Application

pp
-p
problems

MEL 806
Thermal System Simulation (2-0-2)
Dr. Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Gas vapour mixture

Taking 0C as the reference temperature, the enthalpy and enthalpy
change of dry air can be determined from

The enthalpy of water vapor at 0C is 2500.9 kJ/kg. The average cp

value of water vapor
p in the temperature
p
range
g 10 to 50C can be taken
to be 1.82 kJ/kg C. Then the enthalpy of water vapor can be
determined approximately from

The amount of water vapor in the air can be specified in various ways.
Probably the most logical way is to specify directly the mass of water vapor
present in a unit mass of dry air. This is called absolute or specific humidity
(also called humidity ratio) and is denoted by v:

The amount of moisture in the air has a definite effect on how comfortable
we feel in an environment. However, the comfort level depends more
on the amount of moisture the air holds (mv) relative to the maximum
amountt off moisture
i t
the
th air
i can hold
h ld att th
the same ttemperature
t
(m
( g).
) The
Th ratio
ti
of these two quantities is called the relative humidity

Where,

The total enthalpy (an extensive property) of atmospheric air is

the sum of the enthalpies of dry air and the water vapor:

Dividing by ma gives

Dew p
point temperature
p
The dew-point temperature Tdp is defined as
the temperature at which condensation begins
when the air is cooled at constant pressure. In
other words, Tdp is the saturation temperature of
water corresponding to the vapor pressure:

Tdp = Tsat @ pv

Constant pressure cooling of moist air

and the dew point temperature
on the
th T
T-S
S diagram
di
off water
t

Psychrometric
y
Chart

Cooling
g and dehumidification
Hot, moist air enters the cooling section at state 1
Hot
1.
As it passes through the cooling coils, its
temperature decreases and its relative humidity
increases at constant specific humidity. If the
cooling section is sufficiently long, air reaches its
dew point (state x, saturated air). Further cooling of
air results in the condensation of part of the
moisture in the air.
air Air remains saturated during the
entire condensation process, which follows a line of
100 percent relative humidity until the final state
(state 2) is reached. The water vapor that
condenses
d
outt off the
th air
i d
during
i thi
this process iis
removed from the cooling section through a
separate channel. The condensate is usually
assumed to leave the cooling
g section at T2.

Mass and Energy

gy Balance
The cool, saturated air at state 2 is usually
routed directly to the room, where it mixes
with the room air. In some cases, however,
the air at state 2 may be at the right specific
humidity but at a very low temperature
temperature. In
such cases, air is passed through a heating
section where its temperature is raised
to a more comfortable level before it is
routed to the room.

Problem
Cooling and heating of moist air
Air enters an air-conditioning unit at 100
kPa 40C
kPa,
40 C, 70% RH
RH, and exists at 100
kPa, 20C, 50% RH as shown. The
volumetric flow rate at the inlet is 0
0.25
25
m3/s. Determine:
The temperature of the air at exit of the cooling unit
The heat transfer rates in the cooling and heating
units

Steps
p
Write a computer programme for different
inlet conditions of
Different RH (50 to 90%)
90%).
Different T (say 30 60C)

Use curve fit for properties of water

saturation
t ti properties
ti (temperature
(t
t
based)
b
d)

Problem
Heat transfer from a cylindrical fin
Cylindrical brass rods (4 mm diameter, 5
cm long) are attached to the surface of a
power source. Air at 20C is drawn across
the rods at 8 m/s
m/s. Ifthe temperature of the
power source is 60C, find the heattransfer
rate from one rod.
rod Assume correlations for
a single rod.

