Vector Spaces

1.Vectors in R
2.Vector Spaces
3.Subspaces of Vector Spaces
4.Spanning Sets and Linear Independence
5.Basis and Dimension

4.1

1. Vectors in R

An ordered n-tuple :
a sequence of n real numbers ( x1, x2, , xn )
n

R -space :

the set of all ordered n-tuples

n=1

R1-space = set of all real numbers

(R1-space can be represented geometrically by the x-axis)

n=2

R2-space = set of all ordered pair of real numbers ( x1 , x2 )

(R2-space can be represented geometrically by the xy-plane)

n=3

R3-space = set of all ordered triple of real numbers ( x1 , x2 , x3 )

(R3-space can be represented geometrically by the xyz-space)

n=4

R4-space = set of all ordered quadruple of real numbers ( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 )

Notes:

(1) An n-tuple ( x1 , x2 ,, xn ) can be viewed as a point in Rn

with the xis as its coordinates.
(2) An n-tuple ( x1 , x2 ,, xn ) also can be viewed as a vector
x ( x1 , x2 , , xn ) in Rn with the xis as its components.
Ex:

x1 , x2

x1 , x2
or

a point

0,0

a vector

A vector on the plane is represented geometrically by a directed line segment

whose initial point is the origin and whose terminal point is the point (x1, x2)

u u1 , u2 ,

, un , v v1 , v2 ,

, vn

(two vectors in Rn)

Equality:
u v if and only if u1 v1 , u2 v2 , , un vn

Vector

addition (the sum of u and v):

u v u1 v1 , u2 v2 , , un vn

Scalar multiplication (the scalar multiple of u by c):

cu cu1 , cu 2 ,, cu n

Notes:
The sum of two vectors and the scalar multiple of a vector
in Rn are called the standard operations in Rn

Difference between u and v:

u v u (1) v (u1 v1 , u2 v2 , u3 v3 ,..., un vn )

Zero vector:
0 (0, 0, ..., 0)

Theorem 1 : Properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication

Let u, v, and w be vectors in Rn, and let c and d be scalars
(1) u+v is a vector in Rn (closure under vector addition)
(2) u+v = v+u (commutative property of vector addition)
(3) (u+v)+w = u+(v+w) (associative property of vector addition)
(4) u+0 = u (additive identity property)
that u is just the notation of the additive inverse
(5) u+(u) = 0 (additive inverse property) (Note
of u, and u = (1)u will be proved in Thm. 4.4 )
(6) cu is a vector in Rn (closure under scalar multiplication)
(7) c(u+v) = cu+cv (distributive property of scalar multiplication over vector

(8)

addition)
(c+d)u = cu+du (distributive property of scalar multiplication over realnumber addition)
c(du) = (cd)u (associative property of multiplication)

(9)
(10) 1(u) = u (multiplicative identity property)

Except Properties (1) and (6), these properties of vector addition and scalar
multiplication actually inherit from the properties of matrix addition and scalar
multiplication because we can treat vectors in Rn as special cases of matrices

Notes:
n

(1) The zero vector 0 in R is called the additive identity in R (see

Property 4)
(2) The vector u is called the additive inverse of u

Theorem 2: (Properties of additive identity and additive inverse)

Let v be a vector in Rn and c be a scalar. Then the following
properties are true

(1) The additive identity is unique. That is, if v+u=v, u must be 0

(2) The additive inverse of v is unique. That is, if v+u=0, u must be v
(3) 0v=0
(4) c0=0
(5) If cv=0, either c=0 or v=0
(The additive inverse of v is v, which implies that v and v are the additive
(6) (v) = v inverses for each other)

Notes:
A vector u (u1 , u2 ,, un ) in R n can be viewed as:
a 1n row matrix (row vector):
or

u [u1 u2

un ]

u1
u
a n1 column matrix (column vector): u 2


u n

Therefore, the matrix operations of addition and scalar multiplication

generate the same results as the corresponding vector operations (see the
next slide)

