Powder Technology 162 (2006) 126 132

www.elsevier.com/locate/powtec

A CFD study of the effect of cone dimensions on sampling

aerocyclones performance and hydrodynamics
T.G. Chuah a, Jolius Gimbun b,*, Thomas S.Y. Choong a
a
b

Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor D.E., Malaysia
Faculty of Chemical and Natural Resources Engineering, University College of Engineering and Technology Malaysia, KUKTEM, Bandar MEC, 25200 Kuantan,
Pahang, Malaysia
Received 4 May 2005; received in revised form 14 September 2005
Available online 7 February 2006

Abstract
This work presents a Computational Fluid Dynamics calculation to evaluate the effects of cone dimensions on the performance,
hydrodynamics and centrifugal forces of sampling aerocyclones (gas cyclones). The problem of modeling highly swirling flow is overcome by
means of an algebraic turbulence model. The axial and tangential velocities in a cyclone are successfully simulated. The refined mesh on the
cyclone cone was also applied to ensure a better prediction on the effect of cone tip diameter to its performance, centrifugal forces and
hydrodynamics. The pressure drop, grade efficiency and cut-off size of a cyclone of different cone dimensions was predicted very well with
average deviation of about 2.9%, 5% and 2.1% respectively from experimental data presented in the literature. The findings suggest that the higher
peak of tangential and axial velocity in a cyclone of a small cone lead to a higher collection efficiency and pressure drop. This helps to assess the
benefit of enlarging or reducing the cone of a given cyclone. Results obtained from the computer modeling have demonstrated that CFD is suitable
for modeling an effect of cyclone dimension on its performance.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cyclones; CFD; Performance; Hydrodynamics; Cone dimension

1. Introduction
Cyclones are by far the most widely used type of particulate
control equipment. Their simple design, low maintenance costs,
and adaptability to a wide range of operating conditions make
them one of the most widely used particle removal devices. By
using suitable materials and methods of construction, cyclones
may be adapted for use in extreme operating conditions such as
in high temperature, high pressure, and corrosive environment.
With no moving parts involved and mainly consisting of a drum
with a funnel at the bottom, inlet and exit ports, a cyclone
separator is fairly simple to build and inexpensive.
Many experimental and numerical investigations have
been performed either on small sampling cyclones or on
larger industrial cyclone separators. However, very little

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 9 549 2413; fax: +60 9 549 2399.
E-mail address: jolius@kuktem.edu.my (J. Gimbun).
0032-5910/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2005.12.010

information is available on the modeling and simulation of

the effects of the cone bottom diameter on the performance
and hydrodynamics of cyclone. The effects of the cone tip
diameter have been neglected or taken in negligible order by
most of the researchers. The cone is often assumed to be not
essential for cyclone performance, and it merely serves the
practical purpose of delivering collected particles to the
central discharge point (e.g. [1]). Bryant et al. [2] observed if
the vortex touched the cone wall, particle re-entrainment
occurred and efficiency decreased. The collection efficiency
will be lower for cyclones with a small cone opening due to
a higher possibility of vortex touching the cone wall. Dirgo
and Leith [3] and Bhatia and Cheremisinoff [4] discussed
briefly on the effects of the cone opening size. Zhu and Lee
[5] stated that the cone provides greater tangential velocities
near the bottom for removing smaller particles. Lately, Avci
and Karagoz [20] stated that the cone is a very important
parameter from the point of view of acceleration, swirl
number, and pressure losses.

127

T.G. Chuah et al. / Powder Technology 162 (2006) 126 132

D
b

3. Computational fluid dynamics simulation

De

S
h

ELEVATION

PLAN

Fig. 1. Tangential cyclone configuration.

