A Practical Approach

to
Design and Construction Detailing
for
Road, Industrial and Aircraft Pavements

John Howe B.Sc

Technical Manager
Boral Masonry/Boral Calsil
Brisbane, Queensland
AUSTRALIA

success and perfonnance of a segmental concrete pavement relies on a' number of

'facltors These include suitable pavement design based upon proper site investigation, and
',ass:esSimelnt of vehicle loadings, along with appropriate design and construction detailing •

.Mllthc)ds for the pavement design are many, and are well documented. A relevant pavement
,thiCkrllesS design, combined with good design and construction detailing is paramount to
ensure the pavement perfonns well throughout its design life.

paper takes a practical approach to the relevant design and construction issues, not
"cmrrelltIv addressed by any single Anstralian Standard or indnstry document.

It is based upon the author's 11 years experience in the segmental paving industry.

- 265 -
INTRODUCTION

This paper gives an overview of current practices used in the State of Queensland (QI
Australia, for design and construction detailing for Road, Industrial and Aircraft Paveme!:;
using concrete segmental pavers.

BACKGROUND

Queensland occupies the north-eastern portion of the Australian continent, and enjoys a sub
tropical to tropical climate. Of the six States of Australia, Queensland ranks second in area,
and third in population with just over 3 million residents.

Brisbane is the capital of Queensland, and forms the hub for five of the top ten fastest
growing Australian municipalities. It has the largest municipal government in Australia, and
third only to New York and Los Angeles in the world, covers 1220 square kilometres and is
home to 751,225 people.

With a population increasing at twice the national average, the growth of Brisbane's
economy growth is assured for years to come. Combined with this, it offers the lowest taxes,
charges and capital costs in Australia, an excellent industrial relations climate, the most
modern infrastructure in the country and stable pro-enterprise city and state governments.

Queensland's share of Australia's population is expected to increase from about 17% at

present to 19% in 20 years, most of which will be centred in the south east of the state. The
attractive climate and growing economy despite recessionary times, have contributed to the
migration of approximately 1000 people per week from southern states.

As a result, building and housing development have been major growth areas for the use of
segmental paving. Many developers and Local Authorities have chosen paving over other
road pavement treatments for the aesthetic and practical appeal it offers.

Some of the most significant heavy duty pavements in Qld and are situated at the Port of
Brisbane Authority's Fisherman Islands Complex at the mouth of the Brisbane River, and at
Cairns International Airport.

The Port of Brisbane has experienced an increase in trade of 72% from 1982/83 to 1990191.
The Port of Brisbane Authority manages 30 wharves with some 6.7 km of berth space
providing extensive cargo handling capabilities. The Port of Brisbane has been clearly
identified as the leading port in Australia in a number of key areas relating to port pricing
and cargo handling productivity.

The Fisherman Islands terminal - the modem "heart" of the Port of Brisbane is located at
the mouth of the Brisbane River and can comfortably handle the largest (about 60,000
d.w.t.) container and roll on - roll off ships in the world as well as bulk grain carriers to
80,000 d.w.t. and oil tankers in the 100,000 d.w.t. class.

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 meIlU'~U.3 gro\\1h of port trade has seen the building of new, and upgrading of many

International Airport has undergone significant re-development since 1984 to cater for
increases in tourism, both domestic and inbound. Cairns is the main international
to the Great Barrier Reef and Daintree World Heritage Rainforest Areas.

hour a day operation is currently served by 10 international carriers (regular

and charter airlines) with over 100,000 aircraft movements and 2 million
It is Australia's 5th busiest international airport, and 6th busiest

0Ilent:aJ paving has been chosen by Port of Brisbane Authority and Cairns Port Authority
preferred pavement system in heavy duty areas because it offers durability and a
!mlper'atlrre inseIlsiltive surface resistant to oil and fuel spills.

