UNIT 1 CORROSION

Corrosion is generally an Electro-chemical process, which results from an anodic reaction and at
least one cathodic reaction. The corrosion of steel takes place at the anode.
The anodic reaction is expressed as follows:
MM+n+ne
Where:
1. M = element involved
2. N = a number
3. E = electrons
For iron and steel this would be expressed as:
FeFe+++2e
At least one of five basic reactions may take place at the cathode. The most common reaction
applicable to the corrosion of steel is as follows:
O2+2H2O+4e4OH
Iron ore is an oxide in chemical balance with the environment; when this iron ore is converted to
iron, the chemical balance is changed and the iron becomes active, i.e. it corrodes on contact
with the natural environment and tries to revert back to its natural inert state. The natural
environment usually contains moisture (which provides the electrolyte) giving the following
simultaneous reactions:
The products of these reactions take place in further reactions with the immediate environment
leading to the formation of corrosion products, the most familiar being rust.
Corrosion reactions can be accelerated by the existence of certain criteria including:
1. Variations in oxygen content on the materials surface
2. The concentration of chemical salts in the electrolyte, e.g. chlorides and sulphates:
3. Other metals or metal compounds of higher nobility (more Electro positive) in contact with the
steel, e.g. millscale
4. Acids or alkalis
5. Certain types of bacteria near the materials surface
6. High temperature. The higher the temperature the greater the rate of corrosion.
The following list shows some metals/metal compounds in their order of nobility in seawater at
ambient temperature. The relative positions of the metals/metal compounds in the list can change
in the electrolyte or temperature; this list is known as the galvanic series.
Gold
Silver
Nickel
Copper
Mill scale
Mild steel
Aluminium
Zinc
Magnesium

Noble

Ignoble

If steel was in intimate contact with zinc or attached via a wire in an electrolyte, e.g. soil or water,
the zinc would corrode first because the steel is more noble than the zinc. In this example the
zinc becomes the anode and the steel becomes the cathode, i.e. the steel is being cathodically
protected and the zinc is acting as a sacrificial anode.

We can use the galvanic series to bring about cathodic protection to steel. There are two ways in
which this can be achieved
Bi-metallic corrosion
When two differing metals are attached closely together the less noble one will act as an anode to
the more noble one cathode and will sacrifice itself
Sacrifical coating
When a coating whose metallic pigment particles are less noble than the steel (zinc or aluminium)
are coated onto the steel they will sacrifice themselves in order to preserve the more noble steel.
When coatings are used for this purpose they must contain around 90% of the metallic pigment
Notes
An electrolyte is a medium, which will allow the passage of electrical current consisting of a
chemical salt dissolved in water.
The greater the amount of chemical salt present, the better the conductivity of the electrolyte.
Millscale is an oxide of iron produced when the steel is manufactured; it is a result of the hot steel
coming into contact with the air and forming an oxide layer composed of three layers;
FeO nearest the steel
1.
Fe3O4
2.
Fe2O3 on the outside
3.
Millscale has a total thickness between approximately 25 m and 100m
It is essential for millscale to be remove from steel to be removed from the steel surface during
blast cleaning for the following two reasons
1) Millscale is more noble than steel and when parts of the millscale break away the exposed
areas of the steel (anode) will sacrifice themselves to preserve the more noble surrounding
millscale (cathode)
2) If painted over, millscale which is loosely adhering and flaky will leave the steel, bring the
paint away from the substrate thus causing early breakdown of the system due to lack of
adhesion
Methods of arresting corrosion
Barrier principle
This isolates the substrate from the environment by means of a low permeability coating system.
This type of system is usually made up from around four coats and contains an M.I.O (micacious
iron oxide) coat, which helps give the paint system its low permeability
Sacrifical principle
This involves making a paint whose pigment particles (zinc or aluminium) are less noble than the
steel onto which it is coated. The result is that the less noble coating (anode) sacrifices itself to
the more noble steel (cathode)
Galvanising
Involves the dipping of steel components into a bath of molten zinc at around 450 0c this leaves a
zinc coating on the steel component of between 85m - 130m and is directed under BS 429
Passivation
Chemical reactions which are achieved between rust and inhibitive pigments in the primer and
the substrate
Sacrificial anodes
Blocks of metal ignoble to steel which are attached to steel structures as a sacrificial anode

UNIT 2 SURFACE PREPARATION

Correct surface preparation is a vitally important stage for most coating systems, it is often the
process which governs the service life of the coating system.
There are various ways to prepare a surface prior to coating
Abrasive blast cleaning
Wire brushing
Scraping
Grinding
Needle gunning
Chemical cleaning
Waterblasting
Weathering
Flame cleaning
Vapour degreasing
The quality of a surface preparation is governed by the amount of surface contaminate remaining
on the substrate after cleaning, although it may also relate to the resultant surface texture, e.g.
the surface profile on a substrate after blast cleaning.
Dry abrasive cleaning
Dry abrasive blasting is carried out by projecting a highly concentrated stream of small abrasive
particles onto the substrates surface at speeds of approximately 720 km/h (450m.p.h.). The
operation removes rust, scale and any other extraneous material from the substrate and also
leaves an irregular profile, which provides an ideal key for the coating adhesion. Dry abrasive
blasting is often the best method of surface preparation for long-term protection coating systems.
Abrasives
The degree of surface roughness and rate of cleaning is partially governed by the characteristics
of the abrasive used; these being
Abrasive
Size
Hardness
Density
Shape
Human factors
Speed
Angle
Distance
Time
Both metallic and mineral abrasives are commonly used for blasting for example
Steel or chilled iron grit
Steel shot
Metallic grit and shot mixed
Copper slag
Garnet
Sand
The control of substances hazardous to health regulations 1994 (coshh) do not allow the use of
sand containing free silica in dry blasting operations because of the risk of silicosis
There are other abrasives, which are used, usually for specialised applications e.g. walnut shells,
ceramic grits, crushed glass aluminium silicate.
Effect of abrasives
Grit is angular in profile with sharp cutting edges: it shatters millscale and undercuts any surface
contaminates resulting in a clean surface with a rough profile. The amplitude tends to be quite
erratic with a large occurrence of rouge peaks, especially when blasting in one area to long.
3

Notes
Sand is not dangerous unless it is in dust form when it can be inhaled, e.g. after fragmentation
during the dry blasting operation.
Shot is spherical, it shatters millscale but does not have sharp cutting edges to cut into a surface,
however, the visual appearance of a shot blasted finish is similar to a grit blasted finish although
there is less roughness to the touch. Shot blasting work hardens a steel surface to a greater
degree than grit, which has the effect of reducing the chance of any stress corrosion cracking
which could otherwise occur in the future. Shot also reduces the occurrence of rouge peaks but
may press impurities into the surface.
It is a common practice to mix metallic shot and grit to obtain a blast finish close to the ideal (a
typical mix being 70-80% shot and 20-30% grit)
Surface profile
The shape of a cross-sectioned blast finish is known as the surface profile or anchor pattern.
Rogue peaks
Amplitude
Trough
The size of the profile as measured from the peaks to the troughs is known as the amplitude or
peak to trough height, and is primarily governed by the size of abrasive used, although other
factors are important, e.g. angle of impingement, hardness of surface and other characteristics of
the abrasive itself. Maximum amplitudes or amplitude ranges would normally be quoted in
specifications, a typical amplitude range for liquid paints would be in the region of 30 - 75m. the
amplitude of a blasted surface may be measured by a number of methods including the use of
surface profile needle gauge, surface replica tape, e.g. testex tape or a surface comparator.
Surface profile needle gauge
This relies on a needle reaching the bottom of the troughs on the surface profile. Because there
are so many troughs of different depth, it is normal and necessary to take ten or twenty readings
and calculate the average amplitude. Before taking any readings it is necessary to zero the gauge
on a flat piece of glass

Notes
Rouge peaks are peaks that stand out above the required profile and should be avoided if
applying thin coatings as they may lead to spot or flash rusting. Blast finishes produced in
production should not be touched with bare hands due to contamination. All accurate measuring
equipment should be issued with calibration certificates or certificates of conformance to give
assurance that the readings obtained are going to be correct within a stated margin of error.
Surface replica tape
Testex tape is a trade name of a commonly used or surface replica tape. It is used in conjunction
with a dial micrometer and although quite costly, has the advantage of providing a permanent
record. The procedure for carrying out this test is as follows:
1. Zero the micrometer ensuring the flat contact points are clean
2. Remove paper backing and stick Testex tape to the surface to be measured

3. Rub the Testex paste into the troughs using a blunt instrument, until the peaks can be seen
butting up to the transparent plastic.
4. Remove the Testex tape from the surface and measure the overall thickness with the dial
micrometer
5. Deduct 50m from the reading to obtain the amplitude. The plastic Mylar film to which the soft
compound is attached is 50m thick
Surface comparator
The roughness of the surface to be assessed is compared to the different areas on the
comparator by visual examination and if necessary by scraping with a fingernail, small wooden
stick or similar- never with the fleshy part of the finger as this will contaminate the blast
A profile grading can be given when the area under assignment is rougher than the smoother of
two adjacent areas on the comparator but not as rough as the rougher of the two areas. The
profile is then graded according to the following:
Fine profile - equal to or rougher than area 1 but not as rough as area 2
Medium profile - equal to or rougher than area 2 but not as rough as area 3
Course profile - equal to or rougher than area 3 but not as rough as area 4
If the profile is finer than area 1 it is termed finer than fine
If the profile is courser than area 4 it is termed courser than course
Blasting grades
The grade of a blast finish relates to the amount of surface contaminate remaining after blasting.
The grade of blast finish is primarily governed by blasting time and the velocity of the abrasive
particles
BS 7079: PART A1
BS 7079 Preparation of steel substrates before the application of paints and related products.
Part A1 of this standard is pictorial and shows rust grades prior to blasting and the degree of
surface cleanliness after blasting.
The surface under examinations visually compared with high quality photographs in the standard
both before and after blasting. The preparation is then given a coding e.g. SA 2 1/2 which can be
interpreted using the following extract from the standard:
Rust grades
A
Steel surface largely covered with adherent millscale but little if any rust
B
Steel surface, which has begun to rust and from which the millscale has begun to flake
C
Steel surface on which the millscale has rusted away or from which it can be scraped, but
with slight pitting visible under normal vision
D
Steel surface on which the millscale has rusted away and on which general pitting is
visible under normal vision
Notes
It is important to note that needle gauges, surface replica tape and surface comparators only give
the degree of roughness and not the degree of cleanliness.
BS 7079: Part A1 is the same as ISO 8501-1 and SIS 05-59-00
Preparation grades blast cleaning
Prior to blast cleaning any heavy layers of rust shall be removed by chipping. Visible oil and
grease shall also be removed
After blast cleaning the surface shall be cleaned from loose dust and debris.
Sa1 light blast cleaning when viewed without magnification the surface shall be free from visible
oil, grease, dirt and from poorly adhering millscale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter.
Sa2 through blast cleaning when viewed without magnification the surface shall be free from
visible oil, grease, dirt and from most of the millscale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter. Any
residual matter shall be firmly adhering.
Sa21/2 very through blast cleaning when viewed without magnification the surface shall be free
from visible oil, grease, dirt and from most of the millscale, rust, paint coatings and foreign matter.
Any traces of contamination shall show only as slight stains in the form of spots or stripes.

Sa3 blast cleaning to visually clean steel when viewed without magnification the surface shall be
free from visible oil, grease, dirt and from most of the millscale, rust, paint coatings and foreign
matter. It shall have a uniform metallic colour.
Comparison of blasting grades
SSPC
Bs 7079/ SIS 05-59-00
White metal sp5
Sa3
Near White metal sp10
Sa21/2
Commercial finish sp6
Sa2
Light blast and brush off sp7
Sa1
SSPC= Steel structures painting council
NACE =National association of corrosion engineers

nace
Grade1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4

Equipment
Centrifugal blast units
Blasting in factories is often carried out using rotating wheels, which throw the abrasive at the
component. These units are known as Centrifugal blast wheels, are usually fixed installations and
are commonly used for large production runs, e.g. on pipes in plate mills and large steel plates in
shipyards.
The main advantages of this system compared to air blasting systems are as follows
1. Lower cleaning time
2. Low abrasive consumption
3. Low energy consumption
4. Less labour used
5. More consistent and uniform blast finish
6. More environment friendly
7. Safer to implement (closed system)
The abrasive is fed into the centre of the wheels and to the inner edges of the attached blades by
means of an impeller. The abrasive is then accelerated to the end of the blades and onto the
component by centrifugal force at speeds typically between 250-350km/h.
For cost reasons the abrasive would normally be reusable. The abrasive is recycled up to
approximately twenty times providing it is free from oil and grease. An air-wash separator
removes any dust contaminates from the recycled abrasive before it is fed back into the wheels.
Air blasting
Pressure blasting, which is a type of air blasting system, would normally be used on site work.
Vacuum blast and suction blast also come under this category of air blasting but are not as widely
used due to lower efficiency
Pressure blasting equipment consists of
1. A compressor providing an air supply of approx. 100p.s.i.
2. A pressurised pot containing the abrasive
3. Liquid separators, i.e. moisture filters
4. A carbon impregnated hose
5. A venturi shaped blasting nozzle
6. A dead mans handle for direct operator control
The velocity of abrasive particles leaving a blasting nozzle is primarily governed by the pressure
at the nozzle, the higher the pressure the higher the velocity and therefore the higher the rate of
cleaning
There is a point at which an increase in pressure does not increase the velocity substantially; this
is at approximately 100psi, depending upon the abrasive used. Limiting pressures to 100psi is
also advantageous for safety reasons
It is important to keep the pressure at the nozzle as close to 100psi as possible because for every
1% loss in pressure there is approximately 11/2% loss in efficiency. The pressure at the nozzle
may be measured using a hypodermic needle gauge; this is placed through the wall of the hose
near the nozzle with the hole in the needle facing the nozzle
6

Blasting nozzles
Blasting nozzles are available in a variety of materials and orifice sizes. Sometimes the nozzles
are lined with relatively abrasive resistant materials, e.g. tungsten carbide for a longer working life
Two types of nozzle, which exist, are the straight bore nozzles and the venturi shaped nozzle.
Straight bore nozzles are rarely used for blasting large surface areas because they are not as
efficient as venturi nozzles. The velocity of abrasive leaving a straight bore nozzle at 100 psi is
approx. 350km/h whereas the velocity shaped nozzle under similar conditions would be approx.
720 km/h