Although the understanding and knowledge of flow field

inside a cyclone has been developed rapidly over these few
years, the exact mechanisms of removing particles are still not
fully understood. Therefore, most existing cyclone theories
are based on simplified models or depend upon empirical
correlations. Xiang et al. [6] have carried out experiments
with cyclones of different cone dimensions. They evaluated a
few models, namely Barth [7], Leith and Licht [8], and Iozia
and Leith [9]. All these models were able to simulate
correctly the trend of Xiangs experimental data. However,
the quantitative agreement is not satisfactory.
CFD has a great potential to predict the flow field
characteristics and particle trajectories as well as the pressure
drop inside the cyclone [10]. The complicated swirling
turbulent flow in a cyclone places great demands on the
numerical techniques and the turbulence models employed in
the CFD codes. The prediction of the cyclone pressure drop
and collection efficiency under different operating temperatures and inlet velocities have been earlier reported [11,12].
The present study was undertaken in an effort to carry out a
modeling and simulation study on the effects of cone
dimension on cyclone performance. In this study, the CFD
calculations are carried out using commercial finite volume
code FLUENT 6.1. The CFD prediction is compared with the
experimental data reported by Xiang et al. [6].
2. Cyclone design
In this study, the numerical simulation deals with the
standard case of reverse flow cyclone with a tangential
rectangular inlets as shown in Fig. 1. Cyclone dimension used
in this simulation is as shown in Table 1.

FLUENT is a commercially available CFD code which

utilises the finite volume formulation to carry out coupled or
segregated calculations (with reference to the conservation of
mass, momentum and energy equations). It is ideally suited for
incompressible to mildly compressible flows. The conservation
of mass, momentum and energy in fluid flows are expressed in
terms of non-linear partial differential equations which defy
solution by analytical means. The solution of these equations
has been made possible by the advent of powerful workstations, opening avenues towards the calculation of complicated flow fields with relative ease.
For the turbulent flow in cyclones, the key to the success of
CFD lies with the accurate description of the turbulent
behaviour of the flow [10]. To model the swirling turbulent
flow in a cyclone separator, there are a number of turbulence
models available in FLUENT. These range from the standard
k ( model to the more complicated Reynolds stress model
(RSM). The k ( model involves the solution of transport
equations for the kinetic energy of turbulence and its
dissipation rate and the calculation of a turbulent contribution
to the viscosity at each computational cell. The standard k (,
RNG k ( and Realizable k ( models were not optimised for
strongly swirling flows found in cyclones [13,14]. Turbulence
may be stabilized or destabilized in the parts of flow domain
where strong streamline curvature is present. To reduce the
computational effort the Renormalised k ( (RNG k () model
can be used with about 12% deviation on experimental data
[10]. The numerical studies carried out by Fredriksson [15]
using the RNG k ( model under-predicted the variation of the
axial velocity profile across the radial direction and overpredicted the magnitude of the tangential velocity and the
cyclone pressure drop.
The Reynolds stress model requires the solution of transport
equations for each of the Reynolds stress components as well
as for dissipation transport without the necessity to calculate an
isotropic turbulent viscosity field. The Reynolds Stress
turbulence model yield an accurate prediction on swirl flow
pattern, axial velocity, tangential velocity and pressure drop on
cyclone simulation [13 16].
The finite volume methods have been used to discretised the
partial differential equations of the model using the SIMPLE
(Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations) method
for pressure velocity coupling and the Second Order Upwind
scheme to interpolate the variables on the surface of the control
volume. The segregated solution algorithm was selected. The
Reynolds stress (RSM) turbulence model was used in this
study due to the anisotropic nature of the turbulence in

Table 1
Geometrical dimensions of cyclones studied
Geometry (mm)

Xiang et al. [6]

12.5

De
15.5

15.5

31

77

B
Cyclone I

Cyclone II

Cyclone III

19.4

15.5

11.6

31

128

T.G. Chuah et al. / Powder Technology 162 (2006) 126 132

Cyclone I

Cyclone II

Cyclone III

Fig. 2. CFD surface mesh of cyclone.

cyclones. Standard Fluent wall functions were applied and high

order discretisation schemes were also used.
Under the RSM second order upwind for discretisation,
difficulty to reach the convergence in simulation may be
encountered [11]. The residuals may exhibit cyclic tendencies
which mean that the transient pattern occurs. In this instance,
the solver must be changed to a transient solver and makes the
time step in the region of 0.025 s or a tiny fraction of the
residence time of the cyclone. The simulation is then continued
with a coupling of unsteady and steady state solver in
FLUENT. For simulation using RNG k ( model the steady
state solver is sufficient to reach convergence.
3.1. Discrete phase modeling
To calculate the trajectories of particles in the flow,
the discrete phase model (DPM) was used to track individual
particles through the continuum fluid. The particle loading in a
sampling cyclone is typically small (3 5% volume fraction),
and therefore, it can be safely assumed that the presence of the
particles does not affect the flow field (one-way coupling). The
equation of motion for an individual particle can be written
as [17]:
dv
f
u  v g
dt
sv