Thermal Insulation
Total Volume of Insulation material:
L

Wall temperature varies in x -direction

V = t ( x ) Wdx

T0

t(x), insulation

T(x), Wall surface

1L
V
t avg = t ( x )dx =
L0
LW
Minimize heat loss through
the insulation

& = kW T( x ) To dx
Q
t(x)
0
L

subject to the constraint, V is constant

Optimization
p
L

= F( x )dx

Minimize the
heat loss integral

0
L

T( x ) To
= kW
+ Wt ( x )dx
t(x)

F
=0
t

Reduces to

1/ 2

k
t opt ( x ) =

t opt ( x ) =

[T( x ) To ]

1/ 2

t avg L
L

1/ 2
[
]
T
(
x
)
T
dx

1L
V
t avg = t ( x )dx =
L0
LW

[T(x ) To ]1 / 2

Minimum Heat Transfer Rate

L

kW
1/ 2
&
Q=
(T ( x ) To ) dx
t avg L 0

It is worth to mention here that the same expression of

topt (x) is obtained if the thickness is minimized subject
to a fixed rate of heat loss to the ambient.

Design
g of heat sink ((1-3))

MEL 806
Thermal System Simulation (2-0-2)
Dr. Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Fins - Recapitulation
&
Q
conv = hA s (Ts T )

There are two ways to increase the rate of heat transfer

too increase
c e se thee convection
co vec o heat
e transfer
s e coefficient
coe c e h
to increase the surface area As
Increasing h may require the installation of a pump or fan,
Or replacing
p
g the existingg one with a larger
g one
The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching to
the surface extended surfaces called fins
made of highly conductive materials such as aluminum

Finned-tube heat exchanger

Longitudinal Fins
Rectangular

Triangular

Trapezoidal

Concave parabolic

Convex parabolic

Radial Fins

Triangular profile
Rectangular profile

Hyperbolic profile

Radial fin coffee cup

Pin Fins

(a)Cylindrical (b)conical (c) concave parabolic (d) convex parabolic

Plate Fins
The thin p
plate fins of a car radiator g
greatly
y increase the
rate of heat transfer to the air

Fins from nature

Fin Equation
dT
Q& x = kA c
dx
d Q& x
&
&
Q x + dx = Q x +
dx
dx

&
dQ
conv = hdA s (T T )

Energy Balance:
&
dQ
x dx + hdA ( T T )
&
= Qx +
s

dx
dT
h dA s
(T T ) = 0

dx
k dx

Q& x = Q& x + dx + d Q& conv

d
A
dx

d 2T
dx

1 dA c dT 1 h dA s
(T T ) = 0
+

A c dx dx A c k dx

Fins with uniform cross sectional area

d 2T
dx

1 dA c dT 1 h dA s
(T T ) = 0

A c dx dx A c k dx

dA c
= 0
dx

A s = Px
d 2T
dx

dA s
= P
dx

hP
(T T ) = 0

kA
c

Excess temperature
( x ) T ( x ) T
d 2
dx

m 2 = 0

(a) Rectangular Fin (b) Pin fin

General Solution and Boundary

Conditions
d 2
dx

m 2 = 0

m2 =

hP
kA c

( x ) T ( x ) T

The g
general solution is of the form
( x ) = C 1 e mx + C 2 e mx

Convection from tip

q denotes

BCs
T (0 ) = T
(0 ) = Tb T b

hA c [T ( L ) T ] = kA c

h ( L ) = k

cosh m ( L x ) + ( h / mk ) sinh m ( L x )
=
b
cosh mL + ( h / mk ) sinh mL

d
|x =L
dx

dT
|x = L
dx

&
Q

Heat Transfer from Fin Surface

d
& =Q
& = kA dT |
Q
=

kA
|x =0
f
b
c
x =0
c
dx
dx

& =
Q
f

hPkA c b

sinh mL + ( h / mk ) cosh mL
cosh mL + ( h / mk ) sinh mL

Another way of finding Q

Q fin = A fin h [ T ( x ) T ]dA fin = A fin h ( x ) dA fin

Insulated tip
General Sol: ( x ) = C 1 e mx + C 2 e mx
BC
C 1:

(0 ) = Tb T b

cosh m ( L x )

=
cosh mL
b
q f = q b = kA c

qf =

dT
d
| x = 0 = kA c
|x =0
dx
dx

hPkA c b tanh mL

BC 2:

d
|x = L = 0
d
dx

Prescribed temperature
This is a condition when the temperature
p
at the tip
p is known
(for example, measured by a sensor)

(
L b )sinh mx + sinh m ( L x )

