of CO2 gas are mixed together. Find the volume of gaseous mixture at STP.

Sol.

Moles of N2 =

14
= 0.5.
28

moles of CO2 =

22
= 0.5.
44

so total moles = 0.5 + 0.5 = 1.

so vol. at STP = 1 22.4 = 22.4 lit.
5.

Show that in the reaction N2 (g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3 (g), mass is conserved.

Sol.
moles before reaction
moles after reaction

N2 (g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3 (g)

1
3
0
0

Mass before reaction = mass of 1 mole N2(g) + mass of 3 mole H2(g)

= 14 x 2 + 3 x 2 = 34 g
mass after reaction = mass of 2 mole NH3
= 2 x 17 = 34 g.
6.

When x gram of a certain metal brunt in 1.5 g oxygen to give 3.0 g of its oxide. 1.20 g of the same metal
heated in a steam gave 2.40 g of its oxide. shows the these result illustrate the law of constant or definite
proportion

Sol.

Wt. of metal = 3.0 1.5 = 1.5 g

so wt. of metal : wt of oxygen = 1.5 : 1.5 = 1 : 1
similarly in second case ,
wt. of oxygen = 2.4 1.2 = 1.2 g
so wt. of metal : wt of oxygen = 1.2 : 1.2 = 1 : 1
so these results illustrate the law of constant proportion.

7.
Sol.

Find out % of O & H in H2O compound.

16
% of O =
100 = 88.89%
18
2
% of H =
100 = 11.11%
18

8.

Acetylene & butene have empirical formula CH & CH2 respectively. The molecular mass of acetylene and
butene are 26 & 56 respectively deduce their molecular formula.

Ans.

C2H2 & C4H8

Sol.

Molecular mass
n = Empirical formula mass
For Acetylene :
n=

26
=2
13

Molecular formula = C2H2

For Butene :
n=

56
=4
14

Molecular formula = C4H8 .

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CHEMISTRY
9.

An oxide of nitrogen gave the following percentage composition :

N = 25.94
and

O = 74.06

Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.

Ans.
Sol.

N2O5
Element

% / Atomic mass

Simple ratio

Simple intiger ratio

25 .94
1 .85
14

74.06
4.63
16

2.5

So empirical formula is N2O5.

10.
Sol.

Find the density of CO2(g) with respect to N2O(g).

M.wt. of CO 2
44
R.D. = M.wt. of N O =
= 1.
44
2

11.

Find the vapour density of N2O5

Sol.

V.D. =

12.

Write a balance chemical equation for following reaction :

Mol. wt. of N2O 5

= 54.
2

When ammonia (NH3) decompose into nitrogen (N2) gas & hydrogen (H2) gas.

1
3
N + H
2 2 2 2

Sol.

NH3

13.

When 170 g NH3 (M =17) decomposes how many grams of N2 & H2 is produced.

Sol.

NH3

or

2NH3 N2 + 3H2 .

1
3
N + H
2 2 2 2
moles of H2
moles of NH3
moles of N2
=
=
.
3/2
1
1/ 2

So

moles of N2 =

1
170

= 5.
2
17

Similarly

moles of H2 =

3
170

= 15.
2
17

So

wt. of H2 = 15 2 = 30 g.

So

wt. of N2 = 5 28 = 140 g.

14.

340 g NH3 (M = 17) when decompose how many litres of nitrogen gas is produced at STP.

Sol.

NH3

1
3
N + H
2 2 2 2
moles of NH3 =

340
= 20.
17

1
20 = 10.
2

So

moles of N2 =

vol. of N2 at STP = 10 22.4 = 224 lit.

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15.

4 mole of MgCO3 is reacted with 6 moles of HCl solution. Find the volume of CO2 gas produced at STP, the
reaction is

Sol.

MgCO3 + 2HCl MgCl2 + CO2 + H2O.

Here HCl is limiting reagent. So moles of CO2 formed = 3.
So vol. at STP = 3 22.4 = 67.2 lit.

16.

117 gm NaCl is dissolved in 500 ml aqueous solution. Find the molarity of the solution.

Sol.

Molarity =

17.

Calculate the resultant molarity of following :

117 / 58.5
= 4M.
500 / 1000

(a) 200 ml 1M HCl + 300 ml water

(c) 200 ml 1M HCl + 100 ml 0.5 M H2SO4

(b) 1500 ml 1M HCl + 18.25 g HCl

(d) 200 ml 1M HCl + 100 ml 0.5 M HCl

Ans.

(a) 0.4 M

(d) 0.83 M.

Sol.

(a) Final molarity =

(b) 1.33 M

(c) 1 M

200 1 0
= 0.4 M.
200 300

18.25 1000
36.5
1.33 M
1500

1500 1
(b) Final molarity =

(c) Final molarity of H+ =

(d) Final molarity =

18.

200 1 100 0.5 2

= 1 M.
200 100

200 1 100 0.5

= 0.83 M.
200 100

518 gm of an aqueous solution contains 18 gm of glucose (mol.wt. = 180). What is the molality of the solution.

wt. of solvent = 518 18 = 500 gm.

19.

0.25 of a substance is dissolved in 6.25 g of a solvent. Calculate the percentage amount of the substance in

Sol.

the solution.
wt. of solution = 0.25 + 6.25 = 6.50.
so % (w/w) =

20.

so

molarity =

18 / 180
= 0.2.
500 / 1000

Sol.

0.25
100 = 3.8%.
6.50

0.32 mole of LiAlH4 in ether solution was placed in a flask and 74 g (1 moles) of t-butyl alcohol was added.
The product is LiAlHC12H27O3 . Find the weight of the product if lithium atoms are conserved.

Sol.

[Li = 7, Al = 27, H = 1, C = 12, O = 16]

Applying POAC on Li
1 moles of LiAlH4 = 1 moles of LiAlH C12H27O3
254 0.32 = 1 wt. of LiAlH C12H27O3.
wt. of LiAlH C12H27O3 = 81.28 gm.

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