Straight bore

Venturi shaped

Venturi shaped nozzles also produce a larger blast pattern with the whole area receiving a
relatively equal amount of abrasive, whereas a straight bore nozzle concentrates most of the
abrasive in the central area of the blast pattern, resulting in a fringe area of lower blasting
efficiency
Safety
Centrifugal blast units are a closed system; i.e. human access to the blasting areas is limited.
When using an open system, e.g. for site blasting applications using pressure blasting equipment,
access is not usually restricted therefore warning signs are necessary and regular inspection of
the equipment is required.
Other safety considerations relating to pressure blasting are as follows
Use of carbon impregnated hose to reduce the chance of static shock
Use of a dead mans handle to stop the flow of abrasive when the operator lets go of the
nozzle
Keeping hoses as straight as possible to prevent kinks which may lead to a blow out
Use hoses of the correct type i.e. reinforced
Use of external couplings if joining hoses together, internal couplings reduce the bore and the
eroding action of the abrasive could lead to a blow out
Restricting the pressure to 100 psi
The wearing of protective clothing, including an air fed helmet, boots, leather apron and
gloves
Wet blasting
Wet blasting methods are good for removing soluble salts such as chlorides from surfaces and
are good for the removal of toxic coatings, e.g. red lead films because they do not create a
dust.
However, all wet blasting methods have similar disadvantages over dry abrasive blasting,
including
The availability and drainage of water
The production and disposal of sludge (particularly with abrasive injection)
The extra cost of supplying and mixing corrosion inhibitor (assuming the specification allows
the use of an inhibitor)
7

The problems associated with drying large surface areas or the higher cost of water miscible
primers compared to conventional primers
High pressure water jetting
Operates at pressures up to 60,000 psi, which can be extremely dangerous. The advantages of
this method are as follows:
Simple to operate
Highly flexible and mobile in use
Suitable for removing soluble contaminates
Will remove millscale at high pressures
Low pressure water plus abrasive injection
Operates at 100 psi. It is claimed that this technique is very controllable and will remove one coat
of paint if required. Disadvantages include high cost and low efficiency.
Steam blasting, with or without abrasive injection
Operates at 100 psi. This method is ideal for surfaces contaminated with oil, grease, etc.
disadvantages include high cost and low efficiency.
Air blasting with water injection
Water with or without an inhibitor is injected into an air/abrasive stream.
Hand and power tool cleaning
Hand and power tool cleaning, relates to scraping, chipping, wire brushing, sanding, grinding and
needle gun cleaning.
This method of cleaning, although not as effective as blast cleaning, is often used for short term
protection coating systems, maintenance work or where access for blasting is restricted or
damage from abrasive to the surrounding environment would occur.
Wire brushing is a widely used surface preparation method but it only cleans up an existing
surface, it does not re-cut a new profile. Bs 7079:part A1 defines standards of wire brushed
finishes along with other hand and power tool cleaning method as follows. Prior to hand and
power tool cleaning, any heavy layers of rust shall be removed by chipping. Visible oil and grease
and dirt shall also be remover
St2 Thorough hand and power tool cleaning when viewed without magnification, the surface shall
be free from visible oil, grease and dirt, and from poorly adhering millscale, rust, paint coatings
and foreign matter
St3 Very thorough hand and power tool cleaning As for St 2 but the surface shall be treated much
more thoroughly to give a metallic sheen arising from the metallic substrate
St3 is usually obtained by mechanical wire brushing and St2 is usually achieved by hand wire
brushing. Care must be taken to avoid over brushing a particular area causing burnishing, a
condition with a highly polished surface which has an adverse effect on coating adhesion.
For safety reasons it may be specified that wire brushes used must be of the non sparking type
i.e. phosphor bronze or beryllium bronze
Notes
Bronze brushes may not be permitted because of the possibility of galvanic corrosion. Plastic
bristles embedded with abrasives as an alternative.
Needle gunning
A needle gun or jasons hammer as it is sometimes referred to, consists of many air operated
reciprocating tungsten needles. It is usually preferable for the needles to have a small cross
section. Needle guns are useful for cleaning difficult surfaces such as rivet heads and welds, they
also peen and stress relieve the surface. Their disadvantages are that they can leave sharp
edged craters and rogue peaks and they also have a tendency to push impurities into the surface.
After the same may check needle gunning the amplitude of the surface profile methods used for
abrasive blast cleaning if the contour of the substrate allows.

Reciprocating
needles
Compressed air

Needle gun

The guns shall have needles of a small cross section, the profile created must not exceed 100m,
no sharp egged craters must be left and all rouge peaks must be removed.
Grinding
Shall only be carried out under direct supervision of the engineer.
Abrasive discs
May be permitted in certain circumstances. Approval for their use must be sought and particular
care must be taken on pressure containing parts not to create notches
Flame cleaning
The application of an oxyacetylene flame to the steel surface to be cleaned is an efficient method
of removing rust, millscale and other contamination. The effectiveness of the process is due to a
combination of factors
Differential expansion- the millscale on contact with the intense heat expands at a faster rate than
the steel to which it is attached and flakes off
Dehydration- rust is a combination of iron oxide and moisture. As the moisture is rapidly driven off
the rust is dehydrated and converted to a dry powder which can be removed by wire brushing
Heat penetration- the heat from the flame penetrates all the surface irregularities and removes all
traces of moisture, oil, grease etc.
The flame cleaning of any of fastener, rivets or bolts, should be avoided as a loss of mechanical
strength may be caused
Flame cleaning often requires three operatives who work in a team as follows:
1. Flames cleans the surface, this gives a light grey appearance on the surface when finished
2. Wire brushes the surface to remove all the dry powder
3. Primes the surface, it is often necessary to apply the paint while the metal is still warm around
400c (which is about the maximum to which the hand can be comfortably applied)
The warmth of the plate lowers the paint viscosity enabling it to flow more easily into irregularities
and also ensures that condensation will not form on the surface.
Bs 7079: part A1 shows the minimum flame cleaning standards according to rust grades, i.e.
A / F1 B/ F1 C/ F1 D/ F1
Disadvantages
Dealing with high temperature naked flames
Damage and warping to thin materials
Heat causing loss of strength to steel fastenings
Advantages
Metal is perfectly dry for painting
Chemical cleaning
Pickling and phosphating
Pickling is a chemical cleaning process, which is widely used in a factory environment for
preparing items such as pipes and steel plates
The process usually involves immersing the steel in a bath of hot acid such as sulphuric acid,
which has been inhibited to reduce attack by the acid on the steel. The acid dissolves a thin oxide
layer at the interface with the steel causing the rust or millscale to be removed.
Other acids e.g. phosphric acid and chromic acid, are used to passivate the substrate to retard
corrosion reactions and also to promote adhesion. The acids react with the steel to form a thin
layer on the surface, which passivates the surface and provides corrosion resistance.
Procedure (HB Footners duplex process)
1. Degrease- removes surface contaminates such as grease and oil by use of a suitable
solvent, e.g. xylene, usually applied by cloth
2. Pickle- total immersion in a tank of acid, e.g.5-10% sulphuric acid at 65-70 0c, to remove
millscale, rust etc., the time taken is variable and depends on the type and degree of
contamination. An inhibitor is also present in the tank

3. Wash- a clean water wash to remove acid and surface residues, usually applied by hose or
spray
4. Phosphate- the technique involves a final treatment in a 1-2% phosphoric acid solution held
at 800c for 1-2 minutes. This leaves a thin rust inhibitive phosphate coasting on the steel
surface to which the coating should be preferably applied while it is still warm, possible after a
final wash
Hydrocarbon solvent cleaners
The removal of oil or grease from a substrate using hydrocarbon solvents involves proprietary
brands of degreasers which usually use solvents such as xylene, toluene and solvent naptha.
Other solvents known as halogenated hydrocarbon solvents such as perchloroethane and
perchloroethylene are also used
Note halogenated hydrocarbon such as 1,1,1, trichloroethane, trichloroethylene and carbon
tetrachloride were commonly used as degreasers but there use has declined, or been completely
restricted, due to high toxicity. Heavy vapours of all chemical solvents are a hazard in enclosed
areas.
A thin film of oil invariably remains after solvent cleaning but the more solvent used the more
frequent the operation, the less residual matter there is present
Xylene is a commonly used degreaser but its use on painted surfaces is limited due to its solvent
strength and compatibility considerations
Some non-ferrous metallic surfaces such as copper, brass and galvanised steel may be coated
for anti corrosion purposes but sometimes they are coated for aesthetic reasons. Relatively
reactive materials, e.g. zinc and aluminium, are often coated to prolong their effective life.
Non metallic materials such as glass reinforced plastic (GRP) or concrete are often coated for
appearance reasons only, although if concrete is coated its effective life or time to maintenance
may be prolonged.
Regardless of the reason for coating the surface must be cleaned
1. Remove any oil grease by suitable solvent or proprietary degreaser
2. Remove any water soluble contaminates using water, usually mixed with 2% detergent
3. Rinse using clean water. Preferably use power washing equipment where the situation allows
4. Sweep abrasive blasting preferred. If this is not practical , abrade using emery cloth or wire
brush
It may not be feasible to use sweep blasting as a surface preparation method with certain
surfaces such as thin gauge aluminium cladding or zinc galvanising. However using a wire brush
or some other abrasion method may not always be the best alternative. Etch primers or etchants
are usually on these surfaces to provide a key to the substrate.
For many non-ferrous substrates including aluminium and zinc a polyvinyl-butyral PVB type etch
primer or a non proprietary etchant called t-wash is used. The etchant used in both cases is
phosphoric acid.
It is not always a requirement to apply etch primers or etchants to zinc coatings which have a dull
appearance due to an oxide layer which has formed over a period of time due to reactions with
the oxygen in the atmosphere. The oxide layer usually provides an adequate key for the coating
system.
The specification must always be consulted to determine which preparation method to use on
non-ferrous substrates. For example, a specification may require t-wash etchant to be used on
unweathered zinc galvanised surfaces, PVB etch primers on aluminium surfaces and abrasion
using emery cloth on copper surfaces.
Tests to detect surface contamination may be qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative tests will
determine whether or not contamination is present but they will not show the exact quantity,
although an idea of the extent of contamination will normally be determined. There are many tests
for detecting contamination but some of these require a chemist or other suitable qualified person
to perform; these tests tend to be mainly quantitative, i.e. a quantity is determined, e.g. in mg/m 2
although this value may not be the exact amount present.

10

Soluble iron salts

Colourless soluble iron salts may be present in pits within the substrate after blasting. If salts are
present they will accelerate corrosion causing rust spots which may in turn break the bond of any
applied coatings leading to the failure of the coating system.
Some specifications state the maximum levels of salts permissible on a surface and express the
quantity in milligrams per square meter mg/m2
The maximum requirement may be as low as 10 mg/m 2 although other specifications may state
that 30 mg/m2 is the critical level. Only quantitative tests could be used to determine whether
these requirements are met
Test results may be misleading or totally wrong if chromate or nitrate inhibitors have been used,
for example in wet blasting.
Potassium ferricyanide test
1. Spray a fine mist of distilled water onto a small area of the blast cleaned surface
2. Wait a moment for any water droplets to evaporate then apply a Potassium ferricyanide test
paper by pressing down for 2-5 seconds
3. Remove the test paper and check to see if any salts have been drawn by capillary action,
they show as prussian blue spots
Note the Potassium ferricyanide test may also be referred to as the Potassium hexacyanoferrate
(iii) test
Merckoquant test
This test is also known as the Eisen test and is a colourmetric quantitative test claimed to be 85%
accurate down to 30 mg/m2
Bresle sample patch
This is a mercury (II) nitrate (mercuric nitrate) titration test clamed to be 95% accurate down to 10
mg/m2
Salt contamination meters
These normally give a digital readout and work by directly measuring the ionised metal salts
dissolved in a quantity of water.
Mill scale
Millscale is cathodic with respect to steel. This means that if any traces of millscale are present
on the surface after preparation they can accelerate the corrosion of the underlying steel and
disbond, leading to the eventual failure of any coating system applied. To test for the presence of
millscale particles left after blasting to Sa 3 the copper sulphate test may be used
A fine mist of slightly acidic copper sulphate solution is sprayed onto a localised area of
approximately 10mm in diameter. The steel turns a bright copper colour and any millscale
particles show as black spots
Dust
The presence of dust may be determined by applying transparent pressure sensitive adhesive
tape to the test surface and then removing. The tape is then examined using a magnifying glass
and an assessment is made. Standards do exist which standardise the test conditions and the
way in which results are assessed. Ref.: Bs7079 Part 3
Oil or grease
Simple visual assessment may reveal the presence of oil or grease, however a cotton wool swab
wiped over the surface may reveal oil or grease which was not directly visible when on the
surface. The use of an ultraviolet lamp may also detect oil or grease by causing it fluoresce, but a
dark environment is required for this method. Another method is to drip several drops of a solvent
such as xylene onto the suspect area. After a few moments remove some of the solvent and drip
onto a tissue or filter paper. When the solvent has evaporated any oil or grease will show up as a
brown ring on the paper.