Scalar multiplication

Vector addition

u v (u1 , u2 , , un ) (v1 , v2 , , vn )

cu c(u1 , u2 ,, un )

(u1 v1 , u2 v2 , , un vn )
u v [u1 u2

(cu1 , cu 2 , , cu n )

Treated as 1n row matrix

un ] [v1 v2

[u1 v1 u2 v2

vn ]

un vn ]

cu c[u1 u2
[cu1 cu2

un ]
cun ]

Treated as n1 column matrix

u1 v1 u1 v1
u v u v
u v 2 2 2 2

un vn un vn

u1 cu1
u cu
cu c 2 2


un cu n

Vector Spaces

Vector spaces:
Let V be a set on which two operations (vector addition and
scalar multiplication) are defined. If the following axioms are

satisfied for every u, v, and w in V and every scalar (real number)

c and d, then V is called a vector space.

Addition:
(1) u+v is in V
(2) u+v=v+u
(3) u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w
(4) V has a zero vector 0 such that for every u in V, u+0=u
(5) For every u in V, there is a vector in V denoted by u
such that u+(u)=0

Scalar multiplication:
(6) cu is in V.
(7) c(u v) cu cv

(8) (c d )u cu du
(9) c(du) (cd )u

(10) 1(u) u

Notes:
(1) A vector space consists of four entities:
a set of vectors, a set of scalars, and two operations
Vnonempty set
cscalar
(u, v) u v vector addition
(c, u) cu scalar multiplication

V ,
(2) V 0

is called a vector space

zero vector space

Examples of vector spaces:

(1) n-tuple space: Rn

(u1, u2 ,un ) (v1, v2 ,vn ) (u1 v1, u2 v2 ,un vn )

vector addition
scalar multiplication

k (u1 , u2 ,un ) (ku1 , ku2 , kun )

(2) Matrix space: V M mn

(the set of all mn matrices with real value

Ex: (m = n = 2)

u11 u12 v11 v12 u11 v11 u12 v12

u u v v u v u v
21 22 21 22 21 21 22 22
u11 u12 ku11 ku12
k

u
u
ku
ku
22
21 22 21

vector addition

scalar multiplication

(3) n-th degree polynomial space: V Pn (x)

(the set of all real polynomials of degree n or less)

p( x) q( x) (a0 b0 ) (a1 b1 ) x (an bn ) x n

kp( x) ka0 ka1 x kan x n
(4) Function space: V c(, )

(the set of

all real-valued
continuous functions defined on the entire real line.)
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x)

(kf )( x) kf ( x)

 Thm

3 : (Properties of scalar multiplication)

Let v be any element of a vector space V, and let c be any

scalar. Then the following properties are true.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

0v 0
c0 0
If cv 0, then c 0 or v 0
(1) v v

Notes: To show that a set is not a vector space, you need

only find one axiom that is not satisfied.

Ex : The set of all integer is not a vector space.

Pf:

1V , 12 R
( 12 )(1) 12 V (it is not closed under scalar multiplication)
noninteger

scalar
integer

Ex : The set of all second-degree polynomials is not a vector space.

Pf:

Let p( x) x 2 and q( x) x 2 x 1

p( x) q( x) x 1V
(it is not closed under vector addition)

Ex :
V=R2=the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers
vector addition: (u1 , u2 ) (v1 , v2 ) (u1 v1 , u2 v2 )
scalar multiplication: c(u1 , u2 ) (cu1 ,0)

Verify V is not a vector space.

Sol:
1(1, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
the set (together with the two given operations) is
not a vector space

Vector Subspaces

Subspaces of Vector Spaces

Subspace:
(V ,,) : a vector space

W
: a nonempty subset
W V
(W ,,) a vector space (under the operations of addition and
scalar multiplication defined in V)
W is a subspace of V
Trivial subspace:

Every vector space V has at least two subspaces.