=
sinh mL
b
qf =

cosh mL ( L b )
hPkA c b
sinh mL

Infinitely
y Long
g Fin ((Tfin tip
( L ) = T ( L ) T = 0

Boundary condition at the fin tip:

The general solution is of the form
( x ) = C 1 e mx + C 2 e mx

Possible when C1 0

( x ) = C 2 e mx
Apply boundary condition at base and find T
T ( x ) = T + ( T b T ) e

Q longfin = kA c

dT
|x =0 =
dx

hP
kA c

hPkA

( T b T )

as

= T)

Corrected fin length

g
Corrected fin length:
g

Lc = L +

Ac
P

Multiplying the relation above by

the perimeter gives
Acorrected = Afin (lateral) + Atip
t
Lc,rectangularfin = L +
2

L c,cylindrica lfin = L +

D
4

Corrected fin length

g Lc is defined such that heat transfer from a fin of
length Lc with insulated tip is equal to heat transfer from the actual
fin of length L with convection at the fin tip.

Fin Efficiency
y

fin =

Actual heat transfer rate from the fin

Q fin

= Ideal heat transfer rate from the fin

Q fin , max

if the entire fin were at base

temperature

In the limiting case of zero thermal resistance or

infinite thermal cond
conductivity
cti it (k ),
) the temperat
temperature
re
of the fin will be uniform at the base value of Tb.

Q fin = fin Q fin , max = fin hA fin (Tb T )

=
longfin
l fi

Q fin

Q fin , max

hPkA c (Tb T ) 1
=
hA fin (Tb T )
L

insulatedt ip =

Q fin

Q fin , max

kA c
1
=
hp
mL

hPkA
h
k c (Tb T ) ta
tanh m
mL tanh mL
=
hA fin (Tb T )
mL

Fin Effectiveness

fin =

Q fin

Q nofin

Q fin
hA b (Tb T )

longfin =

Q fin

Q nofin

Heat transfer rate from

the fin of base area Ab
Heat transfer rate from
the surface of area Ab

hPkA
h
kA c (Tb T )
=
hA b (Tb T )

kP
hA c

1. k should be as high as possible, (copper, aluminum, iron).

Aluminum is p
preferred: low cost and weight,
g , resistance to corrosion.
2. p/Ac should be as high as possible. (Thin plate fins and slender pin fins)
3. Most effective in applications where h is low. (Use of fins justified if when the
medium is gas and heat transfer is by natural convection).

Fin Effectiveness

Q fin

fin =

Q nofin

Q fin
hA b (Tb T )

Heat transfer rate from

th fifin off base
the
b
area Ab
Heat transfer rate from
the surface of area Ab

fin = 1

Does not affect the heat transfer at all.

fin < 1

Fin act as insulation (if low k material is used)

fin > 1

Enhancing heat transfer (use of fins justified if fin>2)

Overall Fin Effectiveness

When determining the rate of heat transfer
from a finned surface,, we must consider the
unfinned portion of the surface as well as the
fins. Therefore, the rate of heat transfer for a
surface containing n fins can be expressed as

Q total , fin = Q unfin + Q fin

= hA unfin ( Tb T ) + fin hA fin ( Tb T )
= h ( A unfin + fin A fin )( Tb T )

We can also define an overall

effectiveness for a finned surface as the
ratio of the total heat transfer from the
finned surface to the heat transfer from the
same surface if there were no fins

fin , overall =

Q total , fin

Q total , nofin

h ( Aunfin + fin A fin )( Tb T )

hA nofin (Tb T )

Efficiency of circular, rectangular, and triangular fins on a plain surface of

width w (from Gardner, Ref 6).

Efficiency
Effi
i
off
circular fins of
length L and
constant
thickness t (from
Gardner, Ref. 6).

Proper length of a fin

a has the same
meaning as m
a =

hP
kA c

Optimizations
p
Maximize heat transfer w
w.r.t.
rt
Fin thickness t
Profile length b
Heat transfer
f increases asymptotically with
increase in thickness
But
B t what
h t should
h ld b
be th
the optimum
ti
thi
thickness
k
if th
the
volume (= Ltb) of the fin is constant or the profile
area (= bt) is constant?