11

UNIT 3 PAINT CONSTITUENTS

Paints may be classified in several different ways, however one way in which paints may be subdivided is as follows
Liquid paint containing solvent
Solvent free liquid paint
Powder paints
Solvent free liquid paints and powder paints are latter developments, which eliminate the need for
costly and hazardous solvents
Liquid paints containing solvents are the most common, although solvent free materials are being
more widely used. Water based paints have been used for sometime in industrial applications,
e.g. electrodeposition paints in the motor industry
Opaque liquid paints consist of a liquid medium know as the vehicle (solvent and binder) plus
solid pigment particles. An unpigmented paint known as varnish
Binder
The binder is the film former, i.e. the component in the paint, which forms a relatively hard
continuous film. It may be thought of as the adhesive that holds the pigment and other additives
together. The binder contributes mainly to the durability, provides the necessary mechanical
strength and physical properties and provides the adhesion, cohesion and flexibility of the coating
A paint type is normally identified by its binder
Acrylic
Alkyd
Cellulose
Chlorinated rubber
PVC/PVA emulsion
Epoxy
Ethyl and methyl silicate
Vegetable oils e.g. linseed
Phenolic
Polyurethane
Silicone
Styrene
Each binder has its own characteristics, therefore a paint must be carefully selected to ensure it is
able to do the work required: e.g. it would not be the right choice to coat a chemical plant with
linseed oil based paint as these paints have low chemical resistance. A good choice would be an
epoxy or Chlorinated rubber as these have good chemical resistance
A paint binder forms polymers when drying takes place. A polymer molecule is composed of many
smaller parts, contributed by similar or dissimilar molecules which are joined together until there
are hundred or thousands of atoms in the polymer molecule. This process is known as
polymerisation.
Polymers consist of chemical compounds made up from elements of a low molecular weight,
such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
Most polymers are organic and may be naturally occurring, or as is more usual in modern paints,
synthetic
-A-A=A-A-A-A

Linear polymer
A-A-A-A
12

-A-A-A-A-B

Branched Polymer
A-A-A-A

Cross-linked polymer
All binders are polymers and in the case of reversible or non-convertible coatings, the polymer is
fully formed and therefore does not undergo further polymerisation during the drying or curing
process
Non- reversible or convertible binders are composed of polymers which are not fully formed and
which undergo further polymerisation during the drying or curing process.
Resins
Natural resins are obtained from plant secretions or plant fossils and include lac, copals and
dammers. Natural resins may be hard brittle or soft semi-solids, are usually quite transparent and
may have film-forming properties although they are usually used to modify the properties of oils.
Natural resins quite often have to be modified chemically by heating etc. before they are any use
to the paint industry. Some natural resins are soluble in organic solvents but not water, some
natural resins classified as gums are soluble in water e.g. gum Arabic.
Almost all resins used in paint formulations nowadays are synthetic e.g. epoxy, alkyd, vinyl etc.,
these have similar physical properties to natural resins but have different chemical composition.
Oils
Before synthetic resins made their appearance, unsaturated drying oils were used as film
formers. Nowadays their use is restricted, although they are commonly used in oleoresinous
varnishes (oil and resin) for special use
Common drying oils are linseed and tung oil, which dry by oxidation
Paints, which contain more oil than resin may be referred to as, long oil paints, these produce
elastic, slow drying, paint films used for decorative purposes. Paints which contain more resin
than oil may be referred to as short oil paints, these produce brittle fast drying paint films used for
structural coatings
Pigments
Pigments are solids in powdered form, which are derived from chemical reactions, minerals,
vegetables or animals. Pigments may be organic or inorganic. Most pigments used in paints are
inorganic although there are some common organic pigments. Most pigment types must be
chemically inert and insoluble in vehicle in which they are dispersed
Pigments basically give paint film its colour and opacity (hiding power), but may also improve the
paint film hardness and durability. Colour permanence when exposed to the environment i.e. light,
air and moisture, is also a consideration. Opacifying pigments are typically less than 1m per
particle.
There are pigments, which can apply other characteristics to paint e.g. anti corrosive properties.
Titanium dioxide is a white pigment and worthy of special mention because it is present in many
paints over a variety of colours. Its main characteristics are high tinting strength and hiding power,
low weight, good chemical inertness and resistance to heat
Pigments are usually classified by colour or by the primary characteristic they afford to the paint;
listed below are some pigments classified by the latter
Opacity
Describes how well the paint will cover over the underneath surface and is possible and is
opposite to transparency. The opacity of a paint is determined mostly by the amount of pigment in
the paint. The greater the pigment quantity the better covering power the paint will possess
Any piece of equipment that measures opacity is called a cryptometer
Two types in common use are hiding power charts and the pfund cryptometer
Opaque pigments
These inert pigments are used for the purpose of providing colour and opacity
Carbon
black
Compounds of calcium
red, yellow
Compounds of cobalt
blue
13

 Compounds of chromium
green, yellow, orange
Compounds of iron
brown, red, yellow
Titanium dioxide
white
Rust inhibitive (anti corrosion) pigments
Used in primers for the purpose of corrosion prevention
Inhibitive pigments work by anodic and/or cathodic polarisation of the metal substrate. The
soluble particles of some types of rust inhibitive pigment react with the moisture as it passes
through to the metal making it non-corrosive. Red lead and calcium plumbate are basic and react
with acidic components of the vehicle to form an inhibitor
Red lead*
Calcium plumbate*
Zinc chromate*
Zinc phosphate
Boro-silicates
Zinc phospho-oxide
Barium metaniobate
*The use of the above marked in most countries is banned or restricted due to high toxicity
Metallic pigments
May be used to give metallic finishes such as those used on cars. Zinc may be used to give anticorrosive properties by acting as a sacrificial anode by means of cathodically protecting the
underlying steel, providing the metallic particles are in close contact with on another. In most
situations, it is unlikely that an aluminium pigment even if closely packed will achieve cathodic
protection
Zinc
Aluminium
Extender pigments
More often referred to as extenders; these are not opaque and are used for increasing viscosity,
reducing gloss, aiding intercoat adhesion and to improve the cohesive strength of the paint film.
Some opaque pigments can also provide these characteristics, but the main advantage of using
extenders is lower cost
Kaolin (china clay)
Chalk
Talc
Slate dust
Barytes
Laminar pigments
Laminar pigments are small flakes, which have a leafing effect when the paint dries; this means
that the flakes of pigment overlap one another like leaves on the ground. This results in an
excellent coating to resist the passage of water; tensile strength is also improved
MIO (micaceous iron oxide) sometimes referred to as flaky or specular hematite, is a laminar
pigment widely used in midcoats on structural steelwork and is available I many types of binder
formulations. Mica, glass flakes and aluminium flakes are other laminar pigments, which have
similar characteristics to MIO
Solvents
Usually the ability of a paint to spread over a surface is far from ideal unless the paint contains a
solvent. The paint solvent must be volatile so that it evaporates from a coating of paint to leave a
viscous film. The choice of solvents is important because the use of inappropriate solvents can
affect the drying and gloss characteristics of a paint and in some cases can chemically react with
the liquid paint which will have an adverse affect on the paint film properties
The important properties of a solvent are
Solvent power: strong solvents e.g. acetone, are required for complicated polymers, this
enables the molecules of paint to move more easily

14

Rate of evaporation: some solvents evaporate quicker than others, also the method of
application will effect evaporation; spraying results in faster evaporation than brush applied
coatings, if the rate of evaporation is to quick problems may arise In application i.e. dry spray
Flash point: this is the minimum temperature of the solvent at which the vapours given off are
flammable if a source of ignition is introduced
Toxicity: the toxicity of a solvent can be determined from its occupational exposure limit
expressed in PPM
A variety of apparatus exists for measuring toxicity, a common type known as the draeger tube
works on the similar principle to a breathalyser
Weak solvent
Water

emulsion, vinyls, acrylics, PVA/PVC

Aliphatics
White spirit
Turps+substitues
Hexanes

natural oils, natural resins, isomers e.g. alkyds

Aromatics
Xylene
Toluene
Benzene
Styrene

chlorinated rubber

Ketones
Acetone
MEK/MIBK

epoxies

Polyurethanes use ketones and esters with aromatic solvents

Strong solvent
Other constituents
In addition to the main ingredients of a paint, namely the binder, solvent and pigment, there are
other constituents added for a variety of reasons, e.g. to aid the paint manufacturing process, to
increase shelf life, to aid application, to aid film formation, to aid drying or curing, to repel bacteria
or suppress plant growth, to reduce flammability and to reduce UV degradation.
Other constituents include
Plasticisers
Added to paint to prevent a brittle film
Thrixotropics
Gives a jelly like structure which gives the paint build and anti-sag properties
Dryers or catalyst
Some binders such as oils or resins need added dryers to speed up the drying process
Two pack paint rely on a chemical reaction to bring about the drying the catalyst provides this
Anti-skinning agents
Helps prevent oil-based paints from skinning over
Extenders
Cheap mineral powders which can be added to paint in order to make it floe more easily, increase
opacity but most of all to lower the cost of the paint
Others
Anti-foaming agents, preservatives, fungicides and bactericides.
Solutions and dispersions
An opaque paint is dispersion; the pigment particles are suspended in the vehicle or binder.
The vehicle of a paint solution of binder dissolved in solvent; a clear varnish is also a solution
Solutions

15

In a solution, a substance known a the solute, which can either be a solid or a liquid, is dissolved
in a liquid known as the solvent to form a homogenous substance
Sugar ( solute ) with water ( the solvent )
Alkyd binder ( solute ) with white spirit ( the solvent )
Dispersions
In a dispersion there is no solubility, one component, which could be a solid or a liquid, is
surrounded by a liquid. There are two types of dispersions: suspensions and emulsions
Suspensions
In a suspension, solid particles are dispersed within a liquid, each particle or group of particles
being surrounded and wetted by the liquid, e.g. pigment and vehicle
If a paint was in complete dispersion each pigment particle would be completely surrounded and
wetted by the binder
In practice, complete dispersion is rarely achieved because the pigment particle group together in
small groups known as aggregates when supplied by the pigment manufacturer; these
aggregates are not completely broken down by the paint mills during paint manufacture
However the paint manufacturer must break down the aggregates to achieve the necessary
degree of dispersion of fineness of grind for the particular paint; for example the final degree of
dispersion must be high to obtain gloss paints
Emulsions
In an emulsion, minute droplets of one liquid known as the dispersed phase, are dispersed in a
second liquid known as the continuous phase. The dispersed phase is completely surrounded by
the continuous phase but is not dissolved by it
E.g.
Full cream milk: cream(dispersed phase) with water (continuous phase)
Salad dressing: vinegar(dispersed phase)with oil(continuous phase)
House hold emulsion PVA/PVC co-polymer(dispersed phase)with water(continuous phase)

16

UNIT 4 PAINT DRYING AND CURING

Drying is defined in Bs2015: 1992 glossary of paint and related terms as the change of a coating
material from the liquid state to the solid state, due to evaporation of solvent, physo-chemical
reactions of the binding medium, or a combination of these processes
When the drying process takes place during exposure to air at normal temperature, it is called airdrying; if drying is accelerated by the application of heat above ambient temperature, but below
that used for stoving, it is termed forced drying. Application of heat by using an oven or infrared is
termed stoving
Various terms exist in relation to the drying of a paint film
Dust dry- when dust no longer adheres to the paint surface
Surface dry or sand dry- (not a Bs 2015 term) when the paint is dry on the surface but is soft
and tacky underneath. This term primarily applies to oil based paints
Touch dry- when a very slight pressure with the fingers does not leave a mark or reveal
stickiness. Freedom from residual tack is another term encountered
Tack free- free from tack even under pressure
Hard dry- (not defined in Bs 2015) this term is used to describe certain degrees of film
hardness when tested by specified methods. The term may also be used when the drying has
reached such a stage that if desired, a further coat may be applied
Dry to handle- the state of drying when a coated item can be handled without damage
Drying mechanisms
The types of drying mechanisms are
Solvent evaporation
Oxidation
Chemical curing
Coalescence
Solvent evaporation
Some paint dry solely by solvent evaporation to leave a film of non-volatile solids; but a
permanent chemical change does not take place. This process is known as lacquer drying
Paints, which cure solely by solvent evaporation, are known as non-convertible or reversible
paints. These terms mean that the binder is a linear or branched polymer, which is fully formed in
the can and does not undergo further polymerisation after application. It also means that if the
paint solvent or other solvents in the case of house hold emulsion paints, is reapplied to a dried
coating, the coating will resoften
Non-convertible paints such as chlorinated rubber and cellulose lacquers are examples of paint,
which dry solely by solvent evaporation (lacquer dry)
Oxidation
Paints based on drying oils, which includes most alkyd and phenolic paints dry firstly by solvent
evaporation and then by oxidation. This is sometimes known as oxidative drying. On contact with
the oxygen in the air a chemical reaction takes place- the paint polymerises, with the aid of dryers
which are present in the paint, to form a relatively hard film
17

Paints which cure by oxidation are known as convertible or non-reversible paints which means
that if the paint solvent is reapplied after curing, the coating will not redissolve because of the
permanent change that has taken place
Paints, which dry by this process, have complex polymers compared to reversible or nonconvertible paints.
Chemical curing
Chemical curing paints cure by a chemical reaction between ingredients in the paint, unlike
oxidation drying which is chemical reaction between the binder and the oxygen in the
atmosphere. Paints employing this drying mechanism dry initally by solvent evaporation, if a
solvent is present, and then by polymerisation due to a chemical reaction with the curing agent
Paint which chemically cure are convertible or non-reversible paints, and therefore have complex
polymers compared to reversible or non-convertible paints.
Curing agents can be added to a paint prior to application (two-pack system), or they can already
be present in a paint and then activated by an external source of energy, e.g.heat, ultra-violet
light, infrared light electron beam etc.
Paints which melt when heat is applied as known as thermoplastic coatings. Coatings which do
not melt after the application of heat are know as thermoset coatings
Two pack paints are used taking into consideration the pot life and in some cases the induction
period
The pot life is the maximum time period after mixing in which the paint must be used; this can
vary from a few minutes to a few hours
The induction period is the minimum time period during which the mixed components are left to
stand before use. This is to allow for certain chemical reactions to take place. Induction periods
are typically up to 30 minutes
Other terms for induction period are lead time and stand time
Coalescence
Paints, which dry by this mechanism, dry initially by water evaporation; this allows the polymers of
the paint, which are fully formed during manufacture of the polymer, to come into contact with one
another and physically join together
Acrylic emulsions and vinyl emulsions dry by this mechanism and are classed as reversible or
non-convertible paints, although this is not very obvious in practice.