where other contributions to the force on the particle (buoyancy, virtual mass and Basset term) are negligible because of
the small fluid-to-particle density ratio. The response time of

the particle, s v, is defined in terms of the particle density,

particle diameter and the viscosity of the air as:
sv

qp dp2
18lg

The drag factor f is defined as:

f

CD Rer
24

where
Rer

qg dp ju  vj
lg

where Re r is the relative Reynolds number and C D is the drag

coefficient. In FLUENT, the drag coefficient for spherical
particles is calculated by using the correlations developed by
Morsi and Alexander [18]. For non-spherical particles, the
correlation was developed by Haider and Levenspiel [19]. The
ordinary differential equation (Eq. (1)) was integrated along the
trajectory of an individual particle. Collection efficiency
statistics were obtained by releasing a specified number of
monodispersed particles at the inlet of the cyclone and by
monitoring the number escaping through the underflow. Collisions between particles and walls of the cyclone were assumed to
be perfectly elastic (coefficient of restitution is equal to 1).
The numerical calculation was made with the numerical grid
as shown in Fig. 2. The numerical grids of cyclones I, II and III
600

Experiment cyclone I
Experiment cyclone II

Pressure Drop (Pa)

500

Experiment cyclone III

CFD RSM cyclone I

400

CFD RSM cyclone II

CFD RSM cyclone III

300
200
100
0
7

11

13

15

17

Inlet velocity (m/s)

Fig. 3. Refined mesh at the cyclone cone.

Fig. 4. CFD with RSM turbulence model prediction on the pressure drop of cyclone with different cone tip diameter. Data point is obtained from Xiang et al. [6].

129

T.G. Chuah et al. / Powder Technology 162 (2006) 126 132

Fig. 5. CFD with RNG k ( turbulence model prediction on the pressure drop
of cyclone with different cone tip diameter. Data point is obtained from Xiang
et al. [6].

contain 7847, 8500, and 10235 nodes respectively, to yield a

reasonable prediction. The grid adaption is applied on the cone
of cyclone to ensure a better prediction on the effect of cone tip
diameter to the cyclone pressure drop (Fig. 3). The CFD
simulation was performed with a Pentium IV 2.8 GHz HP
workstation XW8000 with 512 cache memory, 1 GB RAMmemory, and 110 GB hard-disc memory. Computational results
are then compared with the experimental data obtained from the
work of Xiang et al. [6].
4. Result and discussion
4.1. Prediction on cyclone pressure drop
Measurement of the pressure drop of a cyclone with a
different cone tip diameter was carried out for inlet velocity
ranging from 8 to 16 m/s by Xiang et al. [6]. Figs. 4 and 5
present the comparison of the CFD prediction and experimental
data. The deviation was calculated as follows:
% Deviation
h

N

~i1 j

DPe;i




 i

= DPe;i exp j

DP
e;i
cal
exp
N

 100

Fig. 7. Comparison on CFD RSM and RNG k ( prediction on grade efficiency

for cyclone III (P = 1 bar and T = 293 K). Data point is obtained from Xiang
et al. [6].

N is the number of measurements. CFD with RSM turbulence

model shows better prediction on the cyclone pressure drop
compared to the RNG k ( model with average deviation of
2.9% and 4.6% for RSM and RNG k (, respectively. RSM
turbulence model fits well to Xiang et al. [6] experimental data
with deviation ranging between 0.6% and 5.5%, probably in
the same magnitude of the experimental error. The simulation
results also agree with our earlier study [11] that the RNG k (
model tends to underestimate the cyclone pressure drop
(Fig. 5). CFD simulation results also agree with Xiangs
experiment that cyclone with a smaller cone diameter result in
slightly higher pressure drop compared to cyclone with a
bigger cone diameter. Fig. 6 shows that the cyclone pressure
drop decreases with the increase in the cone tip diameter due
to a higher velocity magnitude inside the cyclone of a small
cone size.