methods have been developed for the design of segmental pavements. These designs
domestic applications, roadways, industrial pavements and aircraft pavements. Some
these designs take into effect the structural capacity of the paver layer (lock up), such as
Cement and Concrete Association of Australia (1986) design curves, Lockpave Version 7
versions) where as other methods don't take the effect of lock up into
such as Emery & Knapton's (1988) adaptation of the Federal Aviation
Authority (FAA) empirical design charts for flexible aircraft pavement

road pavements constructed in Queensland by Local Authorities and private land

developers (who hand them over to the relevant local auiliorityafter an initial maintenance
, period), no consideration is given to the concept of lock up. The pavements are designed as
conventional flexible pavements but the surfacing is replaced by 80 rum concrete pavers plus
,]'])t!dding sand.

iThe Port of Brisbane pavements constructed in 1986 were designed using an early version of
" the Lockpave computer design program but were cross checked with a combination of the
Cement Association and the US Corps of Engineers pavement design methods. The
i:paVE!m.mt constructed in 1992 (35,000 m 2) was designed using Lockpave Version 6.

The design approach adopted for the International apron at Cairns Airport considered the
segmental concrete pavers only as a surfacing layer to a conventionally designed flexible
pavement. The pavement structural design was carried out in accordance with that normally
used in Australia for design of aircraft pavements. The concrete pavers and bedding sand
were used in substitution for the usual surfacing of 50 rum of bituminous concrete.

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PAVERS

There is currently no Australian Standard that covers the manufacturing and testing of
pavers. The concrete paving industry is guided by the Concrete Masonry AssOciation of
Australia (CMAA) document MA20, "Specification for Coocrete Segmental Paving Units. ft
This document details test methods for specific >applications, and suggests minimum criteria
for:

a) Characteristic Compressive Strength

b) Abrasion Resistance, measured by the baH race test
c) . Dimensional Tolerance
d) Shape, thickness and paving unit application

This document is currently under review by the CMAA Technical Committee and the revised
document should be published in 1994. The document will align with the proposed
Australian Standard currently being drafted, and will recommend additional minimum
criteria to the above, such as minimum breaking loads and skid resistance.

Spacer nibs are a contentious issue. There have been 'many arguments for and against the
use of nibs. In theory, nibs are not necessary, however jn reality it is not commercially
viable for the laying contractor to achieve correct, consistent joint spacing unless assisted by
spacer nibs. The CMAA Qld Promotion Committee recommendations for aircraft pavements
are:

"Paving units shall have spacing nibs on the vertical faces. The size and location of the nibs
shall be such as to separate all pavers to achieve joint spacing generally within the range of
1.5 mm to 4 mm with no more than 5% in any 3m x 3m area exceeding 4 mm. No joint
shall be less than 1.5 mm nor more than 5 mm."

This recommendation would also apply to road and industrial pavements.

The sizing of pavers is critical to achieve consistent joint spacing. The size variation during
manufacture is caused by:

a) Mould Dimension Accuracy

The manufacturers of the moulds cannot guarantee identical sized mould
compartments due to variations in plasma cutting, machining tolerances, assembly
and distortion caused by heat treatment.

b) Mould Wear
As the mould wears, the pavers produced will increase in plan dimension. In a plant
that uses vibrating type manufacturing, it is likely that after the production of 25,000
m 2 the mould size may have increased by 1.0 - 2.0 mm from the original dimensions.
In a plant using pressing type manufacturing, the mould may be at this same level of
wear after a relatively short period of production, due to the high abrasive action of
the mix, abrasion and high pressing pre881lnes.

c) Slumping
Slumping and bulging of the pavers after ejed.Wn from the mould is sensitive to mix
design and water content.