Drying and curing tests

Ballotini test
Ballotini, which are tiny glass balls, are dropped onto a wet painted panel. The time in hours is
given at the side of the panel and where the Ballotini fail to stick to the painted panel drying has
occurred
Stylus test
Similar to the Ballotini test, the stylus employs a series of trailing needles which pass over the wet
painted panel, because the needles are set at different tensions it can be established when the
paint is tack dry, hard dry and fully cured

18

UNIT 5 COATING SYSTEMS

Corrosion protection methods
Paint systems protect the substrate from corrosion by a combination of one or more of the
following methods
The barrier principle: the substrate is isolated from the environment, which causes corrosion
by using a coating, which has a low permeability to moisture and air. This may be achieved
by applying a thick coat of paint or applying a paint having low permeability, e.g. epoxy,
polyurethane; or even better applying a thick, low permeability coating.
Passivation: corrosion is retarded or arrested by chemical reactions between rust inhibitive
pigments in the primer, and the substrate and/or moisture passing through the paint film
Cathodic protection: this is achieved by coating the substrate with a paint containing metallic
pigments, usually zinc (aluminium in some cases) which are ignoble with respect to the
substrate. Cathodic protection may also be achieved by means of metal coatings such as
zinc galvanising
Layers of a paint film
Paint systems may be single layered coatings or multi layered coatings. A multi layered paint
system consists of a primer, at least one midcoat and a finish coat. Each coat has its own
specification
Primer
The function of a primer is to provide maximum and lasting adhesion to the substrate, to provide
a key for the next paint layer and, in most cases, to retard corrosion by means of an inhibitive
pigment when primer is applied to steel substrates
Although not always practised, it is often considered good practice to apply primers with a brush
as this enables the paint to be worked into the substrates surface, thereby providing optimum
wetting of the substrate and mixing in any dust particles, thus achieving optimum adhesion
Etch primers, also known as wash primers, are supplied either as single pack or two pack
materials which contain phosphoric acid that reacts with the substrate and which also sometimes
contain an inhibitive pigment such as zinc phosphate. This type of coating is often considered as
an etchant or form of surface preparation rather than a primer in the conventional sense
Another form of etch primer is the mordant solution. An example of this is t-wash which was
developed by the former British rail. T-wash essentially consists of an aqueous solution of
phosphoric acid and copper sulphate
Mordant means of a corrosive nature or to bite into
Many specifications will not allow etch primers to be sprayed due to their high toxicity
Midcoat
Midcoats may be standard undercoats or high build coats, primarily there to serve as a barrier to
prevent the passage of water
Primers and finish coats are often thin layered coatings and are quite permeable compared to
midcoats; without a midcoat the inhibitive pigment in the primer would soon be leached out, which
will lead to corrosion
Midcoats also build up the film thickness to provide a more even surface by filling slight surface
irregularities

19

Finish
The final coat in a system gives a surface its final appearance; i.e. colour and gloss. A final coat
must also have solar protective properties and, on most structural work, must have a gloss finish
to allow water to flow more readily from a surface and allow the surface to be cleaned easily

Types of coating system

General
There are various ways to classify paint systems as shown in the following table
Classification
Options
Function
Anti corrosion
Anti fouling
Decorative
Flame retardant
Shop primer
Moisture tolerant
Road marking
Binder type
Alkyd
Cellulose
Chlorinated rubber
PVA/PVC emulsion
Epoxy
Polyurethane
Vinyl
Pigment type
Alumiumn
Micaceous iron oxide
Zinc rich
Red oxide
Zinc phosphate
Colour
Black
Blue
Green
Red
White
Yellow
The following table extracted from Bs5493 shows the principle coating systems identified by their
binder
Type
Characteristic constituents
Zinc coating(except sprayed metal): bare,
Zinc and /or zinc-iron alloy
sealed or painted
Sprayed metal: bare, sealed or painted
Zinc or aluminium metal
Organic zinc-rich
Zinc and organic binder
Inorganic zinc-rich
Zinc and silicate binder
Drying oil type
Drying oil, urethane oil, alkyd, modified alkyd,
phenolic varnish or epoxy ester plus pigment
Silicone alkyd
Silicone-modified alkyd plus pigment
One pack chemical resistant
Chlorinated rubber or vinyl copolymer resin
20

One pack chemical resistant and drying oil type

primer
Two pack chemical resistant
Two pack chemical resistant overcoated with
One pack chemical resistant travel coat and
finish
Bitumens

plus pigment
Epoxy ester or alkyd primer with Chlorinated
rubber finish
Epoxy or polyurethane resin(including
modification with coal tar)plus pigment
Epoxy resin overcoated with Chlorinated rubber
plus pigment
Coal tar or mineral bitumen with or without
pigment, coal tar enamel

Moisture curing polyurethanes and high molecular weight linear epoxy resins which are both one
pack chemical resistant materials, are not included in the product sections because of limited
experience in their use at time of Bs5493 publication
Sacrificial coatings
Sacrificial coatings contain pigments which cathodically protect the ion or steel substrate to which
the paint is adhered, these pigment particles eventually corrode thereby sacrificing themselves by
corroding in preference to the substrate. In order to have this property the sacrificial pigment must
be ignoble to the material to be coated; zinc and aluminium are the most common types of
pigment employed
Zinc rich primers are two pack paints and contain metallic zinc in high concentration. A minimum
zinc content of 90% (by weight) of the D.F.T. is often specified
In order to work effectively the zinc particles must be held in close contact with themselves and
the substrate, therefore an efficient binder is necessary
Organic zinc rich primers usually have an epoxy binder
Inorganic zinc rich primers often contain a methyl or ethyl silicate binder. They have excellent
heat resistance properties and may be used as a single coat system or they may be overcovered
with a specialised finish, e.g. silicone sealer, if required
Metal coatings e.g. zinc galvanising and metal-sprayed coatings, are principally used for very
long-term protection and do not usually come under the category of paint systems
When a zinc rich or a zinc metal coating is subject to minor damage, e.g. a scratch, a corrosion
reaction will take place which produces zinc salts that self-seal the damaged area
Powder coatings
Powder coatings are basically solvent free paints. They may be thermosetting or thermoplastic.
Epoxy powder, which gives a thermosetting coating, is commonly used nowadays for a variety of
applications including underground pipelines and domestic appliances. Each thermosetting
powder particle contains base and curing agent, but they do not react together until they are
activated with a heat source.
The component to be coated is usually preheated, the powder may be then applied by using a
fluid bed or spray technique; in both cases the powder is usually applied using electrostatic
methods to achieve more uniform thicknesses and to reduce powder wastage via overspray
After application, the coating may sometimes be post cured in a subsequent stoving operation
Moisture tolerant systems
The surface that requires coating may be below dew point temperature, for example, due to low
temperature gas or liquid in a piping system. In situations like these, moisture tolerant systems
may be specified for use on damp surfaces
Various definitions may be used when moisture exists on a substrate, for example
1. Damp surface- surface temperature is below dew point but there is no detectable water
2. Moist surface- standing water and droplets have been removed but there is a thin film of
moisture on the surface
3. Wet surface- droplets and free water are present on the surface
Definitions differ between specifications, always consult the applicable specification for exact
definitions which apply
Paints for use on damp surfaces include
Moisture curing- e.g. one pack polyurethane
Solvent free- e.g. two pack epoxy
21

 Water displacing- e.g. some moisture tolerant chlorinated rubbers

Water absorbing- e.g. some moisture tolerant chlorinated rubbers
Moisture curing
Moisture curing materials are mainly polyurethanes, which cure by reaction with moisture in the
air; they therefore require a minimum RH % for application rather than a maximum. This value is
often quite generous being as low as 35% RH, however, a maximum may still be specified- check
data sheets
The curing rate is temperature dependent (as with other materials), but being moisture curing the
curing rate is also RH% dependent. Most figures quoted for overcoating/cure times are based on
65%RH
A maximum of 80%RH is typically specified for moisture sensitive urethanes
Immediately a can is opened and moisture is in contact with the paint, the curing reaction starts,
so this single pack material has a pot life varying from 6 hours upwards. Some manufactures
stipulate that the material must be used within 24 hours or within one working day
Hot enamels
The term enamels usually applies to a hot-applied bituminous materials, i.e. coal tar and asphalt
(bitumen). Enamels were, and still are for some organisations, commonly applied to the external
surfaces of pipelines, both in the factory for full pipe lengths and on site for welded joints
The term enamel was originally a marketing term applied to hard thermosetting ready mixed
paints because of their superficial resemblance to vitreous enamels
The pipe is first blast cleaned or chemically cleaned then primed with the appropriate quick drying
primer. Hot enamel (~2000c) is poured (flooded) over the primed surface then a fibreglass inner
wrap is applied, possibly whilst simultaneously applying a second flood coat. Another flood coat is
immediately applied and then an outer wrap, consisting of fibreglass strands impregnated with the
same enamel material, is wrapped around the whole surface. This system gives a homogenous,
continually bonded layer with spiral wound reinforcing. The thickness range is typically 3-4mm
Note: bitumen and coal tar enamels are not compatible. They are also reversible materials and
so will soften and bleed with the application of hydrocarbon solvents.
Heating a blade and moulding the surrounding material into the void can easily repair pinholes
Tape wrapping systems
Hot applied tapes
In general, these are only used in conjunction with hot applied enamels. They have very poor
adhesion properties when applied onto a smooth surface, e.g. plastics. The tape material is
melted by blowtorch or similar and fused to the primed material. The tape is then spirally wrapped
around pipes and similar usually with an overlap of up to 55%
Cold applied laminate tape
Usually consists of an outer polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyethylene (PE) film to which is bonded
a mastic layer of synthetic rubber or rubber modified bitumen. Interleaving wax paper prevents
adhesion between adjacent layers
The tape is applied to a primed substrate and spirally wrapped around the pipes and similar
usually with an overlap of up to 55%. Being thermoplastic, temperature affects the ease of
application and behaviour during service
Self adhesive overwrap tapes
Not normally used as a wrapping system on their own but used as an overwrap system to hold
other materials in place, e.g. fillers and grease based tapes
These tapes are PVC or PE with a thin layer of pressure sensitive adhesive. Used only on
smooth substrates because they will not adhere properly to rough substrates
Grease based tapes
Are composed of a synthetic fibre bandage impregnated with petrolatum grease. Highly
mouldable, flexible and can be used on any substrate providing it is free of loosely bonded
contamination
Fillers
Normally used to modify contours of valves and flanges etc. to facilitate the use of tape systems.
Typically based on petrolatum grease, bitumen and rubber, consideration need to be given to
substrate and overwrapping material compatibility

22

Plastic coatings
There are many types of plastic used in the coating industry, e.g. polypropylene, polyethylene and
polystyrene. Common systems include heat shrinkable materials and materials, which are
applied, hot then shrunk onto the component by the application of cold water
Elastomeric coatings
Elastomeric coatings have elastic properties and may be considered as synthetic rubber coatings.
Elastomeric materials include neoprene, syntactic polyurethanes and EPDM (ethylene propylene
diene monomer). After application some systems are vulcanised whilst others come in two-pack
form and chemically cure

Unit 6 PAINT MANUFACTURE

Manufacturing paint is a relatively simple process. The skill in making paint is how the paint
maker utilises the vast array of various ingredients at his disposal
Paint is manufactured in paint mills whose main job is to grind down the pigment to the finest
possible degree whilst at the same time mixing the ingredients to smooth high quality paint
Types of paint mill
Direct charge mills, which take and mix all the raw ingredients together. Types are Ball mill
Attritor mill
High speed dispenser
Pre mix mills, take the ingredients which have been pre-mixed to a rough consistency and refine
this mixture to a high quality paint this system is used fir large production runs. Types are Sand
pearl
Bead mill
Colloid mill
Single roll
Triple roll
Typical manufacturing process
Select and assemble raw materials
Mill the paint
Carry out any quality testing required
Can the paint
Warehouse and distribute the paint
Fineness of pigment grind
During the paint milling process the pigment content of the paint is ground down to a very fine
degree. This is required in order to give the finished paint film smoothness, but more importantly
enables the paint to carry a high degree of gloss where this is required. If a pigment has only
been coarsely ground the surface finish will be relatively rough and when subjected to a light box
test will appear somewhat dull due to the reflected light being scattered rather than reflected
The fineness of grind gauge, which is also called a hegman gauge, is a block of stainless steel
around 175mm long by 65mm wide. It has a channel running along its length going from 0m to
100m; the depth is identified along its length. Paint is applied to the channel and then a flat edge
scraper is pulled from the 100m deep end towards the shallow end. At some point along the way
as the paint in the channel becomes shallower pigment particles will break the surface. Where
between 5-10 particles break the surface this is said to be the fineness of grind
23

100
50
0

UNIT 7 PAINT COLOURS

Bs 5252
Framework for colour co-ordination for building purposes establishes a framework within which
237 colours have been selected as a source for all building colour standards and the means of
co-ordinating them. It is not itself a range of colours for any particular product and is not used to
specify British Standard Colours. A colour is only standardised when it is included in another
British Standard, such as those that have been derived for paints BS 4800, vitreous enamel
BS4900, Plastics BS4901 and sheet and tile flooring BS4092. Such standards contain only a
portion of the total colours contained in BS5252 and are selected to meet design requirements
within relevant technical and economic constraints
BS 4800
BS4800 paint colours for building purposes specifies 100 colours, which have been selected
from the framework of the 237 colours contained in BS5252
Each colour in BS4800 is identified by three parts as follows
Hue:
The first part signifies hue or colour and consists of an even number of two numerals (e.g. 04)
twelve main hues are used and numbered
2
red purples
4
reds
6
yellow reds
8
yellow reds
10
yellows
12
yellow greens
14
greens
16
green blues
18
blues
20
purple blues
22
violets
24
purples
Greyness:
The second part signifies greyness, i.e. the apparent amount of difference in greyness between
one colour with another. Five grades are used; each defines by a single letter. There are four
steps of diminishing greyness from A (maximum) to D (minimum). Beyond this colours are pure of
free from greyness and graded as E, e.g. pure yellows are prefixed 10-e
Weight:
When coded only two on the above grades it was found that the yellow hues (yellow-red and
yellow green) at minimum greyness looked heavy in comparison with other colours. This was
overcome by raising the value of the yellowish colours. The result was more uniform in weight.
The weight is given in pairs of numbers from 01-56. Groups of colours within each of the five
greyness ranges are graduated from high to low value
Each of these graduations is numbered
A greyness
01 to 13
24

B greyness
C greyness
D greyness
E greyness

15 to 29
31 to 40
43 to 45
49 to 56

E.G.