100

Grade efficiency (%)

where the subscripts exp and cal are denoted as the

experimental and calculated values of pressure drop (DP) and

Xiang experiment cyclone I

50

CFD RSM cyclone 1

Xiang experiment cyclone II
CFD RSM cyclone II
Xiang experiment cyclone III
CFD RSM cyclone III

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

Particle diameter (m)

Fig. 6. CFD prediction on cyclone pressure drop for different cone tip diameter
at inlet flow rate of 50 l/min. Data are obtained from Xiang et al. [6] (B/
D = cone tip diameter/cyclone body diameter).

Fig. 8. Calculated and measured grade efficiencies for cyclones with different
cone tip diameter ( P = 1 bar, T = 293 K, Q = 60 l/min, v i = 16 m/s). Data point is
obtained from Xiang et al. [6].

130

T.G. Chuah et al. / Powder Technology 162 (2006) 126 132

1.7

Cut-off size (m)

1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3

Xiangs' Experiment
CFD RSM

1.2
1.1
1
0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.55

0.6

0.65

B/D

Fig. 9. CFD prediction on cyclone cut-off size for different cone tip diameter at
inlet flow rate of 60 l/min. Data are obtained from Xiang et al. [6] (B/D = cone
tip diameter/cyclone body diameter).

prediction using RSM and RNG k ( turbulence model are

compared with Xiangs experimental data as shown in Fig. 7.
The deviations of CFD prediction on cyclone collection
efficiency to Xiangs experiment for RSM model is much
smaller compared to the RNG k ( model. RSM turbulence
model fits well the experimental data with average deviation of
4.4% and 0.8% for the grade efficiency and cut-off size,
respectively.
Fig. 8 shows the CFD with RSM turbulence model
prediction on cyclones of different tip cone diameter. The
CFD predictions were shown to be satisfactory when compared
with Xiangs experimental data. CFD results agree with
Xiangs experiment that cyclone with a smaller cone diameter
result slightly higher collection efficiency compared to the
cyclone with a bigger cone diameter.
4.3. Prediction on the cut-off size

4.2. Prediction on the grade efficiency

Axial velocity (m/s)

(a)

Cyclone I

2.5

Cyclone II

Cyclone III

1.5
1
0.5
0

-0.015

-0.01

-0.005

-0.5

0.005

0.01

0.015

-1

Cyclones are characterised by a cut size (d 50) which defines

the particle size for which the cyclone collection efficiency is
50%. It is important to know the cyclone cut-off diameter
under certain operational conditions and geometry. The
simulation results obtained from the computer modeling have

(a)

12

10

Tangential velocity (m/s)

In this study, grade efficiencies have also been computed

and compared with the experimental values for cyclones of
different cone tip diameters. Similar efficiency curves were
obtained for different flow conditions in a cyclone. CFD

4
Cyclone I
Cyclone II

Cyclone III

-1.5

-2

-0.015

Position (m)

Cyclone I

Cyclone III

0
-0.5

0.005

0.01

0.015

10

Cyclone II

0.5

-0.005

(b)

2.5

-0.01

Position (m)

1.5

-0.015

-0.005

0.005

0.01

0.015

Tangential velocity (m/s)

Axial velocity (m/s)

(b)

-0.01

7
6
5
Cyclone I
Cyclone II

4
3

Cyclone III

-1

1
-1.5
-2

Position (m)

Fig. 10. Axial velocity from CFD prediction for cyclone of different cone tip
diameter, (a) at Z = 30 mm from bottom and (b) at Z = 10 mm from bottom.

0
-0.015

-0.01

-0.005

0.005

0.01

0.015

Position (m)

Fig. 11. Tangential velocity from CFD prediction for cyclone of different cone
tip diameter, (a) at Z = 30 mm from bottom and (b) at Z = 10 mm from bottom.

131

T.G. Chuah et al. / Powder Technology 162 (2006) 126 132

(a)
1700

cyclone volume reduces as the cone tip diameter is reduced.

