Practical

Solutions
solutions for the practicing
structural engineer

Typical floor construction types.

t is not unusual to create an opening in

existing floors during building renovations
and alterations. A new opening may be used
for stairs, an elevator shaft, a duct penetration, skylights, etc. In order to execute a feasible
modification and maintain the existing buildings
structural stability, a qualified structural engineer
should be involved during the initial planning
phase. With varied knowledge of floor construction types and extensive rexperience
in structural
ht
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engineer can present valuable suggestions regarding
the selection of opening
locations, construction
feasibility and possible
strengthening options. This article presents a
typical procedure to create openings in existing
floors, and discusses some practical issues.

Creating an Opening in
Existing Floors
From Planning
to Completion

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By Dominick R. Pilla, P.E., C.E.,

S.E., RA and Xiaoli Tong, P.E.

Dominick R. Pilla, P.E., C.E.,

S.E., R.A., owns and operates
Dominick R. Pilla Associates,
P.C. In addition, Mr. Pilla is
an associate professor at the
Bernard & Anne Spitzer School
of Architecture at City College of
New York. He can be reached at
dominick@drpilla.com.
Xiaoli Tong, P.E., is an Engineer
with DRPILLA. Prior to joining
DRPILLA, Mr. Tong gained most
of his professional experience while
working in a prominent national
research institute on building
technology in China. He can be
reached at xiaolit@drpilla.com.

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of existing construction documents, if available,

will provide basic information; however, physical
inspections and probes are essential to determine
as-built conditions. Based on the findings of a
of the floor system, the locacomprehensive study
tion of the openings can be adjusted and finalized.

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Evaluation of Existing Structures

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Once the opening is located, relevant existing floor structures must be carefully assessed.
The proposed opening may affect existing floor
structures in one or all of the following ways:
(1) the design live load is increased at the new
stair landing area, thereby overloading adjacent
portions of the floor; (2) the original structural
design assumptions (e.g., continuous beam, arch
action, etc.) will not be satisfied after the opening
is made; (3) in the case of a T-beam, the flange is
partially or completely removed at the opening
side, thereby reducing flexural resistance and stiffness; and (4) structural capacities are undermined
when floor reinforcement is eliminated or cut
off when creating an opening in a concrete slab.
Actual effects on any existing floor structures are
dependent on its construction type.
Masonry arch floor construction, made of hollow
tiles or terra cotta, was very popular for buildings
constructed from the late 1800s to early 1900s.
The segmental masonry pieces work together, and
span between adjacent steel beams by using arch
action with tie rods to resist the tension thrust.
Once some segments are removed for an opening,
the corresponding arch action will be lost. The
remaining pieces will not be stable and should
be removed. If a tie rod is to be cut off, it may be
necessary to install a new steel beam beforehand,
unless field conditions suggest that the required
tension thrust is properly resolved by the stability
of the adjacent spans or bays.
Steel wire catenary floor construction became
popular in 1910 and disappeared gradually after
World War II. The steel wires are draped and continuous over steel beams so that gravity loads are
sustained by the tension in the suspended wires,
which are encased in cinder concrete mainly for
the purpose of fire protection. When an opening
is to be made in this system, it is inevitable that
some wires will need to be cut, which will disrupt
the continuity and stability of the system. In order

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Planning of an Opening

Where to make an opening in a floor sounds

very simple just put it where it should be but
this is true only for new construction, when all
kinds of openings can be accommodated using
various structural design methods. However, it is
a very different situation to create a new opening
in an existing floor where construction is constrained by surrounding elements that are part of
structural systems. An improper location of the
opening may lead to a large amount of renovation work, making the project uneconomical and
perhaps even rendering it impossible to develop
a feasible structural solution.
A good plan for an opening is half the battle;
the first and primary rule of thumb is to avoid
locating the opening across major existing building elements i.e., girders, columns and walls
to limit the affected zone, in regard to altering
the structural continuity of the building. Due
to the many possible types of construction that
may be encountered such as a masonry arch
floor, a steel-wire catenary floor, and modern
beam/plate floor types that consist of wood or
light gauge steel joists, steel beams, precast concrete planks, cast-in-place concrete slabs, etc. a
thorough understanding of the existing building
type and floor system must be obtained. A review

14 April 2013

Finite element analysis of a two-way slab

with opening.
Effects of an opening to existing concrete slab.

to stabilize the floor at adjacent spans, proper

anchorage of the cut wires must be designed.
For floors consisting of joists or floor beams,
an opening can usually be framed simply by
installing new transfer beams, which form
the perimeter of the new opening. These
transfer beams can support the floor joists/
beams at the opening, and distribute design
loads to adjacent girders, columns and walls.
Evaluation of the existing structures under
new loading conditions is straightforward
but essential.
An opening in precast plank floors can be
framed by the installation of steel headers.
The new members will redistribute the design

loads to adjacent planks in accordance with

the guidelines presented in the PCI Design
Manual, and the relevant planks should be
evaluated for design loads per the renovation
plan in addition to the distributed loads from
the header. Moreover, the remaining parts
ht
of planks withopproposed
openings must be
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reassessed to determine whether the development length of the residual strands, from the
cut edge to the point of maximum required
moment, is still valid for the full specified tensile strength. Otherwise, the residual flexural
resistance should be adjusted.
A reinforced concrete slab may be treated
as either a one-way slab or a two-way slab