18

Hue (colour)
02-24 in
Even numbers

E
greyness
A-E
A is neutral; E is pure colour

53
weight
Colour saturation
01-56

The above example signifies a deep bright blue

Black, white or any grey maybe up from only black and white are not colours but are called
neutrals and are always pre-fixed by 00Black is 00-E-53
White is 00-E-55
BS4800 can be used to identify existing colours when maintenance painting and is a method by
which all manufactures can make exactly the same colour

25

UNIT 8 PAINT TESTING GENERAL

There are a large number of paint/paint film tests, which are carried out, some of which may be
unique to one paint manufacturer or clients specification.
Bs 3900- Methods of Test for Paints
Is a specification widely referred to, which covers procedures, apparatus and related
information on widely used test methods for paints, varnishes and similar products. The general
introduction setting out the scope of the series is intended to be read in conjunction with each of
the parts which are issued in loose leaf form and can be obtained separately
A. Tests on liquid paints (excluding chemical tests)
B. Tests involving chemical examination of liquid paint and dried paint films
C. Tests associated with paint film formation
D. Optical tests on paints
E. Mechanical tests on paint films
F. Durability tests on paint films
G. Environmental tests on paint films (including test for resistance to corrosion and chemicals)
H. Designation of intensity, quality and size of common types of defect: general principles and
rating schemes

26

UNIT 9 ARTIFICIAL WEATHERING

Formerly natural weathering of painted samples provided information on how well paints
performed when subjected to various environmental conditions. This however was a slow
process, which sometimes took years to bring back results. In order to speed up this process a
number of accelerated weathering devices were devised which brought back test results in a
much shorter time
Common tests in use
1) Salt spray box: simulates how paints behave under marine conditions
2) Water soak test: tests for paint film permeability
3) Tropic box: simulates how paints behave in a high humidity environment
4) Temperature cycling: tests for paint film flexibility by subjecting samples to alternate high and
low temperatures
5) Cold check testing: tests for low temperature contraction cracking

27

UINT 10 FLASHPOINT
Flashpoints give an indication of fire risk and are defined as the lowest temperature at which
solvent vapour from the product under test in a closed cup gives rise to an air/vapour mixture
capable of being ignited by an external source of ignition
Flashpoint determination of paints or solvents may be carried out in accordance with Bs3900 part
A9 using a closed cup of the ABEL type
1. Fix the Abel cup containing the substance for assessment into a bath of water
2. Apply heat source to the water bath and monitor the temperature of the substance in the Abel
cup
3. Activate the source of ignition every 1/20c of rise in temperature
4. The flashpoint temperature is identified when a blue flame flashes over the substance being
assessed
Note: if an orange flame is observed the temperature is too high and overheating has occurred.
The material under test should replaced and the test restarted

Thermometers

Ignition

Support

Water bath

28

UNIT 11 VICOSITY
Procedure for measuring viscosity using a ford flow cup no4:
1. Bring temperature of paint to200c+/- 0.50c
2. Level the apparatus, then with the end of one finger over the orifice of the cup, rapidly fill it
with paint
3. Allow a moment for air bubbles to rise, then draw a flat edge across the top of the cup to wipe
off the paint level with the edges
4. Remove finger from the orifice and start stopwatch simultaneously with the commencement
of the paint stream. The watch is stopped when the first distinctive break in the paint stream
occurs
5. The time taken in seconds is taken as the viscosity
This procedure can be used to determine the quantity of any added thinners. There is no direct
relationship between the time value obtained and the percentage of added thinners. A
comparison has to be obtained by preparing a number of control samples using different
percentage of thinners added to pain taken from a freshly opened can
A thrixotropic paint needs to be worked to reach the free flowing stage, therefore the viscosity
cannot be assessed with a flow cup: a rotational viscometer or another type of viscometer, which
works the paint, must be used

29

UNIT 12 DENSITY
Density is the weight per unit volume and is therefore found by the following formula
Weight
Density --------Volume
The unit used for measuring the density of paint is usually grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm 3)
1cm3 of water
=1 millimetre
=1 gram
1000 cm3 of water
=1 litre
=1 kilogram
The density of a paint will be higher than that of water, the density of a solvent will be lower than
that of water, and the density of a curing agent may be higher or lower than that of water
Vent

100 cc

Density cup
Procedure for measuring density using a 100cm3 density cup
1. Weigh the cup to the nearest decigram using laboratory balance with a 1000g capacity and a
sensitivity of +/- 0.1g
2. Remove cover and fill with paint to 2.5mm of the brim
3. Carefully replace the cover so that air and any excess paint is expelled through the vent
4. Wipe off any surplus paint from the cover and re-weigh
5. Determine the weight of paint by subtraction
6. Divide weight by 100 if the density in g/cm3 is required
This procedure can be applied to determine the quantity of any added thinners. The weight of a
sample of paint taken from a paint kettle could be compared with control samples which have
been prepared by adding differing percentages of thinners to the paint taken from a freshly
30

opened can. There is a relationship between the obtained weight and the percentage of added
thinners if the pre-mix density of thinners and density of paint is known. It is also possible using
this procedure to determine whether two-pack paints have been mixed in the correct proportions
Relative density
Relative density or specific gravity is the density of any substance compared to the density of
water
Density of x
Specific gravity (sg)=---------------------Density of water
Because the density of water is 1g/cm3 the figure obtained from the sg formula will be the same
as that obtained from the density formula, the difference is that the answer for the sg formula will
have no units, i.e. it is a dimensionless ratio
Example
1. What is the density of a paint if 5 litres weighs 7,35kg?

A.

weight
Density --------Volume

B.

7.35kg
Density --------5 litres

C.

7.35 x 1000 grams

Density --------5 x 1000 cm3

D.

Density = 1.47g/cm3

2. A two-pack paint is mixed at a ratio of seven parts base to two parts curing agent; the
densities are 1.59g/cm3 and 0.78g/cm3 respectively. What is the density of paint after mixing?
a)
b)
c)
d)

7 parts base
2 parts curing agent
9 parts combined
density

1.59 x 7 = 11.13
0.78 x 2 = 1.56
11.13 + 1.56 = 12.69
12.69 / 2 =1.41 g/cm3

Note the sg would be 1.41

31

UNIT 13 WET FILM THICKNESS

The wet film thickness is taken immediately after coating has been applied so that any deviation
from the specified thickness range can be immediately rectified while the paint is still wet, thereby
reducing the amount of dried coatings which are outside the specified thickness tolerances. Also
any calculations based on volume solids will be meaningless if a lot of solvent has evaporated
The wet film thickness may be found by using a comb gauge or an eccentric wheel

W.F.T.
Comb gauge
PAINT

Substrate

Eccentric wheel
250

Scale

Procedure for measuring w.f.t. using a comb gauge

1. immediately after application of the paint, the comb gauge should be placed firmly onto the
substrate in such a way that the teeth are normal to the plane of the surface
2. the gauge should then be removed and the teeth examined in order to determine the shortest
one to touch the wet paintfilm. The film thickness should be recorded as lying between the
last tooth touching and the first non tooth as shown on he tooth calibrations marked on the
gauge
3. at least two further readings should be taken in different places in order to obtain representive
results over the full coated area
NOTE: The w.f.t. is sometimes recorded as the average between the last touching tooth and the
first non-touching tooth
The wet film thickness may be found by calculation
Calculation

32

VOLUME
W.F.T. = -------------AREA
100
W.F.T. = -------- X D.F.T.
V.S.(%)

UNIT 14 DRY FILM THICKNESS

There are four methods of determining the dry film thickness of paint
non destructive test gauges
destructive test gauges
test panels
calculation
Non destructive test gauges
Measuring the d.f.t. directly with a non-destructive test gauge is the most widely used method;
there are a variety of gauges available with various scale ranges
magnetic film gauge (banana gauge)
pull-off gauge or tinsely pencil
magnetic horseshoe gauge
eddy current/electromagnetic gauge
Magnetic film gauge (banana gauge)
The banana gauge, as it is most widely referred to, may only be used for measuring the thickness
of non-ferromagnetic coatings applied over ferromagnetic substrates. Prior to use, the gauge
must be calibrated
Scale wheel

Paint

Magnet

Ferromagnetic substrate
Magnetic film thickness gauge
Calibration procedure
1. choose a magnetically insulated shim of known thickness, close to the thickness of the paint
you expect to find, e.g. dont choose a 25m shim to calibrate if you expect the coating to be
in excess of 300m; this will reduce the accuracy
2. place the shim on the same substrate surface as the finish on which the paint to be measured
is attached, e.g. if the paint is on a blasted surface, calibrate the gauge on an uncoated
blasted surface
33

3. place the magnet onto the shim and press firmly on the instrument, wind the scale wheel
forwards ( away from yourself ) until the magnet is definitely attached to the shim/substrate
4. Gradually wind the wheel backwards slowly until the magnet detaches itself. At this point,
move the cursor on the instrument to the thickness of the shim as shown on the scale wheel.
With some instruments the scale itself must be moved to line up with the fixed cursor. When
using the latter type of instrument, rotate the wheel to zero to locate the position of the scale
adjuster
The instrument is now calibrated and may be used to measure the d.f.t. of a non-magnetic paint
films to within a claimed accuracy of +/- 5% in some cases

Pull off gauge

This type of gauge may only be used for measuring the thickness of non-ferromagnetic coatings
applied over ferromagnetic substrates. They are not very accurate compared to other nondestructive test gauges

Scale

Magnet

The pull off gauge, or tinsley pencil as it most

widely referred to, consists of a magnet at the tip
of the instrument, which attached itself to the
coated substrate. The gauge is then slowly
pulled away from the coated substrate at normal
incidence until the magnet detaches itself, at this
point the indicator on the body of the gauge is
read (you have to be quick because the magnet
and indicator are spring loaded). Calibration is
required before use

Tinsley pencil
Magnetic horseshoe gauge
The magnetic horseshoe type gauge works by measuring the change in magnetic flux between
two poles of a magnet, the change of magnetic flux depends on the coating thickness. The
accuracy of these instruments is claimed to be +/- 10% and as with the other magnetic gauges,
may only be used for measuring the thickness of non-ferromagnetic coating applied over
ferromagnetic substrates
Eddy current and electromagnetic gauges
The most accurate of the non-destructive gauges for measuring the d.f.t. are eddy current and
electromagnetic gauges of which there are many types. If calibrated correctly, accuracy is likely to
be within +/-5%
Eddy current gauges are used on non-ferromagnetic conductive substrates; electromagnetic
gauges are used on ferromagnetic substrates such as ferritic steel
Many Eddy current and electromagnetic gauges also have statistical capabilities and some will
download and upload information from computers
Destructive test gauges
Destructive test gauges cut into the paint film and should therefore only be used where necessary
due to the cost of repairing the damaged coating
They are sometimes used on paint films containing M.I.O. pigment; M.I.O. is ferromagnetic and
therefore non-destructive test gauges, which rely on a non-magnetic coating, cannot be used
The paint inspection gauge (p.i.g.) is one such type of Destructive gauge. A small vee shaped
channel is cut into the coating at a fixed angle governed by a cutter built into the gauge. The
width of the channel is then measured on a graticule scale by means of a microscope, which is
again built into the instrument
34

Other destructive test gauges are the Saberg thickness drill or Erichsen thickness drill which work
on a similar principle to the paint inspection gauge
Test panels
Test panels, e.g. metal plates of a known thickness, may be used to measure the d.f.t. indirectly,
by coating them in the same way as the work being carried out and measuring the d.f.t. with a
micrometer

Calculation
The d.f.t. may be assessed indirectly by measuring the W.f.t. of the paint, and providing the
volume solids (v.s.%) content of the paint is known, calculating the d.f.t. is as follows
V.s.% x W.f.t.
d.f.t. = ------------------100
Example
What would the d.f.t. if 15litres of paint with a volume solids of 44% is used to cover an area of
12m x 7m?
To find d.f.t.
a) D.f.t.
v.s.%
------ = -----------W.f.t.
100
b) D.f.t. =

v.s.% x W.f.t.
---------------------100

c) D.f.t. =

44% x W.f.t.
---------------------100

To find W.f.t.

W.f.t. is not directly given in the question, therefore must be found by calculation

Volume
d) W.f.t. = --------------Area
15 litres
e) W.f.t. = --------------12m x 7m
f)

15 x1000cm3
W.f.t. = --------------1200cm x 700cm

convert all given units to common units, i.e. cm

15 cm3
g) W.f.t. = --------840
15 x 10,000m
h) W.f.t. = --------840
i)

convert to m (10,000m to 1 cm)

W.f.t. = 179m
35

Return to d.f.t. Formula

j)

D.f.t. =

44% x 179m
---------------------100

k) D.f.t. = 79m

UNIT 15 ADHESION
Adhesion failures more often occur between the uncoated substrate and the primer due to
inadequate wetting of the substrate which may be as a result of insufficient surface preparation,
insufficient dust removal after surface preparation or contamination
All paints within a system should have compatibility between coats and with the substrate. It is
advisable to obtain all the components for a paint system from one manufacturer otherwise it may
not be possible to guarantee a system; when compatibility is lacking it is often the adhesion which
suffers
Cohesive failure
Adhesive failure
between paint films

Substrate

Adhesive failure
between primer and
substrate

Vee cut test

With a sharp knife, cut a vee using approximately 12mm cuts forming a 30 0 angle, through the
paint film and down to the substrate. Insert the tip of the blade under the tip of the vee and
attempt to lever the paint away from the substrate. If the integrity of the coating is sound it should
not peel cleanly from the substrate
Cross cut test (cross hatch test)
Using a sharp knife or a multi-bladed cutter, cut 6 lines vertically and horizontally, 2mm apart, to
produce 25 squares. Cover with adhesive tape and snatch off; the amount of segments remaining
on the tape may be multiplied by four and then given a percentage value or a value may be given
in accordance with the applicable specification
The tapes degree of stickiness will be relevant to this test and the number and size of the squares
may vary, therefore always consult the relevant specification for precise instructions
X-cut tape test
With a sharp knife or similar make an x shaped cut with the smaller angle between 30 0 and 450.
The cuts must be made down to the substrate in a single action and are approximately 40mm in
length. A piece of specified pressure sensitive tape approximately 75mm long and 25mm wide is
placed over the cut and pressed down in the central area first using a finger. An eraser on the end
of a pencil is then used to firmly rub the tape so full adhesion is achieved. Within 1-2 minutes the
tape is pulled off rapidly at an angle as close to 180 0 as possible. The x-cut area is then examined
and the adhesion is rated using a scale from 5a= no peeling or removal through to 0a=removal
beyond the area of the x
Dolly test
A more technical adhesion test, the pull off adhesion test or dolly test, may show:
Adhesive failure between primer and substrate ( most likely )
36

Adhesive failure between paint films

Adhesive failure within a individual paint film

Load adjustment

Dolly puller

Load indicator

Dolly
Paint film

Substrate

Pull off dolly test

Procedure for carrying out pull-off test
1. Clean and degrease the surface to be tested and the dolly contact surface
2. Roughen both surfaces with fine/medium grade emery cloth
3. Mix regular araldite and stick dolly to surface, leave for 24 hours at 25 0c
4. Cut paint around the dolly down to the substrate using special cutter
5. Attach pull-off instrument and apply pull-off force
6. Take a reading from position of cursor when dolly detaches. Values will be typically obtained
in either Mpa, N/mm2 or p.s.i.
Note alternative adhesives are possible, see test procedure sheets
A minimum pull-off value for the paint type used should ideally be specified in the specifications
for the work being carried out. In the absence of such criteria, a minimum pull-off value should be
obtained from the paint manufacturer who should also state categorically whether or not all
values less than the minimum pull-off value are deemed as a failure
Hydraulic adhesion test
This test uses a similar principle to the dolly tester, but usually gives more accurate test results.
The dollies used are re-usable and contain a hole down the centre through which a hydraulically
operated rod applies force directly to the coated surface in order to pull the dolly away from the
surface. The opposing force is supplied by the end of the adhesion tester, which grips the top of
the dolly