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 variation in the production of the pavers, it is difficult to achieve consistent joint
if batches of pavers are randomly selected from the production run for laying. It is
nU>ortaIlt to control the size of the pavers, the sequence of pavers delivered to site, and
are laid in the pavement. The larger the area, the more important this aspect is,
point that it is critical for industrial and Aircraft Pavements. The CMAA Qld
nol10118 Committee recommends that the designer specifies that the manufacturer shall
the paving.

requirement for aircraft pavements is that the surface of the pavers must be tightly
to prevent the occurrence of potential Foreign Object Damage (FOD) to aircraft
and components. Care must be taken when manufacturing pavers using vibrating
machines to ensure a deuse surface texture. Generally pressing type machines should
no trouble producing a smooth surface texture.

laboratory test method has been developed for measuring the surface texture. This
DnJtCeClm~e is a modified sand patch test, allowing a maximum average surface texture depth
0.11 rom.

UXJ'S.li'l,dU'r.. - SURFACE, BEDDING SAND AND SUB SOIL

surface drainage, bedding sand and sub soil drainage are essential prerequisites for
iatisl"adc.ry pavement performance. Unless these drainage methods are instrumented, the
pavement may suffer distress, decrease in performance, reduce in service life, or fail totally.

The requirements for draining surface water, ie profIles, locations and sizes of drainage
kerbs, and gully pits and contours are the same as conventional pavements.

Water will penetrate the pavement via the sand-filled joints. Detritus will be deposited by
traffic and this will help reduce the permeability of the surface at these points, however
traffic usually "tracks" so it is highly unlikely that total surface permeability will be reduced
substantially. It is recommended that the pavement surface is considered permeable and
appropriate steps taken.

The base course must be protected with water proof seal (bituminous seal). Surface water
that penetrates through the joint sand into the bedding sand will be trapped and may
percolate into the base, sub base and sub grade unless drained. Bedding sand drainage is
achieved by draining directly into the subsoil drainage system and drainage pits.

Care must be taken not to introduce a potential structural weakness in the pavement. The
following illustration details preferred and non preferred methods.

KERB" KERB"
CHANNEL CHANNEL
BORAL INTfRPAVE"\ BORAL INTfRPAVE
BEDDING =:JCJr---Tir--:::=-._/'"
SANO-_ =="'1

~(,~L-i
~- C- C-' ON-' nN'"-U - COU" ;'-, I' IO FINES'

PIPE liGamm
DlA) ~' : " ,',~
i f> ' CONCRETE DRAIN
(POTENTIAL STRUCTURE
SUBCRADE "",,~SI:/:;!~)

NO T PREFERRED
- 269 -
;::~~ B[DDING
SAND ---£:":::!~;:::-.!;;;:;;i:::.;l.

BITUMINOUS

B:: //....... . / .
COURs[ NO fiNeS ~: •..

COM~'[Jf
SlJBGflAOE
SlOTTfO
PIPE (IOOmm
DlA)
" ..: . )
.....•
.....

SlO[ DRAIN
J
EXPERIMENTAL - UNTESTED
PREFERRED

BORAL PAVESTON£ --~

Slffi GRATE

." " - - - BlTUMINUOUS

S[Al -----cL~~~
MIN 20mm DlA P.V.C '---BAS[
BRAIN AT AlL SlO[S COURS[ - _ - "
OF TH[ DRAlNACf PIT
MIN 20mm DIA P. v.C
DRAIN AT AlL Slo[S
OF TH[ DRAINACf PIT

STORMWAlfR
PlP[ --------4-~~
.-" ..

[XlSTiNG PA'lEMEN' 1 BORAL INlERPAVE 20mm THICK

aos",' 20mm SAND BroDING
SCl/[fNINGS - - -.;,-<--
CfOTEXTiLf
Jlf?APPro--_~

100 DIA UPVC

PIP[ QASS 12

- 270 -
 mDOO' TRANSmON

Oilirlmtise excessive joint spacing at pavement crowns, or butt jointing of pavers at inverts,
may lead to surface spalling, it is important that the basecourse is trinuned and rolled
a transient curve between gradient changes.

complex draining pavements, such as some industrial or aircraft pavements it is

to locate and mark the crowns and inverts to ensure that their position is
iai:lltained before the bedding sand is placed.