Therefore, the tangential velocity in the cyclone will increase
as the same air flow rate now goes into a smaller cyclone
volume.
Centrifugal forces play an important role for particle
separation in cyclone. Centrifugal force is usually shown as a
pseudo force that is resulted from the bodys inertia carrying it
straight while some other force makes it move in a curved path.
If a particle moves in a circular path with radius r and velocity
v c along the path, then it has an angular velocity:

Cyclone I
Cyclone II

1500

Cyclone III

Fc/Fg

1300
1100
900
700

x vc =r

500
0

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

0.012

and,

Position (m)

(b)

Centrifugal force; Fc

2500
Cyclone I
Cyclone II

2000

Cyclone III

mv2c
mx2 r
r

For analysis of cyclone the centrifugal force is commonly

expressed as a ratio of gravity force:
Centrifugal force
Fc
mv2 =r
v2 =r

c c
Gravity force
mg
g
Fg

Fc/Fg

1500

1000

500

0
0

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

Position (m)

Fig. 12. Calculated centrifugal to gravity force ratio for cyclone of different cone
tip diameter, (a) at Z = 30 mm from bottom and (b) at Z = 10 mm from bottom.

demonstrated that CFD with RSM turbulence model is a more

accurate method of modeling the cyclones cut-off size with
average deviation of about 2.1% of the measured value as
compared to 4.9% of RNG k (. The CFD prediction on the
effect of cyclone cone tip diameter to cut-off size is presented
in Fig. 9.
4.4. Study on cyclone hydrodynamics and centrifugal force
The experimental data of Xiangs work have been successfully reproduced numerically via CFD modeling. The pressure
drop and collection efficiency of the cyclone were successfully
predicted numerically, implying that the cyclone flow field was
also simulated correctly. In order to understand the mechanism
that lies behind cyclones of different cone tip diameter, the
flow field data at Z = 10 mm and 30 mm from the tip were
extracted from the CFD simulation with RSM turbulence
model for inlet velocity of 10 m/s. The comparison of the flow
field data of cyclones I, II and III are presented in Figs. 10 12.
Fig. 10 showed that cyclone with a smaller cone produces a
higher peak of axial velocity. This explained why cyclone with
a smaller cone tip diameter has a higher pressure drop. Gimbun
et al. [11] also stated that an axial flow revision in the centre
vortex increases the cyclone pressure drop.
The tangential velocity of a cyclone also increases with
decreases of its cone tip diameter as shown in Fig. 11. The

A ratio of centrifugal to gravity force analysis on different

height of the cyclone has been carried out to evaluate the
pattern of centrifugal force inside the cyclone body. The
influence of tangential velocity on centrifugal forces generated
in cyclone is clearly shown in Fig. 12. Cyclone III which has
the smallest cone tip diameter always produces a larger
centrifugal force compared to cyclones I and II. Our simulation
results support the findings of Xiang et al. [6] that a smaller
cone size gives higher separation efficiency and higher pressure drop.
5. Conclusion
The CFD code FLUENT with the RSM turbulence model
predict very well the pressure drop in cyclones of a different
cone dimension and may be useful for cyclone design. In the
CFD numerical calculations a very small pressure drop
deviation were observed, with an average deviation of 2.9%,
probably in the same magnitude of the experimental error.
However behind the accuracy of the complicated RSM model it
does require much expensive computational effort compared to
the RNG k ( model. CFD with RNG k ( turbulence model
also yield a reasonably good prediction on cyclone pressure
drop with a maximum deviation of 7.5% on measured value.
The RSM turbulence model also predicts the cyclone collection
efficiency better than RNG k ( model with the average
deviation of 5% and 2.1% for the grade efficiency and cut-off
size, respectively for the cyclone of a different cone tip
diameter. CFD simulation results agree with Xiangs experiment that cyclone with a smaller cone diameter result slightly
higher collection efficiency and pressure drop compared to the
cyclone with a bigger cone diameter. Specifically, results
obtained from the computer modeling exercise have demonstrated that CFD is a great method for modeling the effect of
cyclone dimension on its performance.