37

UNIT 16 HOLIDAY DETECTION

Holiday detection or pinhole detection is an operation, which detects any holes/holidays in a
coating or wrapping; the instrument used for this is known as a Holiday detector or pinhole
detector. Substantial lack of thickness and inclusions in the coating may also be detected in some
cases. Visual inspection in addition to holiday detection is still a very important part of inspection
There are various types of Holiday detector, some used for thin paint coatings, e.g. the wet
sponge type, whilst others may be used for coatings over 25mm thick, e.g. high frequency spark
testers. For coatings ranging from approximately 0.5mm to 4mm thick AC/DC or pulsed DC
Holiday detectors, usually powered by a 6volt battery, would normally be used
Note holiday detection must not be carried out on wet surfaces or in the rain
High voltage Holiday detectors
Voltage selection
Prior to carrying out holiday detection the correct voltage must be selected because too much
voltage may indicate the presence of holidays where they do not exist, or really excessive
voltages may even burn a hole into the coating. Not enough voltage may result in holidays not
being detected
The voltmeters or voltage settings on Holiday detectors should be checked for accuracy by using
a method recommended by the Holiday detector manufacturer. This may involve using a
calibrated volt/multi-meter or proprietary calibration voltmeter supplied by the detector
manufacturer
Note Holiday detectors should be checked throughout the working day to ensure correct set-up
When relatively thin coatings are being tested, e.g. fusion bonded epoxy coatings; it is usually
necessary to have a fine scale on the machine, e.g. 0-5kV for accurate voltage selection. For
thicker coatings 0-20kV is normal
Correct holiday detection voltage is governed by the thickness and dielectric strength of the
coating. The method to use for selecting voltage should be specified for each type of coating
The correct voltage is ideally determined by detecting the presence of a known pinhole, which
has been induced diagonally through the coating to the bare metal. However, the voltage is
normally selected by measuring the coating/wrapping thickness and applying a formula, e.g.
125V per 25m of thickness (same as 5kV per mm), or following other specification requirements
Note it is preferable to ensure the coated surface is properly earthed by testing for the presence
of a known pinhole. This may not be permitted due to the repair, which will have to be made on
the pinhole
Operation
When operating a Holiday detector on a coated surface, an earth wire from the main unit is
clipped to the structure or trailed along the ground. If the earth lead is to be trailed along the
ground, the structure must be earthed, usually via a crocodile clip to a wire with a metal spike
attached which is hammered into the ground
The electrodes (brushes) used, which are attached to the end of an insulated hand stick, are
normally of wire brush type although carbon impregnated neoprene brushes also exist but are not
as effective, spring wrap around coils are commonly used on pipes
The maximum travel speed for brushes or coils may be quoted in specifications, e.g. 300mm/sec

38

When the brush or coil comes into contact with a holiday, a spark will jump across between the
gap, which completes the circuit. One or more of the following indications will warn the operator of
its presence:
A. The kV dial will drop
B. An alarm will sound e.g. a buzzer
C. A light will come on
When a holiday is detected it should be marked / circled with a waterproof marker, but the
marking should be sufficient distance from the holiday so as not to interfere with the adhesion of
the repair
Wet sponge pinhole detectors
Only low voltages are required for these instruments because water, sometimes containing a
wetting agent such as washing up liquid, is used as an electrolyte to conduct the current from an
electrode (wet sponge) through a pinhole to the conductive substrate
Water is used to wet a sponge, which is connected to the positive terminal on test instrument.
When the sponge passes over a pinhole, the water is drawn into it, which allows the DC. Current
to pass through to the substrate and back along the return wire to complete the circuit
Some wet sponge pinhole detectors have a Variable voltage setting between 9V and 90V,
whereas others have only a single setting e.g.9V
There is no hard and fast rule for voltage to use these instruments but it is generally accepted
that up to ~300m the 9V setting is adequate; up to ~500m would require the 90V setting. The
specification or written instruction should state the voltage to be used

39

UNIT 17 SAMPLING
Sampling refers to taking paint samples for analysis/testing and is concerned with taking the
correct samples, ensuring correct identification of the samples and maintaining the samples in
correct condition until assessed
Bs3900: Part A1 methods of tests for paints. Sampling (same as en21512)
Generally samples may be taken and analysed at four stages
1. During manufacture- taken from the final manufacturing vessel
2. During canning(drums, barrels and tanks)
3. On delivery to purchaser- in which case the material should be unaltered
4. At the point of application- to ensure adherence to manufactures recommendations(data
sheet)
For items 3 & 4 an independent laboratory may be used for analysis, e.g. to determine density,
viscosity, thinner type used etc.
When taking samples at the application point, e.g. on site, the sample as supplied is termed
sample A; the sample taken at the point of application is termed sample B
The following points should be noted during sampling:
a) The paint should be thoroughly mixed to provide a homogenous sample
b) The sample should be truly representative, i.e. not confined to surface areas of the batch
c) Two types of apparatus will be needed for mixing and taking the sample. Preferably broad
bladed stirrers of mechanical mixers and special sampling tubes or dip cans
d) Containers should preferably be metal or glass. Metal containers should be uncoated
internally with tight closures. Containers should have closures which are not affected by the
material e.g. solvent attack
e) All sampling equipment should be scrupulously clean and dry so as not to contaminate the
sample
f) Take into consideration safety requirements, e.g. the material under test may be toxic or
flammable
g) Method of sampling is related to the type of material, e.g. liquid, highly viscous or powder
products. When sampling from bulk storage, several small samples from differing depths and
locations should make up a representative sample
h) The number of samples taken upon delivery would largely depend on the amount received.
Bs 3900: part 1A recommends n/2
Where n = the number of containers, undamaged, unopened containers would normally be
chosen unless specified
Labelling and sealing of the samples should be done as soon as possible and information on the
label should include the following
i. Manufactures name / product description
ii. Quantity and other delivery of delivery
iii. Batch numbers or other reference, e.g. tank numbers
iv. Date of Manufacture and date sample taken
v. Total number of samples taken
vi. A reference number for the sample (for bulk delivery)
vii. The name of the consignor
viii. The place where the sample is to taken
ix. Name of sampler

40

Sample should be analysed as soon as possible and stored according to Manufactures

recommendations
Reporting
The sampling report should ideally contain the information given on the label and refer to Bs3900:
part 1A or other specification used. Any abnormalities should be noted, for example
a) Container defects
b) Visible foreign matter
c) Abnormal colours
d) Abnormal odours
e) Errors of labelling etc.
f) Presence of skin, settling etc
g) Any difficulty in re-incorporation
Information on the tests conducted and the results also requires recording, but the details will
depend on the tests conducted and the requirements of the specification

41

UNIT 18 WEATHER CONDITIONS

The coating specification should always state the weather conditions in which a coating can or
cannot be applied. A typical painting specification extract is as follows
It is not permissible to apply paints when the following conditions apply
During rain, snow, or high winds
When the air temperature is not at least 30c above the dew point temperature
When the air or metal temperature is below 50c
When the relative humidity is above 90%
Relative humidity RH% and dew point
Relative humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air expressed as a percentage, compared
to the amount of water vapour, which could be in the air at the same temperature
The higher the air temperature the greater the amount of water vapour which can be held in it
The dew point is the temperature at which water vapour in the atmosphere would form
condensation. Therefore, if the temperature dropped to the dew point temperature the Relative
humidity would rise to 100% and condensation would be formed on any objects at, or below that
temperature
Note the capacity of air to hod water doubles every 110c rise in temperature
Measuring R.H.% AND Dew point
Both Relative humidity RH% and dew point are measured using a hygrometer of which there are
many types
1. Aspirated hygrometers
a) The screen hygrometers and masons hygrometers are static types which rely on a natural
airflow over a wet wick
b) Assman and psychrodyne hygrometers are also static types which work by a fan driven
airflow over a wet wick
c) Whirling hygrometers is a portable and dynamic type which operates by physically moving air
through the air
2. Dial hygrometers come in two main forms: hair and paper. Hair hygrometers operate by
expansion and contraction of hair, usually human (treated), and are extremely accurate and
fast in operation. Paper hygrometers also work on absorption but this time the absorption
properties of paper
3. Digital hygrometers are split into two categories:
i. Rh meters which give digital readouts of R.H. and D.P. only
ii. Thermo-hygrometers which give digital readouts of R.H.,D.P. and ambient dry bulb
temperatures
The Whirling hygrometer or psychrometer, is the most common type used by coating inspectors
consisting of two mercury-in-glass thermometers set side by side in a frame which is provided
with a handle and spindle so that the frame and thermometers can be rotated quickly about a
horizontal axis. The bulb on one of the thermometers, called the wet bulb thermometer, is
covered with a closely fitted cylindrical cotton wick, the end of which dips into distilled water or
clean rainwater contained in a small cylinder attached to the end of the frame
Note the transport of mercury by air is not permitted, therefore coloured alcohol- in-glass
thermometers may be specified for work, which involves equipment being transported by air

42

The frame is rotated by hand as fast as possible for at least 90 seconds, or otherwise specified,
so that the bulbs pass through the air at least 4ms-1. This causes the water to evaporate from the
wet bulb. The wet bulb cools down to a constant wet bulb temperature due to the evaporation rate
of water from the wet wick. Always read the wet bulb temperature before the dry bulb temperature
immediately after rotation
Note the dry bulb temperature is the air temperature with a wind chill factor
Repeat the operation until consecutive readings of each bulb temperature agree to within0.2 0c
If it is 100% Relative humidity the wet bulb will be the same as the dry bulb, because no
evaporation can occur i.e. the air is saturated. If the wet and dry bulb temperatures are the same,
the current temperature is dew point
The Relative humidity and dew point cannot be read directly from the apparatus, hygrometric
tables or special slide rules must be used. Hygrometric tables are more accurate in the 90% R.H
region and above
Metal temperature
The metal temperature is measured with a magnetic temperature gauge, sometimes known as a
limpet gauge, or electrical contact thermometer.

43

UNIT 19 PAINT APPLCATION

Brush application
There are many types of brush, which may be used to apply paint; the flat paintbrush is the most
common type encountered in the UK and USA. The oval type tends to be favoured in continental
Europe
Brushes may have fillings of the following types;
Bristle, I.e. hogs hair
Horsehair
Natural fibres
Synthetic fibres
mixture of above
Bristles have a natural taper allowing the brush to maintain its form; they also have scales along
the length of each hair, which allow the brush to hold more paint. Bristle brushes are usually high
quality brushes and are quite expensive
Brush applied coatings often do not have the uniformity of thickness usually encountered with
spray coatings, but they do not produce spray for or overspray, i.e. there is less of an
environmental hazard, less wastage and less spotting etc. on nearby structures
Brushing also works the paint into a substrates surface, which gives optimum coverage and
mixes in any dust particles, thus helping to achieve optimum adhesion
Roller application
Roller application is a quicker method than brush application and is useful for large flat areas, but
unlike brush application, the paint does not get worked into the surface to the same extent and
there is also a lack of uniformity in film thickness. Roller application is not permitted in certain
specifications for certain work
Curved roller exist i.e. for pipes; some types of roller have a paint fed via a fluid line connected to
the handle
Spray application
Spray application produces a production rate well in excess of that achieved by brushing and is
therefore a very common paint application method
For a paint to be sprayed successfully it must first be atomised, i.e. it must be broken down into
very fine droplets. Atomisation is achieved by both the conventional spray and airless spray
application methods but by different methods in each case
Conventional spray
The paint is held in a container attached to the top of the gun in the case of gravity feed;
underneath the gun in the case of suction feed; or remote from the gun in the case of pressure
feed
Pressure fed conventional spray guns are able to cover much greater areas without the need to
continually refill the container and therefore the most common type of conventional spray systems
encountered. Two lines feed the spray gun; one carrying the paint at low fluid pressure, usually
under 20 p.s.i. and the other carrying an air supply at a pressure of approximately 40-75 p.s.i..
The air supply leads to an air cap on the gun and blows onto the paint stream as it exits the
nozzle resulting in very fine atomisation
Airless spray
One line feeds the spray gun carrying the paint at a pressure typically between 2000 and 4000
p.s.i.. There is no air cap on the gun, hence the term airless. The paint is atomised by forcing it
44

through a small orifice at high pressure; when the paint meets the air it splits up into fine droplets
due to the air resistance
The unpressurised container containing the paint is remote from the gun; the paint is sucked up
using a fluid pump and fed to the gun by way of a special reinforced high pressure fluid line. A
compressor supplies the air up to approximately 100p.s.i. to the fluid pump; this air inlet is
adjustable. The fluid pump multiplies the pressure by a ratio governed by the pump, e.g. 35:1
ratio pump supplied with an air pressure of 100 p.s.i. would lead to a fluid pressure of 3500 p.s.i
In addition to the conventional compressors supplying compressed air, other methods exist to
achieve the fluid pressures necessary for airless spray, e.g. the diaphragm pump and the electric
pump, both these supply hydraulic pressure
The spray tips on airless spray guns are usually lined with tungsten carbide; some have the
advantage of being reversible by turning a lever 180 0 to clear out any blockages in the small
orifice. There is also a tip known as the titian tip which has an adjustable hole size
The orifice size governs the throughput of paint whilst the orifice angle governs the size of the
pattern
Typical requirements for tip orifice sizes used with airless spraying are shown in the table
Paint type
Chlorinated rubber
High build epoxy
Zinc rich paints

Tip size
13-21 thou
17-23 thou
17-23 thou

Airless pressure (p.s.i.)