Constant Profile Area

Heat transfer from a fin with the adiabatic tip
q f = hPkA c b tanh mb

Assuming that L>>t and using P 2L,

2L
hP
b, we get:
Ac = Lt,
Lt Ap = bt and
d mbb =
t
kA c

h2L
q f = h2LkLt b tanh
b
kLt
Rearranging:
1/ 2
2h
1/ 2
1/ 2
q f = (2hk ) L b t tanh b
kt

Constant p
profile area
In terms of Ap (= bt)

P 2L, Ac = Lt

mb =

hP
kA c

b = b 2 h

k
kt

1
2

= A

b 2h

b k
bt
kt

1
2

2h
= Ap
3
kt

q f = (2hk)1/2 Lb t1/2 tanh mb

q f = (2hk )

1/ 2

q f = (2hk )1 / 2 L b

1
t2

L b

1
t2

1
2

2h

tanh A p
3
kt
1
2

2h

tanh A p
3
kt

1
2

Optimum
p
condition
q f = (2hk )

1
1
2 L b t 2

1
2

1
2

2h
tanh A p 3
k
kt

q f = ( 2hk ) Lb

1
t2

1/ 2

1/ 2

q f = (2hk )

L b t

tanh

dq f
=0
dt
1/ 2

3
2A

2h
6 = sinh 2 where = mb = t
p
k
= 1.4192 Gives optimum fin efficiency to be 0.627

1/ 2

2h
tanh
kt

Optimum
p
condition

Let us name profile fin length and fin thickness to be bo and to for the
optimum condition
Substituting Ap = boto in
1/ 2

2h
= mb =
k

1/2

2h
= mbo =
k

We get,

3
2A

3
2

t o bo t o

For constant profile area

Solving for to yields
optimum fin thickness
1/ 2

2h
to =
k

bo

Solving for bo yields the

optimum fin profile length
1/ 2

kt o
b o =

2h

Constant heat transfer from a fin

If the heat transfer rate is constant
1
2

q f = ( 2hk ) Lb

1
t2

1
2

2h
tanh A p 3 L
kt

tanh = tanh1.4192 = 0.8894

Solving for t gives the optimum fin thickness to for
constant heat transfer from a fin

qf

to =
(2hk)1/2 w

0.8894
L
b

22

00.632
0.632
0 632
632 qqff
ttoo ==
22
hkL
hkw bb

Because,

A p = b0 t 0

Optimum
p
value
1
2

2h
= mb0 =
bo
kt0

Si
Since,

Re-arranging,

1
2

k
b0 =
2h
1
2

k
b0 = 1.4192
2h

0.798 q f
b0 =
hL b

1
t o2

1
2 2

0.632 q
f

2
hkL b

0 632 q f
0.632
to =
2
hkL b

Constant fin volume or mass

The volume of the fin is V = Lbt
And profile area is Ap = bt = V/L
Since , the width L is not a parameter this problem is
basically the same as the constant profile area.

q f = (2hk )

1
2 L b

1
t2

1
2

V 2h
tanh 3
L kt
1
2

1
1

2 2
t0

2h
b 0 2h
= V
= mb 0 = b 0

b0 t 0L k
kt 0

Optimum
p
length
g and thickness
The optimum fin thickness with a constant
2
1
fin volume :
using

V 3 h 3
t0
L k
V
t0 =
b0L

Optimum
p
fin length
g

1
3

V k
b0

L h

Multiple
p Fin Array
yI
Free (Natural) Convection Cooling
For a single fin, the consideration is given to
the thickness and length of the fin to get the
maximum heat transfer rate.
Additional consideration for fin array: fin
spacing z and number of fins n for a given
plate area L x W
In general, the thickness of fin is usually much smaller than
the fin spacing z.

Small Spacing
p
g Channel
Consider a small hot p
parallel p
plate channel with constant
wall temperature To.
Cold air at T enters through the bottom of the channel
by natural convection.