minimum and maximum gradients can be the same as asphalt or concrete pavements,
howe'ver if nominal graded pavements are required, then the likelihood of water ponding is

NOT PREFERRED PREFERRED

NOT PREFERRED PREFERRED

EDGE RESTRAINTS

The pavement must be restrained to maintain its structural integrity. This restraint is
achieved by kerbs, drainage channels, specially designed edge restraints, or building slabs.
lliustrated below are some typical restraints. Restraints must be designed and constructed to
carry anticipated wheel loads.

r-------- KERB INTERFACE TO BE VERnCAI.. FREf

Of exCESS CONCR[T[ Jt TO BE TROWE:UED
SMOOTH DOWN TO BAS[ COURs[ LeVEL - . , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

BORAL PAVESTONE

BORAL 1N~~r+'_p:t===:;:::

[OG[ R[STRAINT
MA r B[ COLOUR[()
TO IIA TCH PA WNC

- 271 -
ENTRY STATEMENTS

Where ~ntry statements or similar shaped are~. are to be .p~ved it is advisable to tl1Dlclrt
the pavmg so narrow areas are not paved. This IS because It IS extremely difficult to
the required levels of compaction and surface tolerance of the base course in thesea:::
Illustrated below are typical details.

PREFERRED A.C. PAYfM£NT

NOT PREFERRED

BASE COURSE TOLERANCE AND SURFACE SMOOTHNESS

Experience has proven, and it is well documented that the surface of a pavement with a thin
sand bedding layer is less likely to deform than a pavement using a thick bedding sand layer.
The accuracy of bedding sand thickness and the accuracy of the resultant finished pavement
levels are directly related to the accuracy of the base course smoothness.

The bedding sand thickness after compaction should be a nominal 20 rom ± 5 rom·
Specifications that call up a generous tolerance on the base and a tighter tolerance on the
surface smoothness of the pavement are a nonsense! The bedding sand thickness is
controlled by screed rails laid directly onto the base and screeding on these rails and/or
adjacent edge restraints. Practical experience has shown that the moisture content is
impossible to control and has no effect on surface smoothness of the pavement after full
compaction of the bedding sand.

- '?7'? -
 c

lPp>liCllti()llS a base course tolerance of + 10 nun - 0 nun is suitable. It must be

it is extremely difficult to achieve base course that is 100% within tolerance,
it is technically within tolerance, the surface smoothness and finish may result in
i!;;vari:ati(1D of bedding sand thickness. This variation in bedding sand thickness may
in the surface smoothness of the finished pavement. If a surface smoothness of
is required then the base smoothness must be ± 7nun.

ieec)lDlnellld~:d
that remedial procedures be specified to correct the deficiency in the base
such as correcting with asphalt, stabilised sand, concrete, epoxy compounds, or pre-
sand. Under no circumstances should uncompacted bedding sand be used to
defective base course levels.

base course depths adjacent to edge restraints and pavement penetrations must be such
using bedding sand thickness of 15 -25 nun will assure that the pavers finish at the
height adjacent to these restraints.

LOCALIZED
BORAL PA VESTONE :::::::+;;::~~=j DEPRESSION
KERB &
CHANNEL

aircraft applications, there is a special requirement to achieve a specific level of surface

l'.smootllllleJss of the pavement surface. (This is measured nsing a mobile straight edge with
aU(libJle alarm.) Therefore, critical attention must be paid to the surface smoothness of the
course, bedding sand thickness, and the thickness consistency of the pavers.

The current industry documents instruct that the pavement be vibrated until there is no
lipping. This result is impossible to achieve unless all paving thicknesses are identical, which
is not possible, and is further exacerbated by the local practice of laying on thin bedding
, sand.
A.s a result, the CMA.A. Qld Promotions Committee makes the following recommendation -

"The difference in level Oipping) between adjacent units shall not exceed 4 mm with not
than 1% in any 3m x 3m area exceeding 2mm."