2400
3000
2800

Using airless spray equipment can be very dangerous due to the high fluid pressure; operatives
must always adhere to the following

use tips designed for airless spray

use fluid lines in good condition designed for airless spray
ensure there are no kinks in the line
ensure the safety catch is on when the gun is put down
never point the gun at anybody or yourself
never attempt to clean or change nozzles when the fluid is pressurised
ensure the equipment is earthed to prevent static shock
wear an airfed helmet
Comparison of airless and conventional spraying
Airless spraying
conventional spraying
Usually coarser atomisation
Fine atomisation for high
quality finishes
Method of atomisation
Pressure drop when fluid exits
By air jets on the nozzle
small orifice
Air pressure
Up to 100p.s.i. to the fluid
40 to 75 p.s.i. to the gun
pump
Fluid pressure
600 to 6000 p.s.i.
Less than 20 p.s.i.
Fluid delivery
Medium to high
Low to medium
higher production
Lower production
Air contamination
More overspray but less fog
less overspray but More fog
and rebound
and rebound
Materials sprayed
Uniform fine grinds necessary,
Basically any materials that
although can handle relatively
flow well can be sprayed
high viscositys
Maintenance
More required especially tips,
Less require; equipment is
equipment is more
more basic
sophisticated
Factor
atomisation

45

Electrostatic spray
This method of paint application requires the use of a special spray gun, which applies a charge
to the paint when applied. The article to be coated is earthen so that the charged particles are
attracted towards it; when an area on the component has been coated to a particular thickness
there is less of an attraction, due to an insulating effect the coating has, although the paint may
still be attracted by unquoted areas on the article which may not be in the direct line of the
application nozzle
This type of application results in uniform coating thickness with a substantial reduction in
overspray. Electrostatic spray and other Electrostatic application methods are widely used in
factories for coating all types of components including pipe, fridges, washing machines etc using
both liquid and powder coatings
Other methods of paint application
Other methods of paint application include
dip coating
padding
hot spraying
spin rotating
flow coating/curtain coating
aerosol
Galvanising
Used for structures, fitting and cladding. The components are degreased, e.g. with warm caustic
soda, acid cleaned, washed, fluxed with ammonium chloride then immersed in a bath of molten
zinc between 420-4500c to achieve a coating thickness of approximately 85-130m
Sheardising
Used for fittings, fasteners and small items, which are likely to be distorted by, hot dip
Galvanising.
Sheardising is particularly suited to threaded components where only a small change in
dimension is acceptable. The items are first degreased and pickled then tumbled for a few hours
in hot zinc dust at a temperature just below the melting point of zinc. Coating thicknesses of
approximately 15-30m are typically achieved
Calorising
Same principle as Sheardising but using aluminium powder
Anodising
An electrolytic method of coating aluminium with a dense oxide. The component to be Anodised
is dipped into a bath of weak acid usually sulphuric and oxidation is induced electrically. For
adhesion of subsequent paint films, etching may be required
Electroplating
The plating of small parts by the electrolytic deposition of metal, e.g. zinc, from metal salt
solutions, coating thickness of up to 25m are usually applied
Hot metal spraying
Metallisation, or the method of hot spraying one metal with another, is a widely used system for
preventing corrosion of metal structures. The most common sprayed metals used are aluminium
and zinc
Application is normally carried out using one of the following methods
1) Powder fed system the coating metal is supplied in fine powder form, and blown through a
heat source onto the substrate. This is a very wasteful method which often requires a
recycling facility
2) Electric arc system the wire is used as one electrode (similar to the welding process), the
energy from the arc melts the wire and resulting molten metal is blown onto the substrate by
46

means of an air jet. The arc method of metal spraying is now widely used for mechanical
applications, e.g. production lines, where thousand of components of identical shape are to
be coated
3) Wire and pistol system this is the most common method of metal spray application in use. It
consists of a hand held gun with an air-powered motor, which draws wire through knurled
feed rollers into an oxygen/fuel gas flame where the metal is melted. This molten metal is
then projected onto the prepared surface by the products of combustion augmented by an air
blast from the compressed air driven motor
Metal-sprayed coatings are often sealed to prolong their life due to their porous nature

UNIT 20 COATING FAULTS

The following have been extracted from BS2015 glossary of paint terms
Bittiness:
The presence of particles of gel flocculated material or foreign matter in a coating material or
projecting from the surface of a film
Note 1: the term seedy specifically denotes the presence of bits that have developed in a coating
material during storage
Note 2: the term peppery is sometimes used when the bits are small and uniformly distributed
Bleeding:
The process of diffusion of a soluble coloured substance from, into or through a coating material
from beneath, thus producing an undesirable staining or discolouration
Blistering:
The formation of dome shaped projections or blisters in paints in the dry film of a coating material
by local loss of adhesion and lifting of the film from the underlying surface
Note: such blisters mat contain liquid, vapour, gas or crystals
Bloom:
A deposit resembling the bloom on a grape that sometimes forms on the gloss film of a coating,
causing loss of gloss and dulling of colour
Chalking:
The formation of a friable, powdery layer on the surface of the film of a coating material caused
by disintegration of the binding medium due to disruptive factors during weathering
Note: chalking can be considerably affected by the choice and concentration of pigment
Cissing:
The formation of small areas of the wet film of a coating material where the coating material has
receded leaving holidays in the film
Cracking:
Generally, the splitting of a dry paint or varnish film, usually the result of ageing. The following
terms are used to denote the nature and extent of this defect
1) Hair cracking: cracking that comprises of fine cracks which may not penetrate the top coat;
they occur at random
2) Checking: cracking that comprises of fine cracks which may not penetrate the top coat and
are distributed over the surface giving the semblance of a small pattern
3) Cracking: specifically, a breakdown in which the cracks penetrate at least one coat and which
mat be expected to result ultimately in complete failure
4) Crazing: cracking that resembles checking but the cracks are deeper and broader
5) Crocodiling or alligatoring : a drastic type of crazing producing a pattern resembling the hide
of a Crocodile or alligator
6) Mud cracking: a network of deep cracking that form as the film of a coating material dries
especially when it has been applied to an absorbent substrate. Mud cracking is associated
primarily with high pigmented water borne paints
Cratering:
The formation of small bowl shaped depressions in the film of a coating material

47

Curtaining, sagging:
A downward movement of a paint film between the times of application and setting, resulting in an
uneven coating having a thick lower edge. The resulting sag is usually restricted to a local area of
a vertical surface and may have the characteristic appearance of a draped curtain; hence the
synonymous term curtaining
Dry spray:
The production of a rough or slightly bitty film from sprayed coating materials where the particles
are insufficiently fluid to flow together to form a uniform coat
Effloresence
NOT A PAINT DEFECT. It is the development of a crystalline deposit on the surface of brick,
cement, etc., due to water containing soluble salts, coming to the surface, and evaporating so
that the salts are deposited. In some cases the deposit may be formed on the top of any paint film
present, but usually the paint film is pushed up and broken by the Effloresence under the coat
Flaking
Lifting of the coating materials from the substrate in the form of flakes of scales
Flocculation
The development of loosely coherent, pigment agglomerates in a coating material
Grinning
The showing through of a substrate due to inadequate hiding power of the coating material
Holidays
A defect due to faulty application techniques seen as areas where the film of a coating material is
of insufficient thickness or where there is a complete absence of coating materials on random
areas of the substrate
Lifting
Softening, swelling or separation from the substrate of a dry coat as the result of the application
of a subsequent coat
Orange peel effect
The uniform pock-marked appearance, in particular of a sprayed film, resembling the peel of an
orange due to the failure of the film to flow out to a level surface
Note see also spray mottle and pock-marking
Pinholing
The formation of minute holes in the wet film of a coating material that form during application and
drying due to the air or gas bubbles in the wet film which burst, giving rise to small craters that fail
to coalesce before the film has set
Residual tack
The degree of stickiness remaining in a film of a coating material which, although set, does not
reach the true tack-free stage
Ropiness
Pronounced brush marks that have not flowed out because of the poor levelling properties of the
coating material
Saponification
Not specifically a paint defect term. The formation of a soap by the reaction between a fatty acid
ester and an alkali
Note: in painting practice Saponification refers to the decomposition of the medium of a film by
alkali and moisture in the substrate, e.g. new concrete or rendering based on cement,
sand and lime. Saponification films may become tacky and discoloured. In very severe
cases film may be completely liquefied by Saponification
Wrinkling, rivelling
The development of wrinkles in a film of a coating material during drying, usually due to the initial
formation of a surface skin
Note: see also crinkling and finish

48

UNIT 21 DEFINITIONS
Compliant coating
A coating which complies with the environmental protection act of 1990 E.P.A.
Contractor
A person, firm or company which enters into a contract
Long term protection
Typically 10 years
Medium term protection
Typically 5 years
Short term protection
Typically 2-3 years
Damp surfaces
Temperature below dewpoint but on which water is not readily detectable
Moist surfaces
Where standing water and droplets have been removed but which still displays a noticeable film
of water
Wet surfaces
Surfaces on which standing water or droplets are present (when these may be in evidence final
surface preparation is not normally carried out)
New galvanising
A galvanised steel surface upon which a cohesive oxide layer has not yet formed (bright and
shiney, less than three months old)
Fully weathered galvanising
A galvanised steel surface upon which a cohesive oxide layer has formed by natural weathering
(dull and lacking in sheen)
Dewpoint
The temperature at which condensation would form on a substrate
T Wash
An etch primer for zinc metal surfaces. Blue in colour it turns black upon drying if it has been
successfully applied
Hot duty surfaces
Metal surfaces that will reach a temperature in excess of 99 0c when in use
Test areas
May be requested in order to demonstrate that the selected system is capable of meeting its
requirements. This refers to the method and standard or preparation, equipment used, paint
specified and on the same substrate
Access equipment
A green tag identifies safe scaffolding. Unsafe scaffolding by a red tag. Scaffolding is inspected
by a competent at least every seven days and always after bad weather
Sheeting for protection
Sheeting of a non-flammable nature must be used to protect areas not being prepared or painted
from contamination, (in particular tarpaulins must not be used)
Metallic zinc paints
Special care must be taken not to allow zinc rich paints to contaminate stainless steel nor to be
applied within 75mm of weld end preparations

49

Tie coat
Where adhesion problems, solvent stripping or bleeding might occur, a tie coat would be
employed to prevent these particular problems arising

UNIT 22 DUTIES OF A PAINT INSPECTOR

The job of a paint inspector is to inspect and report. He must act with integrity at all times and
be true to the specification requirements
The following is a list of points, which form the basis of typical activities performed by painting
inspectors
1 General
Obtain or gain access to the specification
Learn the specification
Ensure your instruments are In proper working order
Get to know the plant
Get to know the personnel
Check work for conformance to the specification
Keep the engineer/supervisor informed at all times especially if there is any departure from
the specification
Make written reports at an agreed frequency
Attend site meetings when required
2 At the beginning of the day
Check the environmental conditions
Check the equipment (preparation, application and inspection for conformance to
specification)
Check materials
Check the previous days work where applicable ( film contamination and dft if wet films have
been left overnight)
Establish with the contractors senior personnel the days work programme
3 During the day
Check environmental conditions
Check equipment
Check usage of materials (when specifically required to do so)
Check each operators work
4 On completion of the work at each stage
Ensure that the work meets the specification by carrying out or witnessing tests
Check for any application faults
5 At the end of the day
Check the days work
Check housekeeping
50

Complete reports

6 On completion of the job

Ensure as objectively as possible, that the specified requirements have been satisfied
Write a summary report if required to do so
Ideally, painting inspection personnel should be issued with relevant procedures and work
instructions to enable them to carry out inspection and associated activities in accordance with
the clients or organisations requirements. The procedures should leave the inspector in no doubt
as to what is to done. Unfortunately, this documentation rarely exists!

Typical inspectors duties

Before work commences
1. Determine your duties and responsibilities. Duties may include those, which relate to health
and safety aspects talking into consideration mandatory requirements. You may also be
required to check that rejected paint or used abrasive is disposed of correctly
2. Ensure the contractors supervisor is aware of your duties and authority
3. Ensure you have correct applicable specifications and data sheets. Also ensure you have at
least have access to relevant referenced normative documents
4. Determine the order of precedence for narrative documents if the specification does not make
it clear
5. Learn the specification, procedures, work instructions etc.
6. Approach the senior inspector or supervisor if you are not sure of what is intended of any
requirement
7. Ensure you have copies of any applicable documentation, e.g. correspondence, minutes from
meetings, concessions etc.
8. Liase with the contractors supervisor to determine whether the contractors personnel are
familiar with the work requirements
9. When required, confirm that the contractors operators are properly trained and conversant
with the equipment, materials and application techniques being used
10. Agree with the client /supervisor the level of liaison that is required and determine
reporting/recording requirements
11. Ensure you have test instruments etc. that are required and that they are properly calibrated
and in correct working order
Surface preparation
1.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Check the specification, procedures and/or work instructions to establish

Standard against which work will be measured
Methods by which work is to be assessed, e.g. surface comparator
Degree of surface cleanliness required
Surface profile requirements (where required)
Any special test to be carried out
Requirements regarding equipment and consumables
Ambient conditions required
Recording/porting requirements

2. Check the condition of the substrate before cleaning and make a note of rust grade, general
contours (sharp edges, burrs etc.), spatter or flux residue on welds, algae or mould growth,
zinc salts etc. any areas suspected to be defective e.g. cracked, laminated or mechanically
damaged, should be reported immediately to the supervisor or client
Note do not allow surface laminations, cracks and similar to be dressed without the permission of
the supervisor/client
51

3. Ensure ambient conditions allow surface preparation to take place. The following may have to
be assessed/measured
a) Air temperature
b) Steel temperature
c) Relative humidity
d) Dew point
e) Moisture on substrate
f) Potential sources of contamination, i.e. chemicals, salt spray, fumes, etc.
g) Potential changes in the weather to adverse conditions
4. Identify areas being prepared
5. Check that the correct materials and equipment are being used, e.g. correct type, correct
size, consumables are free from contamination, etc. examples
a) Abrasive type, size and cleanliness. No reuse of expendable material
b) Correct wire brushes
c) Correct needles in needle guns
d) Presence of carbide tips on scrapers
e) Correct chemicals for cleaning
6. Carry out inspection of prepared surfaces as required by the specification
7. Record the results of the inspection. The areas inspected must be identified in the report
ensuring that it is clear what has been accepted and what has been rejected. The reasons for
any rejections should be clearly identified
8. Ensure that all concerned are clear about the reasons for any rejections
9. Where remedial work has been necessary, re-inspect for conformance to the specification
Paint Material
1. Check the specified requirements
2. Check that the paints delivered to the work place correspond to the requirements of the
specification and data sheets. The specification may require certain information to be
displayed on each paint container
3. Check that all paints to be used on a surface are supplied by one paint manufacture (unless
otherwise specified)
4. Check that the paint is the correct type for application method being used, i.e. brush grade or
spray grade
5. Check that the paint storage conditions are correct
Note: any warranty on the material is likely to depend upon proper handling and storage
6. Determine whether the paint is being withdrawn from the store in proper rotation
7. Ensure paint is not being used beyond its shelf life
8. Monitor material usage to determine whether there is sufficient paint in storage for the
completion of the job (or part job). This is not always the responsibility of the inspector
9. Check that the paint is being mixed and stirred correctly. Any permitted addition of thinners
must be monitored to ensure correct type and amount. For two pack paints
52

a) Check that the materials are mixed strictly in accordance with the paint manufactures data
sheets
b) Confirm that any induction time is strictly adhered to or time is allowed for gas bubbles to
escape (if applicable)
c) Confirm that mixed material is not used after pot life
10. Conduct all necessary paint sampling procedures and tests; or confirm that such tests have
been carried out prior to the commencement of work. Record batch numbers of paints tested
Paint Application
1. Check the specified requirements
2. Check that the surface to which the paint is being applied is free from contamination, i.e.
oil/grease, dust, spent abrasive. Corrosion products etc. any areas suspected as being
defective, e.g. cracked, laminated or mechanically damaged, should be reported immediately
to the supervisor or client
3. Ensure that the ambient conditions allow painting to take place. The following may have to be
assessed/ measured
a) Air temperature
b) Steel temperature
c) Relative humidity
d) Dew point temperature
e) Moisture on the substrate
f) Potential sources of contamination, i.e. chemicals, salt spray, fumes, dust etc.
g) Potential changes in the weather to adverse conditions
Note: check that the particular paint being applied does not have any special restriction on its
application
4. Confirm that paint is not being applied to coated substrates either before or beyond the
specified overcoating times for the existing coating
5. Check that the correct application method is being used
6. Identify areas being painted
7. Confirm that stripe coats have been applied correctly if specified
8. Carry out inspection of painted surfaces as required by specification. For example
a) Check each coat of paint is uniformly applied and is free from curtains, sags, runs, holidays or
other visible defects
b) Measure the wft immediately after application
c) Measure the dft
Note: it there are significant differences between the dft calculated from the wft and the measured
dft, check the material to ensure that only permitted additions of thinners were made to the paint
if possible
9. Ensure that any areas of defective coating are identified for remedial work
10. Ensure that all concerned are clear about the reasons for any rejections
11. Re-inspect any remedial work carried out to ensure that it conforms to the specified
requirements
12. Check that the completed work is uniform in colour and finish
53