Assumptions
p
Assume a fullyy developed
p flow.
Assume that length of the channel is long enough so that
the temperature of air at the outlet becomes To.
The number of fins n can be calculated by n = W
z+t
W
For the current analysis z>>t, Hence n
z

Momentum Equation
q
The heat transfer rate for the channel:

& p (To T )
q f = mc
& = vA
m
A cf
W
A cf = (zb) = Wb
z
For finding the average velocity, we need to solve the
momentum
t
equation
ti in
i y di
direction
ti
0

v
v
P
u
+v =
+ 2 v g
y
y
x
For a fully developed flow

Pressure Gradient
Since both ends of the channel are open,
p , the p
pressure
gradient is given by: P

= g

So, the momentum equation becomes:

2v
0 = ( g) + 2 g
y
( )g
2v
=
2

The Boussinesq approximation:

= (T T )

Thermal expansion coeff.

1
=

T P

Average
g velocity
y

Using Boussinesq approximation:

g(To T )
2v
=

y 2
Constant
Integrate twice with B.C. (i) no slip and (ii) symmetry at the centerline
2
g(To T ) x
v=
1

8
z / 2

Upon integrating this along the spacing z,

g velocity
y can be calculated:
the average

g(To T )z 2
v=
12
12

Mass Flow Rate

& = vA cf
m
A cf = Wb
g(To T )z 2
Average velocity v =
12
g((To T ))z 2
& =
Wb
Mass flow rate m
12

& p ((To T )
q f = mc
Heat transfer from
fin array with
small spacing

g(To T ) 2 z 2
q f ,small = c P Wb
12
q f ,small z 2

Large
g spacing
p
g channel
Consider a large spacing, a large enough for
each
hb
boundary
d
llayer tto b
be iisolated
l t db
between
t
isothermal plates
The
Th Nusselt
N
lt number
b ffor natural
t l convection
ti iin air
i
for a vertical plate
hL
Nu =
= 0.517 Ra 0L.25
K air

Wh
Where
the
th Rayleigh
R l i h number
b iis d
defined
fi d as
Ra L =

g ( T0 T ) L3

Heat Transfer Equation

q
In above equation RaL is the Rayleigh number
(f a fl
(for
flow over a plate
l t off length
l
th L) , is
i th
the
volumetric expansion coefficient, is the thermal
diffusivity and g is gravity
diffusivity,
gravity.
The volumetric expansion coefficient =1/Tf
Where Tf is the film temperature
Using Newtons law of cooling, the heat transfer
rate fins for the large channels can be written as
q f ,l arg e = A s h (T0 T )

Heat Transfer Equation

q
The heat transfer area As is obtained as
W
As = 2bLn = 2bL
z

Inserting equation n W in the heat transfer equation

z
yields
W
q f ,l arg e = 1.034 bk air Ra 0L.25 (T0 T )
z
Hence,

q f ,l arg e

Optimum
p
Fin Spacing
p
g
The optimal spacing can be obtained by
equations of heat transfers

q f ,small = q f ,l arg e
1
L3 4

g(T0 T )
2.3

z opt

1
2.3Ra
R L4

Forced Convection Cooling

g

Small spacing channel

Flow between parallel plates in the case of a small
spacing channel is known as Couett-Poiseulli flow.

Small spacing
p
g channel
The x-momentum
x momentum equation:
0

2u
u
u
P
2u
u
+v =
+ 2 + v 2
y
x
y
x
x
For a fully developed flow

Th
The pressure gradient
di t along
l
th
the channel
h
l iis
constant:
P P
x

Momentum equation
q
reduces to

2 u P
2 =
L
y

Velocity
y Expression
p
Integrating the above equation twice and using
the no slip and symmetry boundary condition,
the velocity u can be expressed as
2
Pz 2 (To T ) y
u=
1

8L
z / 2

The average velocity can be obtained

u =

1
A

udA

z2 P
u =
12 L

Heat Transfer from Fin

The heat transfer rate

& c p (T0 T )
q f ,small = m
z 2 p W

& =
m
12L zb z

q f ,small

z 2 p
= Wb
cp ( T0 T )
12L

q f ,small z

Large
g Spacing
p
g Channel
Assumption:
Consider
C
id a llarge spacing
i channel
h
l
Each boundary layer is isolated
The pressure drop is assumed to be constant
For laminar flow the Nusselt and Reynolds number
i written
is
itt as ffor Pr
P >0.5
05
hL
N L=
Nu
=
K air
Re L =