(1) Zero vector space {0} is a subspace of V.
(2) V is a subspace of V.

Thm 4 : (Test for a subspace)

If W is a nonempty subset of a vector space V, then W is
a subspace of V if and only if the following conditions hold.

(1) If u and v are in W, then u+v is in W.

(2) If u is in W and c is any scalar, then cu is in W.

Ex: Subspace of R2

(1) 0

0 0, 0

(2) Lines through the origin

(3) R 2

Ex: Subspace of R3

(1) 0

0 0, 0, 0

(2) Lines through the origin

(3) Planes through the origin

(4) R 3

Ex : (A subspace of M22)
Let W be the set of all 22 symmetric matrices. Show that
W is a subspace of the vector space M22, with the standard
operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication.

Sol:

W M 22

M 22 : vector sapces

Let A1, A2 W ( A1T A1, A2T A2 )

A1 W, A2 W ( A1 A2 )T A1T A2T A1 A2 ( A1 A2 W )
k R , A W (kA)T kAT kA
W is a subspace of M 22

( kA W )

Ex : (The set of singular matrices is not a subspace of M22)

Let W be the set of singular matrices of order 2. Show that
W is not a subspace of M22 with the standard operations.
Sol:

1 0
0 0
A
W , B
W

0 0
0 1

1 0
A B
W

0 1
W2 is not a subspace of M 22

Ex : (The set of first-quadrant vectors is not a subspace of R2)

Show that W {( x1 , x2 ) : x1 0 and x2 0} , with the standard

operations, is not a subspace of R2.
Sol:
Let u (1, 1) W

1u 11, 1 1, 1W

W is not a subspace of R 2

(not closed under scalar

multiplication)

Ex : (Determining subspaces of R2)

Which of the following two subsets is a subspace of R2?
(a) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=0.
(b) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=1.
Sol:
(a) W ( x, y) x 2 y 0 (2t , t ) t R

Let v1 2t1 , t1 W

v2 2t2 , t2 W

v1 v2 2t1 t2 ,t1 t2 W (closed under addition)

kv1 2kt1 , kt1 W (closed under scalar multiplication)

W is a subspace of R 2

(b) W x, y x 2 y 1

(Note: the zero vector is not on the line)

Let v (1,0) W

1v 1,0W

W is not a subspace of R 2

Ex : (Determining subspaces of R3)

Which of the following subsets is a subspace of R 3?

(a) W ( x1 , x2 ,1) x1 , x2 R

(b) W ( x1 , x1 x3 , x3 ) x1 , x3 R
Sol:
(a) Let v (0,0,1) W

(1) v (0,0,1) W
W is not a subspace of R 3
(b) Let v ( v1 , v1 v3 , v3 ) W , u (u1 , u1 u 3 , u 3 ) W

v u v1 u1 , v1 u1 v3 u 3 , v3 u 3 W
kv kv1 , kv1 kv3 , kv3 W

W is a subspace of R 3

 Thm

5 : (The intersection of two subspaces is a subspace)

If V and W are both subspaces of a vector space U ,

then the intersection of V and W (denoted by V W )
is also a subspace of U .

Spanning Sets and Linear Independence

3.Spanning Sets and Linear Independence

Linear combination:

A vector v in a vector space V is called a linear combination of

the vectors u1,u 2 , ,u k in V if v can be written in the form
v c1u1 c2u 2 ck u k

c1,c2 , ,ck : scalars

Ex : (Finding a linear combination)

v1 (1,2,3) v 2 (0,1,2) v 3 (1,0,1)

Prove (a) w (1,1,1) is a linear combination of v1 , v 2 , v 3

(b) w (1,2,2) is not a linear combination of v1 , v 2 , v 3
Sol:
(a) w c1v1 c2 v 2 c3 v3