13. Unless the specification states otherwise, check that the handling of recently coated items is
carried out in such a way that the coatings are not damaged
14. Record the results of the inspection. The areas inspected must be identified in the report
ensuring that it is clear what has been accepted and what has bee rejected. The reasons for
any rejections should be clearly identified
Typical contractor malpractices
Typical contractor malpractices which the inspector should be aware of are as follows
1. Use of unskilled operators. This may relate to surface preparation, application of paint or
safety considerations e.g. unsafe scaffolding
Note: the painting inspector cannot normally report on unskilled operator as something, which
does not conform, to specification
2. Use of unsuitable equipment, which may be worn brushes, poorly maintained and leaking
compressors, damaged ladders contaminated equipment from previous contract etc.
3. Painting or preparing surfaces during inclement weather conditions such as rain, snow, fog,
mist etc.
4. Hand mixing paint which should be mechanically mixed
5. Painting before inspection of substrate preparation or previous coat
6. Applying two paint coats or more to the same area in one day assuming the specification
does not allow this
7. Missing out a coat
8. Use of wrong solvent or an excessive amount of solvent
9. Use of incorrect paint type or mixing different manufactures products
10. Storing paint incorrectly, e.g. where the specification requires paint to be stored In a
temperature controller environment
11. Paint used outside expiry date, suspected by condition of can, excess binder on top of freshly
opened can, pigment settlement. Check the date by way of the manufactures coding: inform
engineer
12. Re-using expendable abrasives
13. Insufficient blasting or painting in difficult areas such as under pipes
14. Cleaning surfaces with contaminated cotton waste or rags or using materials for cleaning
which are not permitted
15. Applying a thickness of paint which is less than the specified minimum
Note: using diesel in the paint (as a plasticiser or thinner) has been done on many occasions!
This will prevent proper drying

54

QUESTION PAPER 1
1. Describe why and how corrosion occurs?
2. Describe what is meant by Bi-metallic corrosion?
3. Describe the following
a) The galvanic series?
b) Millscale?
c) Rust grades to SIS 05-59-00?
d) Blast cleaning grades to SIS 05-59-00?
4. Describe the difference between water blasting and pressure washing?
5. Name two tests used to determine the presence of hygroscopic salts left on a blast cleaned
surface?
6. Name four expendable abrasives and state the difference between an expendable and a
reusable abrasive?
7. Name the three basic constituents of a solvent carrying paint and the functions that each
performs in the paint?
8. Name six pigments and there respective colours?
9 Describe what qualities a laminar pigment gives to a paint and name four laminar pigments?
10 Describe
a) A barrier paint system?
b) A sacrificial paint coating?
11 Describe what a tie coat is and give three reasons why we may require one?
12 Describe a typical paint manufacturing process and give two types of paint mill, which could
be used?
13 Describe what you know of viscosity and outline one method of testing?
14 Describe what you know of density?
15 Can you use a banana gauge over
a) An M.I.O coating?
b) An aluminium substrate?
c) A galvanised surface?
16 Describe a destructive test for determining the dry film thickness of a paint?
17 Give four artificial weathering devices and describe what they simulate?
18 What is the name of an instrument, which measures opacity and gives two examples?
19 Describe a dolly test for adhesion?
20 How do the following work
a) Conventional spray set-up?
b) Airless spray system?
c) Electrostatic spray system?
21 How is B.S. 4800 used in the construction industry?
22 What are the essential differences between a blister and an osmotic blister?
23 How do the following display their characteristics
a) Bleeding?
55

b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)

Blooming?
Chalking?
Cissing?
Grinning?
Flocculation?
Lifting?
Ropiness?
Solvent stripping?
Oxidation?
Chemical curing?
Overspray?

24 Define the following

a) Dewpoint?
b) R.H.?
c) Induction period?
d) Pot life?
e) Flash point?
f) Shelf life?
g) Batch number?
h) Masking out?
i) Rust blooming?
j) Water borne coating?
k) B-SA2 ?
l) Feathering?
m) A-ST3

56

QUESTION PAPER 2
1. What kind of process is corrosion?
2. What particular problems relate to maintaining of an effective coating system in the splash
zone?
3. What factors influence the rate of corrosion?
4. What is millscale and why is it a particular problem when attempting to protect steel?
5. What is the number of the Swedish standard contained within BS 7079 and list the rust and
blasting grades together with their brief titles?
6. Name three tests for locating hygroscopic salts and mill scale on a blast cleaned substrate?
7. What factors influence how clean and how rough the surface becomes after blast cleaning?
8. Regarding hand and power tool cleaning state what always concludes this process and to
what standards?
9. What three basic ingredients make up a traditional solvent carrying paint?
10. What are the functions of each of these three in a solvent carrying paint?
11. Name five items that can be included in paint to improve its performance or suitability for a
certain use?
12. Identify six paints by their binder names?
13. Name four binder /solvent combinations?
14. Name six opaque pigments together with their respective colours?
15. Describe what a laminar pigment is?
16. What is the difference between a convertible and a non-convertible coating?
17. Define the term induction period?
18. Define the term pot life?
19. Define a barrier system of coatings?
20. Define the term tie coat and give an example of its use?
21. What is the difference between thermosetting and thermoplastic?
22. Name two types of paint mill and give two examples of each?
23. What is the title of BS3900
a) How many tests are set in BS3900?
b) How are the tests identified (name, number, letter) which?
24. What does a fineness of grind gauge measure?
25. What is flashpoint and in what apparatus is it determined?
26. What is viscosity and what equipment is used to measure the viscosity of
a) Free flowing paint
b) Thrixotropic paint?
27. What is a density cup and give an example of its use?
28. Calculate the volume solids of a paint it the w.f.t. was 186m and the d.f.t. was 93m?
29. Calculate the w.f.t. of a paint if the vs% was 66% and the d.f.t. was 88m?
30. Calculate the d.f.t. of a paint if the vs% was 44% and the w.f.t. was 234m?
31. Calculate the density of a paint if a 5ltr tin weighed 15 kg?
32. Calculate the density of a two pack material if part A paint was 1.5g/cm 3 and part B catalyst
was 0.5 g/cm3 assume a mix ratio of 1:1?
57

33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.

Name an example of a non-destructive d.f.t. gauge?

Name an example of a destructive d.f.t. gauge?
Name four artificial weathering devices and say what they are designed to simulate?
Name two drying / curing test and stare hoe they are operated?
What does a cryptometer measure and give two examples of a cryptometer?
What determine the degree of gloss a paint may possess?
Name three adhesion tests and describe how one of them is carried out?
Name eight duties of a paint inspector?
List eight-contractor malpractices?
Name three methods of applying paint and compare the advantages and disadvantages of
each in terms of quality and cost effectiveness?
43. What does BS2015 glossary of paint terms refer to and give three examples?
44. What is BS 4800 and how is it used in the construction industry?
45.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.

Define the following

Long term protection
Medium term protection
short term protection
new galvanising
weather galvanising
What is the procedure for removing oil and grease from a surface before preparation
commences?
What is the procedure for removing oil and grease from a surface if found after preparation
has taken place?
What is the procedure for removing algae and mould growth from pipework?
Under what conditions must paint be stored?
What is t wash, what is it used for, what colour is it, and how is it checked for correct reaction
when using it?
What distance must be left at areas to be welded when painting?
How much must overlap old repairs?
What is the maximum allowed time for priming to take place following preparation and by
what method is primer applied?
What must all pneumatically and electrically equipment operated power tool be?
What type of sheeting may and may not be used for protection against spillage and spotting?
What must not be used to clean out paint kettles or to dispose of rubbish?
Give the rules for the mixing of paints regarding sizes?
What are osmotic blisters and what can cause them?
Some metals are difficult to prepare name three and describe the way you might prepare
them?
Where a pipeline leaves the ground what problems would you find and how might you treat
this?
Name five paints and state their drying or curing method?
Name a black pigment in common use apart from coal tar?
What is a holiday detector what does it detect and how does it work?
If you worked on a contract where frequent stoppages occurred for poor weather, what
additional information would you record?
What is important about selecting a paint system suitable for certain environment?
State the principles of being able to use a banana gauge for taking d.f.t. readings?
Give one advantage of using testex tape and disposable w.f.t. combs?

58

ANSWERS PAPER 2
Example answers
1. Corrosion is an electro chemical process
2. Problems include: growth of algae, never dries properly, excess electrolytic solution
3. Oxygen content on the surface, R.H. above 60%, temperature, presence of impurities and
higher nobility metals
4. Millscale is loosely adhering and will flake off and also higher nobility
5. Sis-05-59-00
Rust grades
a) Millscale and no rust
b) Rust and little millscale
c) Rust and light pitting
d) Heavy pitting and rust

Blast grades
sa1 light blast clean
sa2 thorough blast clean
sa21/2 very thorough blast clean
sa3 blast to visually clean steel

6. Potassium ferrocynaide, silver nitrate and copper sulphate for millscale

7. Abrasive size, shape, hardness and density of blast
Human speed, angle, distance and time of the nozzle
8. Sis 05-59-00
St2 manual wire brushing
St3 mechanical wire brushing
9. Solvent, binder and pigment
10. Binder- hold particles together, gives finish, gives adhesion, gives flexibility and drying
Pigment- gives colour and opacity, resistance to acids/alkalis
Solvent- evaporating part of process, thins paint, cleans equipment and degreaser
11. Extenders- improve opacity help flow and lower cost
Anti-skinning- to stop paint skinning over
Stabiliser- to stop paint separating in can
Thrixotropic agent- to enable high build
Dryer- to improve drying
59

12. Acrylic, cellulose, epoxy, emulsion, polyurethane, chlor rubber and alkyd
13. Epoxy acetone
Chlor rubber xylene
Alkyd white spirit
Emulsion water
14. Red lead- red
Zinc chromate yellow
Carbon black
Titanium dioxide white
Calcium plumbate white
Coal tar black
15. A pigment that has leaf shaped particle that interlock together to form an impervious coating
when dry
16. A non-convertible coating undergoes a chemical change upon drying and cannot be
damaged by its own solvent, a convertible coating can be damage by its own solvent as this
change does not happen
17. The period when a two pack paint must be left after mixing to allow for reactions and escape
of air
18. The time 2 pack paint remains usable after mixing
19. A method that isolates the substrate using a low permeable coating
20. Used to tie two incompatible systems together used for when there are adhesion problems,
solvent stripping or bleeding
21. Thermosetting cannot be changed once set thermoplastic can be heated and changed
22. Direct charge ball mill, high speed disperser
Pre mix sand mill, pearl mill
23. Method of test for paints, eight tests, lettered with title
24. Fineness of the pigment grind in paint
25. Is the point at which vapours will ignite measured in an able type cup
26. Viscosity is the measurement of a liquids resistance to flow free flowing paint is measured in
ford flow cup and thrixotropic is measured using a rotational viscometer
27. Small alloy cup holding 100ml which can be used for checking if 2 pack paint has been mixed
correctly
Dft x 100
28. Vs% = ---------------Wft

93 x 100
-----------186

50%

100 x dft
29. Wft = --------------Vs

100 x 88
-----------66

133.35m

60

Vs x wft
30. Dft = ----------------100

31. weight
--------volume
32. a 1.5
---b 0.5

15
--5

44 x 234
----------100

103m

3g/cm3

2/2 = 1 g/cm3

2.0
33. non-destructive test gauge is a banana gauge
34. destructive gauge is a paint inspectors gauge (P.I.G.)
35. water soak test to test permeability
Cold box to test for cold cracking
Salt spray to test under marine environment
Temperature box to check under hot and cold conditions for flexibility
36. Ballotini, which are tiny glass balls, are dropped onto a wet painted panel. The time in hours
is given at the side of the panel and where the Ballotini fail to stick to the painted panel drying
has occurred. Stylus test, the stylus employs a series of trailing needles which pass over the
wet painted panel, because the needles are set at different tensions it can be established
when the paint is tack dry, hard dry and fully cured
37. Measures opacity, hiding power charts and pfund cryptometer
38. Fineness of pigment grind, amount and type of binder and application skill
39. Cross cut, cross hatch and dolly test
Dolly test
a) Clean and degrease the surface to be tested and the dolly contact surface
b) Roughen both surfaces with fine/medium grade emery cloth
c) Mix regular araldite and stick dolly to surface, leave for 24 hours at 25 0c
d) Cut paint around the dolly down to the substrate using special cutter
e) Attach pull-off instrument and apply pull-off force
f) Take a reading from position of cursor when dolly detaches. Values will be typically obtained
in either Mpa, N/mm2 or p.s.i.
40.
a)
b)
c)
d)

Learn specification
Check all consumables
Check temperatures and humidity
Assess condition of substrate
61

e)
f)
g)
h)

Check wft and dft

Witness work going on
Make reports
Ensure safe working is carried out

41.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

using unqualified personnel

using unsafe plant
incorrect paint
incorrect thickness applied
re-using expendable shot
incorrect storage of paint
using paint after specified pot life
incorect use of thinners

42.

62