UL

1
0.664 Re
R L2

1
P 3
Pr

Heat Transfer Equation

q
Heat transfer equation

q f ,l arg e = A s h (T0 T )
1

q f ,l arg e
q f ,l arg e

k air
W
= 2 bL
0.664 Pr 3 Re 2 (T0 T )
z
L
W
= 1.33288 bbk air
z

3
Pr

1
UL 2

(T0 T )

Since P was assumed to be constant, U may

be expressed in terms of P and z
Considering the shear stress is the root cause of
the
h pressure d
drop, apply
l the
h fforce b
balance
l
((next
page)

Heat Transfer Equation

q
W
2 (bL ) = P(Wb )
z

The coefficient of friction for laminar flow

Cf =

1
U 2
2

1
= 1.328 Re L2

Eliminating the

Pz
U =
1 1

2 2
1.328L

Heat transfer equation

q

1
Pr PL 3

q f ,l arg e = 1.208Wbk air

2

q f ,l arg e

2
z3

2
z3

2
3

(T0 T )
q f ,small z 2

Optimum
p
spacing
p
g
The equation for optimized spacing
1
4

z opt

1
Pr PL 3

= 2.725
2
L
PL

q f ,small

z 2 p
c p ( T0 T )
= Wb
12L

q f ,l arg e = 1.208Wbk air

2

2
z3

(T0 T )

I
Inserting
ti above
b
equation
ti in
i th
the h
heatt ttransfer
f equation
ti
1
PL 2

q max
k
(T0 T )

= 0.619 air
2
WLb
L

The pressure drop may be estimated with an assumption

fL
1
Dh

z opt
L

fL U 2 U 2
P =

Dh 2
2

1
3.24 Re L2

1
Pr 4

Multiple
p Fin Array
y II
Heat transfer
from a single fin

q s,f = hPkA c b tanh(mb)

where, A p = bt, A c = Lt, P 2L and = mb
1/2

hp 2h
m=
=
kA c kt

q s,f = h(2L)k(Lt)b tanh

1/2

2hkA p
=

L b

q s,f

b tanh

Heat transfer from base wall

Consider heat transfer rate qw at the base
wall between two fins
q w = h w Lzb
W
W Ap
z=
t =

n
n
b
W Ap
qw
= h w b

L
b
n
Where, n is number of fins

Total heat transfer from fin

The total heat transfer rate from the multiple
p fin array
y is:
q w = h w Lzb

q s,f = h(2L)k(Lt)b tanh

1/2

2hkA p
=

L b

q s,f

b tanh

W
W Ap
z=
t =

n
n
b
W Ap
qw
= h w b

L
n
b

1/2

2hkA p
W Ap
q total
= n
b tanh + h w b
L
b
b
n

Expression
p
for single
g fin
To find the maximum total heat transfer with respect to b,
we set the derivative equal
q
to zero

dq total
=0
db

And finally obtained an expression:

2
2

2h w b
tanh 3 sec h =
k

If hw is ass
assumed
med to be zero,
ero we
e get optim
optimum
m for a single fin
tanh 32 sec h 2 = 0
3 = sinh cosh
Using
Solve to get

sinh 2 = 2sinh cosh

6 = sinh 2
= 1.4192

Optimum
p

However,, if a graphical
g p
solution is sought
g between
array,opt as a function of hwb/k from the relation
tanh 32 sec h 2 =