1,1,1 c1 1,2,3 c2 0,1,2 c3 1,0,1

(c1 c3 , 2c1 c2 , 3c1 2c2 c3 )
c1 - c3

2c1 c2
3c1 2c2 c3

1
1
1

1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1
G. J .
2 1 0 1 0 1 2 1
3 2 1 1
0 0 0 0
c1 1 t , c2 1 2t , c3 t
(this system has infinitely many solutions)
t 1

w 2 v1 3v 2 v 3

(b)
w c1 v1 c2 v 2 c3 v 3

1 0 1 1
GuassJordan Elimination
2 1 0 2
3 2 1
2

this system has no solution

w c1v1 c2 v 2 c3 v 3

1 0 1 1
0 1 2 4

0 0 0
7

the span of a set: span (S)

If S={v1, v2,, vk} is a set of vectors in a vector space V,
then the span of S is the set of all linear combinations of
the vectors in S,

span(S ) c1 v1 c2 v 2 ck v k

ci R

(the set of all linear combinations of vectors in S )

a spanning set of a vector space:

If every vector in a given vector space can be written as a
linear combination of vectors in a given set S, then S is
called a spanning set of the vector space.

 Notes:

span ( S ) V
S spans (generates) V
V is spanned (generated) by S
S is a spanning set of V
Notes:
(1) span( ) 0

(2) S span(S )
(3) S1 , S 2 V
S1 S 2 span( S1 ) span( S 2 )

 Ex : (A spanning set for R3)

Show that the set S (1,2,3), (0,1,2), (2,0,1) spans R3

Sol:
We must determine whether an arbitrary vector u (u1 , u2 , u3 )

in R 3 can be as a linear combination of v1 , v 2 , and v 3 .

u R3 u c1v1 c2 v 2 c3 v 3
c1
2c1 c2

2c3 u1
u2

3c1 2c2 c3 u3

The problem thus reduces to determining whether this system

is consistent for all values of u1 , u2 , and u3 .

1 0 2
A 2 1 0 0
3 2 1

Ax b has exactly one solution for every u.

span(S ) R3

 Definitions

of Linear Independence (L.I.) and Linear Dependence

(L.D.):

S v1 , v 2 ,

, v k : a set of vectors in a vector space V

For c1v1 c2 v 2

ck v k 0

(1) If the equation has only the trivial solution (c1 c 2 ... c k 0)
then S (or v1, v2 ,..., vk )is called linearly independen t.
(2)If the equation has a non trivial solution(i.e., not all zeros)
then S (or v1, v2 ,..., vk ) is called linearly dependent

 Ex : Testing for linear independence

Determine whether the following set of vectors in R3 is L.I. or L.D.

S v1, v 2 , v3 1, 2, 3 , 0, 1, 2 , 2, 0, 1
Sol:

c1

c1v1 c2 v 2 c3 v 3 0

2c3 0

2c1 c2

3c1 2c2 c3 0
1 0 2 0
1 0 0 0

G.-J. E.
2 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
3 2 1 0
0 0 1 0
c1 c2 c3 0 only the trivial solution

(or det(A) 1 0, so there is only the trivial solution)

S is (or v1, v2 , v3 are) linearly independent

Ex : Testing for linear independence

Determine whether the following set of vectors in P2 is L.I. or L.D.

S v1 , v 2 , v3 1 x 2 x 2 ,2 5 x x 2 ,x x 2
Sol:

c1v1+c2v2+c3v3 = 0
i.e., c1(1+x 2x2) + c2(2+5x x2) + c3(x+x2) = 0+0x+0x2
1 2 0 0
1 2 0 0
c1+2c2
=0

G. E.
1 5 1 0
1
0 1 3 0
c1+5c2+c3 = 0

2c1 c2+c3 = 0
2 1 1 0
0
0
0
0

This system has infinitely many solutions

(i.e., this system has nontrivial solutions, e.g., c1=2, c2= 1, c3=3)

S is (or v1, v2, v3 are) linearly dependent

Ex : Testing for linear independence

Determine whether the following set of vectors in the 22

matrix space is L.I. or L.D.