SOLDIER COURSE & EDGE TREATMENT

The correct detailing at edge restraints not only affects the aesthetics of the pavement but
performance because it is essential that the pavers remain "locked in". Without a
course, small pieces of pavers that abut kerbs or edge restraints may dislodge or rotate.

This problem is further exacerbated if the kerb or restraint has a large "bull nose"
and its face is not vertical and not trowelled smooth.

KERB d:
CHANNEL

PREFERRED NOT PREFERRED

These problems can generally be overcome by a combination of:

a) The use of BORA.L rectangular pavers as a stack bonded soldier course;

b) compromise the herringbone pattern to orientate the cuts of the pavers widthways
thus eliminating the likelihood of breaking long slender cut pieces;

c) BORA.L double cutting method.

THESE UNITS ORIENTATfO

TO EUMINA T£ LfNGTHWA Y
CUTS - - - - - - ' '

Br.1W. INTfRPA If"

~Ba?AL DOUBlE
WT JlfTHOO
- 274 -
 for square and rectangular pavements whose overall dimensions, are nominal
the pavement size is adjusted to coincide with an exact number of full pavers. It can
"bordered by a soldier course or completed utilising specially manufactured half size and
units.

________~__~~~~~~_c~N~WAL2~m
SAND BEDDING

PLAct BOND BREAKER

BEFORE PLACING BlllJMWOIJS
CONCRETE. REINSTA J[
2000mm MWIMUM J()()mm
WA TERPROOflNG MEMBRANE
MINIMUM IF DAMAGED BITUMINOUS CONC.
NOTE : CONSTRUCTION SEOUfJ/CE EDGE RESTRAINT
OVER LAID AND
1. CONSTRUCT BlllJlIlNOUS CONCRETE
PAV£J./fJ/T SURFACING. ROLLED. SAWCUT
2. SAIltVT £DC[ TO SUIT FULL PA VlNG
.1 PAINT 'lfRTlCAL FACE OF BlllJMINOUS UM~ ------------~
CONCRETE IIIlIf IT SEAL.
4. PLACE SAND BfDDING AND LA Y
PAVERS

SECTION X-X

MANUFACTURED
CLOSURE UNI~

LAID PAVING

MANUFACTURED
HALF UNITS

PA VlNG LAID APPROX

/.Om SHORT OF
NOT£: START AGAINST EDGES A &: B DESIGNA TED POS1770N

- 275 -
PAVEMENT PENETRATIONS
All pavements usually have some type of penetration, such as manholes, service pits,
drainage pits, etc. In a segmental pavement it is highly improbable that those penetrations
will correspond in shape, dimensions or squareness to the pattern and shape of the pavers
surrounding it.

For structural reasons, it is important that the pavers fit closely around these penetrations to
maintain structural integrity of the pavement. Square or rectangular penetrations that have
a fixed location in the pavement such as drainage pits can be bordered by solider course, and
the adjacent pavers cut in as described previously.

Circular or irregular shape penetrations can be surrounded by reinforced concrete, the·

dimensions are such that only full and half size units are needed. Alternatively, specially
manufactured closure units can be utilised, such as Borrilmanhole sets.

It is important that any penetration is constructed to the correct level and grade in relation
to the finished surface level. In the case of drainage pits, the pavers should f"wish between
10 - 15 mm above the pit. In the case of manhole and non drainage pits, the paving should
finish between 0 - 5 mm above the penetration.

BORA! INTERPA'rf -~'---'

"CeIiNil' (& [{)(JIVALfIIT}

8.ce. ItOI'KS DfPARTlffllT
H[A vr DUTY MANH(X[ Fl/A/I[
AND COffll

- 276 -
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE AND QUALITY ASSURANCE HOLD POINTS

The flow chart below illustrates the site procedure and suggests Quality Assurance hold
points. Note that for aircraft pavements the construction procedure is slightly different.
This is because of the use of joint sand that is resistant to aircraft jet blasts. This sand
contains a hydrated polymer glue, that when wetted will activate the glue and will bind the .
sand particles together but will remain in a flexible state.