2h w b
k

We find an optimum array in the form of a linear relation

array,opt = 1.4192
1 4192 + 11.125
125

hwb
k

array,opt = 1.420

For b = 3 cm, k = 175 W/mK (auminium), h = 6 W/m2K

array,opt = 1.438

For b = 3 cm, k = 175 W/mK (auminium), h = 100 W/m2K

array,opt = 1.464

For b = 20 cm, k = 30 W/mK (cast iron), h = 6 W/m2K

Natural Convection Cooling

g
Elenbass suggested optimum Nusselt number for two vertical plate as

N u opt =
h opt

h opt z opt
k fluid

= 1.25

k fluid
= 1.25
z opt

O i
Optimum
single
i l fifin h
heat transfer
f with
i h = 1.4192
1 4192

q s,f
L

=(

1
2hkt 0 2

b tanh = 11.258
258b h 2 A p k

1
2

Total optimum heat transfer rate from the fin array is

q s,f q
q total
W
2
= n
+
=
1.258

b
opt A p k

L
L z opt + t 0
L

1
2

qw
= h w z b
L

+ h opt z opt b

Optimum
p
heat transfer
Using

1/ 2

kt o
b o =

2h

h opt = 1.25

k fluid
z opt

Bar -Cohen and Rohsenow

z opt
L
z opt
L

1
2.3Ra L4

1
2.714Ra L4

with Ap = boto
1
2

q total
LWb

k kt
0.8063 fluid 1 0 + 1.25k fluid
Ra 4 L
L

2.714Ra L

1
4L +

t0

where
Ra L =

g ( T0 T ) L

Optimum
p
spacing
p
g
Assuming the heat transfer from the interfin area between the fins is
negligible, following Eq.
qs,f q
q total
W
2
= n
+
Apk
1.258b h opt
=

+
L
L
L
z
t

opt
0

simplifies to

1.258 h opt kt 0
q total

LWb
z opt + t 0

1
2

+ h opt z opt b

1
2

Differentiating
Diff
i i the
h above
b
E
Eq. w.r.t. to and
d setting
i the
h d
derivative
i i to zero
provides the optimum spacing for the maximized heat transfer rate

z opt t o

Problem

A heat sink for an avionic electric package cooling is to be designed

to maintain the base temperature below 100C. The base cold plate
has a width W = 50 mm and length L = 30 mm. Forced air is drawn b
a fan at a velocity of U = 1.5 m/s and at the ambient air temperature
off 20C.
C N
Non-optimum
ti
d
design
i iis allowed
ll
d tto accommodate
d t th
these
requirements. For aluminium properties use density of 2702 kg/m3
and thermal conductivity of 177 W/mk.
D
Determine
t
i th
the maximum
i
optimum
ti
di
dimension
i ffor th
the h
heatt sink
i k providing
idi th
the
number of fins, the fin thickness, the fin spacing, the profile length, the heat
dissipation, overall efficiency and thermal resistance.
The device now requires a mass of fins to be less than 15 grams and the profile
length to ne less than 20 mm. With these constraints, design the fin array again.

z opt

1
3.24 Re
R L2

1
P 4
Pr

Find
=
L
Find hL
A
Assume
for
f a single
i l fifin.
Optimize heat transfer rate as a function of
to.
1/ 2
kt
o
=

o
Find
2h
Volume of a fin Val(to)=Lboto
Number of fins nf(to)=W/(zopt + to)

Total mass of the fin array as a function of to

mal(to)=nf(to)alVal(to)
Heat transfer rate from a single fin
Heat transfer rate from the interfin area
Total heat transfer rate
Fin effectiveness
Total area
Overall surface efficiency
Overall thermal resistance

PLATE-FIN HEAT EXCHANGER

Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi
E-mail: prabal@mech.iitd.ac.in
p

Mech/IITD

Basic component
This type of extended surface heat exchanger has corrugated fins mostly of
triangular or rectangular cross-sections sandwiched between the parallel plates

Mech/IITD

Different types of plate fin

Mech/IITD

Mech/IITD

Plate-fin
Plate
fin with OSP

Mech/IITD

Platefin
Plate
fin heat exchanger
Plate
Platefin
finheatexchangershavevariousgeometries
heat exchangers have various geometries
inordertocompensateforthehighthermal
resistance,particularlyifoneofthefluidisgas.
Theplatefinsarecategorizedastriangularfin,
rectangularfin,wavyfin,offsetstripfin(OSP),
louveredfin,andperforatedfin
Generallyusedformoderateoperatingpressuresless
than700kPa(gaugepressure)
h
k (
)
Ithasasurfaceareadensityofupto5900m2/m3.
Mech/IITD