2 1 3 0 1 0
S v1 , v 2 , v3
,
,

0
1
2
1
2
0

Sol:

c1v1+c2v2+c3v3 = 0

2 1
3 0
1 0 0 0
c1
c2
c3

0
1
2
1
2
0
0
0

2c1+3c2+ c3 = 0
c1
=0
2c2+2c3 = 0
c1 + c2
=0

2
1

0

3
0
2
1

1
0
2
0

0
0 G.-J. E.

1
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0

c1 = c2 = c3= 0 (This system has only the trivial solution)

S is linearly independent

Basis and Dimension

4. Basis and Dimension

Basis:
V: a vector space
S ={v1, v2, , vn}V

Spanning
Sets

Bases

Linearly
Independent
Sets

V
(1) S spans V (i.e., span(S) = V)

(For any u V , ci vi Ax u has a solution (det( A) 0)

(2) S is linearly independent

(For ci vi = Ax 0, there is only the trivial solution (det(A) 0),

see the definition on Slide 4.49)

S is called a basis for V

Notes:
A basis S must have enough vectors to span V, but not so
many vectors that one of them could be written as a linear
combination of the other vectors in S

 Notes:
(1) the standard basis for R3:
{i, j, k} i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1)
n

(2) the standard basis for R :

{e1, e2, , en} e1=(1,0,,0), e2=(0,1,,0),, en=(0,0,,1)
Ex: For R4, {(1,0,0,0), (0,1,0,0), (0,0,1,0), (0,0,0,1)}

(3) the standard basis for mn matrix space:

aij 1
{ Eij | 1im , 1jn }, and in Eij
other entries are zero
Ex: 2 2 matrix space:
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
,
,
,

0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1

(4) the standard basis for Pn(x):

{1, x, x2, , xn}
Ex: P3(x)

{1, x, x2, x3}

 Ex: The nonstandard basis for R2

Show that S ={v1 ,v 2 }={(1,1), (1, 1)} is a basis for R2

c1 c2 =u1
(1) For any u=(u1 ,u 2 ) R , c1 v1 +c2 v 2 =u
c1 c2 =u 2
2

Because the coefficient matrix of this system has a nonzero determinant, the
system has a unique solution for each u. Thus you can conclude that S spans R2

c1 c2 =0
(2) For c1 v1 +c2 v 2 =0
c1 c2 =0

Because the coefficient matrix of this system has a nonzero determinant, you
know that the system has only the trivial solution. Thus you can conclude that S is
linearly independent

According to the above two arguments, we can conclude that S

2
is a (nonstandard) basis for R

Theorem 6: Uniqueness of basis representation for any vectors

If S v1 , v 2 ,, v n is a basis for a vector space V, then every

vector in V can be written in one and only one way as a linear

combination of vectors in S
Pf:

(1) span(S) = V
S is a basis
(2) S is linearly independent
span(S) = V Let v = c1v1+c2v2++cnvn

v = b1v1+b2v2++bnvn
v+(1)v = 0 = (c1b1)v1+(c2 b2)v2++(cn bn)vn

S is linearly independent with only trivial solution

coefficients for vi are all zero
c1= b1 , c2= b2 ,, cn= bn (i.e., unique basis representation)

Theorem 7 : Bases and linear dependence

If S v1, v 2 ,, v n is a basis for a vector space V,
then every set containing more than n vectors in V is
linearly dependent (In other words, every linearly
independent set contains at most n vectors)

Dimension:
The dimension of a vector space V is defined to be the
number of vectors in a basis for V
V: a vector space
S: a basis for V
dim(V) = #(S) (the number of vectors in a basis S)

Finite dimensional:
A vector space V is finite dimensional if it has a basis
consisting of a finite number of elements
Infinite dimensional:
If a vector space V is not finite dimensional, then it is called
infinite dimensional

dim(V) = n

Notes:
(1) dim({0}) = 0

Spanning
Sets

(If V consists of the zero vector alone,

the dimension of V is defined as zero)