RfCTlf1CATKN BY
1£Af) CCMlRACTai

I£GEND

fl£CIlflCAIXW 8Y
PAIfNC CCMTRlCTOR

(PA'£JIEJITS IISI<G MaJ£/fJ) JOIHT SAND

_ _ _ ~ AJIICI/AFT PA!P!!"~

I/ECIlflCAIXW

10ar IJP I/a1JN(i"

(NOT IIOADWA'IS)

R£CTIf1CA ~ BY
PAIotYG fDlTRACTrR

- 277-
CONCLUSION

There is an increase in demand in the use of segmental concrete paving as more developers
and designers recognise the significant advantages of this type of pavement.

Experience has shown that poor pavement performance can be attributed to inadequate or
non existent drainage and poor design and construction detailing.

It is recommended that:

a) The manufacturer of the pavers is contracted to manufacture, supply and install the
pavers.

b) The manufacturer has a Quality Assurance procedure for both manufacture and
installation.

c) The manufacturer has documented procedures for monitoring paver growth and
controlling resulting joint widths.

d) The relevant details in this paper are implemented together with a sound pavement
design.

e) The manufacturer or industry associations are invited to be involved at the concept

and design stage to assist in design detailing, construction procedures, construction
programming and to discuss any other special requirements.

ADDRESS
John Howe
Technical Manager
Boral Masonry/Boral CaisH
PO Box 360
DARRA QLD 4076
AUSTRALIA
PH (07) 271 1400
FAX (07) 2711815

- 278 -
REFERENCES
Brisbane Facts - The Office of Economic Development for the City of Brisbane.

Fact Sheet - Cairns International Airport, Cairns Port Authority (1992)

Cooper, J.S., Productivity - Key to Competitiveness, Port Management and Governance

Conference, Shanghai, Peoples Republic of China (1993)

Lockpave Version 7 (1993) The Concrete Masonry Association of Australia

Specification for Concrete Segmental Paving Units, Concrete Masonry Association of

Australia (MAlO - 1986).

Interlocking Concrete Road Pavements - A Guide to Design and Coustruction, Cement and
Concrete Association of Australia (T35 - 1986).

Gnide Specification for Coustruction of Interlocking Road Pavements, Cement and Concrete
Association of Australia (TN56 - 1986)

Howe, J. Interlocking Concrete Pavements - A Guide to Design and Construction for Road
and Industrial Pavements (6th Edition), Boral Masonry/Boral Calsil, (April, 1993).

Emery, J.A. & Knapton, J. The design of concrete block aircraft p. Proc. Third
International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Rome (1988)

Howe, J., Mcdonald, C., Marshall, R., Petrie, E. (1993) Gnidelines to the Brisbane City
Council, Concrete Masonry Association of Australia Qld Promotious Committee

Interlocking Concrete Segmental Block Aircraft Pavements, Airplan, (December 1990)

Howe, J., Mcdonald, C., Marshall, R, (1992) Gnidelines for Aircraft Pavements, Concrete
Masonry Association of Australia Qld Promotions Committee.

Vroombout, F., Monteith, M.R., and Sharp, K.G. The Use of Interlocking Concrete Blocks
on an Aircraft Pavement in Australia. Pave New Zealand (1992)

Clifford, J. The Case For and Against Nibs on Segmental Blocks. Pave New Zealand (1992)

Pearson, A.R., Hodgkinson, J.R. Contemporary Construction and Detailing Techniques for
Segmental Concrete Paving. 16th ARRB Conference, Perth (1992)

Vroombout, F., Bentley, N.G. Construction and Maintenance Aspects of Concrete Block
. Pavements for Heavy Aircraft Use. 16th ARRB Conference, Perth (1992)

- 279 -