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based on the aspect ratio of the length in

the long direction
to the width in the short
direction. A one-way slab is considered when
an aspect ratio of at least two is realized. A
one-way slab will function like a beam in the
short direction, continuously spanning over
supports such as T-beams or walls. However,
continuity will be interrupted at the proposed opening and the slabs required design
moments at adjacent spans will be increased.
In addition, the T-beams flange will be partially or completely removed at the opening
side, weakening the T-beams design strength
and stiffness and perhaps even inducing torsion effects.
continued on next page.

April 2013

New transfer beams around the opening.

Externally bonded/bolted steel plates method.

A two-way slab is considered when an aspect

ratio of less than two is realized. It supports
the design loads in both directions on its
column strips and middle strips simultaneously. When an opening is to be made, part
of the slabs column strip and/or middle strip
is removed, and relevant reinforcement is
cut off. To calculate the required moment
capacity after creation of the opening, the
equivalent frame method specified in ACI
318 is still applicable as long as the assumptions are satisfied. However, a finite element
analysis is a better way to find relatively more
accurate solutions to the design moments and
maximum deflections concerned.
In a finite element model, at least two adjacent floor spans around the opening must be
considered. Load-bearing walls and additional
spans of the floor slab may be simplified as
proper boundary conditions. To calculate the
residual flexural resistance, the actual amount
and placement of steel reinforcement in the
slab must be investigated and verified by
using non-destructive test instruments such
as ground penetration radar. By comparing
the required design moment to the residual
flexural resistance, it can be determined if
strengthening of the slab due to the opening is
necessary. It should be noted that if an opening is located completely within the slab
portion of a two-way slabi.e., not located
across column strips then the resulting
opening may not require reinforcement.

new beams will take design loads on residual

floor structures around the opening and distribute the loads to adjacent existing girders,
columns or walls. The new beams can often
be framed flush with
ht existing floor structures
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Cop inside finish ceilings. Due
and totally hidden
to its simplicity and efficiency, the transfer
beam is generally the first choice to strengthen
an opening whenever possible.
However, for certain floor construction
types like concrete slabs, new transfer beams
cannot be framed flush, but must instead be
installed underneath the slab to connect with
adjacent existing columns or girders. When
floor headroom and aesthetic appearance are
of paramount concern, externally bonded or
bolted plate methods may be employed.
For this popular and economical strengthening
approach, the steel plates are considered to be
tension reinforcement placed on the surfaces
of concrete slabs. The plates are sized based on
the required design moments under superimposed loads. The bonding agent (e.g., epoxy
resin) and anchor bolts provide the surface shear
stresses needed for composite action between the
plates and the concrete. When it is necessary to
strengthen the slab in both directions, the intersection of steel plates must be properly detailed.
Some practical solutions include encasing the
steel plate in one direction into the concrete slab
or pre-welding the steel plates in both directions
at the intersection points.

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Strengthening Design Options

An efficient strengthening method is to install
new transfer beams to frame an opening. The

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Peer Review and Construction

Prior to making a new opening in an existing building, a construction permit is often
required, for which an independent structural

Ground penetration radar image of slab reinforcement.

STRUCTURE magazine

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peer review is mandatory per the building

code. If possible, the buildings original structural engineer of record, who has the greatest
knowledge of the existing structural design,
is the most appropriate design professional
to serve as the peer reviewer. The peer review
involves confirming the renovation design
criteria, attesting to the general completeness
of the construction documents, and verifying
the new design in accordance with building codes and relevant industry standards.
All comments by the peer review must be
answered and manifested in the final construction documents.
The construction itself begins with shoring
installation to support all interim design loads
during construction. The shoring often simply
consists of 2x stud walls around the proposed
opening. It may be omitted if floor structures
are to be properly strengthened, as per the
design, prior to making the opening. An overcut should be prohibited; marking opening
edges and drilling holes at the corners is good
practice to prevent this. Diamond blade saws
are commonly used to cut existing floors. After
the opening is made, fire protection should be
applied on new steel members either by spray
or as part of a rated ceiling assembly.

April 2013

Summary
Each building is unique, and there is no
one universal method by which to create
openings in every building type. In this
article, we have discussed basic principles
that should be respected when considering a proposed opening. There will arise
many deviations when facing actual projects. A structural engineer, with appropriate
knowledge and experience, will be required
to coordinate thoroughly with the owner,
architect and other relevant parties in order
to evaluate and implement an appropriate
and economical proposal, design and construction for a new floor opening.