(2) dim(V) = n, SV

#(S) n

S: a spanning set

#(S) n

S: a L.I. set

#(S) n

S: a basis

#(S) = n

Bases

Linearly
Independent
Sets

#(S) = n

#(S) n

(Since a basis is defined to be a set of L.I.

vectors that can spans V, #(S) = dim(V) = n)
(see the above figure)

(3) dim(V) = n, if W is a subspace of V dim(W) n

For example, if V = R3, you can infer the dim(V) is 3, which is the number of
vectors in the standard basis
Considering W = R2, which is a subspace of R3, due to the number of vectors in
the standard basis, we know that the dim(W) is 2, that is smaller than dim(V)=3

Ex: Find the dimension of a vector space according to the

standard basis
(1) Vector space Rn

basis {e1 , e2 , , en}

(2) Vector space Mmn

dim(Rn) = n
basis {Eij | 1im , 1jn}

dim(Mmn)=mn
(3) Vector space Pn(x) basis {1, x, x2, , xn}
dim(Pn(x)) = n+1
(4) Vector space P(x) basis {1, x, x2, }
dim(P(x)) =

Ex : Finding the dimension of a subspace of R3

(a) W={(d, cd, c): c and d are real numbers}

(b) W={(2b, b, 0): b is a real number}

Sol:

(Hint: find a set of L.I. vectors that spans the subspace, i.e., find a basis for the
subspace.)

(a) (d, c d, c) = c(0, 1, 1) + d(1, 1, 0)

S = {(0, 1, 1) , (1, 1, 0)} (S is L.I. and S spans W)
S is a basis for W
dim(W) = #(S) = 2
(b)

(2b, b,0) b(2,1,0)

S = {(2, 1, 0)} spans W and S is L.I.
S is a basis for W
dim(W) = #(S) = 1

Theorem 8: Methods to identify a basis in an n-dimensional

space
Let V be a vector space of dimension n
(1) If S v1 , v 2 , , v n is a linearly independent set of
vectors in V, then S is a basis for V
(2) If S v1 , v 2 , , v n spans V, then S is a basis for V
(Both results are due to the fact that #(S) = n)

dim(V) = n
Spanning
Sets

Bases

Linearly
Independent
Sets

#(S) n
#(S) = n

#(S) n

Row Space and Column Space

 row vectors: (with size 1n)

a11
a
A 21

am1

row vectors of A

a12 a1n A1

a22 a2 n A2

am 2 amn Am

(a11 , a12 ,

, a1n ) A(1)

(a21 , a22 ,

, a2n ) A(2)

(am1 , am 2 ,

, amn ) A(m )

So, the row vectors are vectors in Rn

column vectors: (with size m1)

a11 a12
a
a22
21

am1 am 2

a1n
a2 n
A1 A 2

amn

column vectors of A
A n

So, the column vectors are vectors in Rm

a11 a12 a1n

a a a
21 22 2 n


am1 am 2 amn
||
||
||
(1)
(2)
(n)
A
A
A

Let A be an mn matrix:
Row space:
The row space of A is a subspace of Rn spanned by the
row vectors of A

RS ( A) {1 A(1) 2 A( 2) ... m A( m) | 1 , 2 ,..., m R}

(If A(1), A(2), , A(m) are linearly independent, A(1), A(2), , A(m) can form a basis for RS(A))

Column space:
The column space of A is a subspace of Rm spanned by
the column vectors of A

CS A {1 A(1) 2 A(2) n A( n) 1 , 2 , n R}

(If A(1), A(2), , A(n) are linearly independent, A(1), A(2), , A(n) can form a basis for CS(A))

Note:
dim(RS(A)) (or dim(CS(A)) equals the number of linearly
independent row (or column) vectors of A