132

T.G. Chuah et al. / Powder Technology 162 (2006) 126 132

Nomenclature
a
Cyclone inlet height (m)
b
Cyclone inlet width (m)
D
Cyclone body diameter (m)
De
Cyclone gas outlet diameter (m)
H
Cyclone height (m)
h
Cyclone cylinder height (m)
S
Cyclone gas outlet duct length (m)
B
Cyclone dust outlet diameter (m)
qg
Gas density (kg/m3)
u, v
Inlet velocity (m/s)
Relative Reynolds number
Re r
CD
Drag coefficient
sv
Particle response time
qp
Particle density (kg/m3)
Gas viscosity (m2/s)
lg
dp
Particle diameter (m)
r
Radius (m)
vc
Tangential velocity along the path (m/s)
x
Angular velocity (rad/s)
m
Mass (kg)
Fc
Centrifugal force (kg m/s2)
Fg
Gravity force (kg m/s2)
References
[1] A.C. Stern, K.J. Caplan, P.D. Bush, Cyclone Dust Collectors, American
Petroleum Institute, New York, 1955.
[2] H.S. Bryant, R.W. Silverman, F.A. Zenz, How dust in gas affects cyclone
pressure drop, Hydrocarbon Processing 62 (1983) 87 90.
[3] J. Dirgo, D. Leith, Performance of theoretically optimized cyclones,
Filtration and Separation 22 (1985) 119 125.
[4] M.U. Bhatia, P.N. Cheremisinoff, Cyclones, in: P.N. Cheremisinoff (Ed.),
Air Pollution Control and Design for Industry, Marcel Dekker, New York,
1993.

[5] Y. Zhu, K.W. Lee, Experimental study on small cyclones operating at high
flow rates, Journal of Aerosol Science 30 (1999) 1303 1315.
[6] R. Xiang, S.H. Park, K.W. Lee, Effects of cone dimension on cyclone
performance, Journal of Aerosol Science 32 (2001) 549 561.
[7] W. Barth, Berechnung und Auslegung von Zyklonabscheidern aufgrund
neuerer Untersuchungen, Brennstoff, Warme, Kraft 8 (1956) 1 9.
[8] D. Leith, W. Licht, The collection efficiency of cyclone type particle
collectors: a new theoretical approach, AIChE Symposium Series 68
(1972) 196 206.
[9] D.L. Iozia, D. Leith, The logistic function and cyclone fractional
efficiency, Aerosol Science and Technology 12 (1990) 598 606.
[10] W.D. Griffiths, F. Boysan, Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and
empirical modelling of the performance of a number of cyclone samplers,
Journal of Aerosol Science 27 (1996) 281 304.
[11] J. Gimbun, T.G. Chuah, A. Fakhrul-Razi, Thomas S.Y. Choong, The
influence of temperature and inlet velocity on cyclone pressure drop: a
CFD study, Chemical Engineering and Processing 44 (1) (2005) 7 12.
[12] J. Gimbun, T.S.Y. Choong, T.G. Chuah, A. Fakhrul-Razi, A CFD study
on the prediction of cyclone collection efficiency, International Journal of
Computational Method Engineering Science and Mechanics 6 (3) (2005)
161 168.
[13] M. Reddy. Fluent India, Personal Communication, mxr@fluent.co.in,
2003.
[14] T. Fraser, Personal Communication, fraserta1@cf.ac.uk, www.cfd-online.
com, 2003.
[15] C. Fredriksson. Exploratory experimental and theoretical studies of
cyclone gasification of wood powder. Doctoral thesis, Lulea University
of Technology, Sweden, 1999.
[16] M. Slack. Cyclonic Separator, QNET-CFD Application Challenge, 2003,
www.qnet-cfd.net, Accessed on 8th August 2003.
[17] C.T. Crowe, M. Sommerfeld, Y. Tsuji, Multiphase Flow with Droplets and
Particles, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1998.
[18] S.A. Morsi, A.J. Alexander, An investigation of particle trajectories in
two-phase flow systems, Journal of Fluid Mechanics 55 (1972) 193 208.
[19] A.M. Haider, O. Levenspiel, Drag coefficient and terminal velocity
of spherical and nonspherical particles, Powder Technology 58 (1989)
63 70.
[20] A. Avci, I. Karagoz, Effects of flow and geometrical parameters on the
collection efficiency in cyclone separators, Journal of Aerosol Science 34
(7) (2003) 937 955.