 Common
Commonfinthicknessrangesbetween0.05to
fin thickness ranges between 0 05 to
0.25mm.
Finheightmayrangefrom2to25mm
Fin height may range from 2 to 25 mm
Typicalfindensitiesare120to700fins/m,but
couldreachto2100fins/m
ld
h 2100 fi /

Mech/IITD

Geometrical Characteristics
Singlepass
Single passcrossflowplateheatexchangeris
crossflow plate heat exchanger is
considered.

Mech/IITD

Total number of passages

The
Thenumberofpassagesforthehotfluidside
number of passages for the hot fluid side
andcoldfluidsideareNp andNp +1.
Thetopandbottompassagearedesignatedto
The top and bottom passage are designated to
becoldfluid.
Thenumberofpassagescanbeobtainedas:
Th
b
f
b b i d
L = N p b + N + 1 b + 2 N + 1 w
3
1 P 2 P
Length of fluid 1
Solving for Np
Mech/IITD

Length of fluid 2

L b 2 w
Np = 3 2
b + b + 2 w
1 2

Thickness of total plates

No of fins

Thetotalnumberoffinsforfluid1(hot):
L
n = p 1 Np
f1 f1

where pf1 is fin pitch.

Thetotalnumberoffinsforfluid2(cold):
L
n = p 2 Np +1
f2 f2

Mech/IITD

Primary Area
Primaryareaforfluid1is:
Primary area for fluid 1 is:
A

= 2L L N p 2L n + 2b L N + 2 b + 2 w L N p +1
p1
1 2
2 f1
1 2 P 2

Total plate area

Mech/IITD

Fin base area

Passage side wall area Passage front and

back wall area

No of offset strip fins

No.
The
Thenumberofoffsetstripfinsperthenumber
number of offset strip fins per the number
L
offinsisobtainedfrom:
n
= 1
off 2
2

L
n
= 2
off 1
1

Where1,2
p
g
1 2 istheoffsetstripfinlengthforfluid
1and2.

Mech/IITD

Total Fin Area

ThetotalfinareaconsistsofthefinareaAf1 andoffsetstrip
edge areas:
edgeareas:
A

f1

n + P n
= 2 b L n + 2 b n
1 n + 2P n
2 f1
off 1 f 1
f1
f1 f1
1
1
f1
off 1

Fin surface areas

(d-e
(d
e and g-f)
g f)

Offset-strip edge areas Internal offset strip edge area

2(b
2(b-c-d-e)
c d e)
2(i-j-k-l-i)
2(i j k l i)
First and last offset strip edge area
2(a-b-i-j-a)

Mech/IITD

Total heat transfer area

Thetotalheattransferareais
The total heat transfer area is

A =A +A
t1 p1 f1
Thefreeflow(crosssectional)areaAc1 is
A = b P n
c1 1 f1 f1

The
Thefrontalareaforfluid1where
frontal area for fluid 1 where
fluid1isenteringisdefinedby
A
Mech/IITD

fr1

=L L
1 3

Fin efficiency
Thehydraulicdiameter:

4A L
D = c1 2
h1
A
t1

Forthefinefficiencyf oftheoffsetstripfin,itisassumed
thattheheatflowfrombothplatesisuniformandthatthe
p
adiabaticplateoccursatthemiddleoftheplatespacingb1.
HencetheprofilelengthLf1 isdefinedby L = b1
f1 2

Themvalueisobtainedas:
Thesinglefinefficiencyis
Theoverallfinefficiencyis
Mech/IITD

m = 2h 1+
1 k
1
f

t hmL
tanh
1 f1
=
f
mL
1 f1
A
=1 f 1 1
o1
f
A
t1

Optimum-Insulations
p

MEL 806
Thermal System Simulation (2-0-2)
Dr. Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Thermal Insulation
Total Volume of Insulation material:
L

Wall temperature varies in x -direction

V = t ( x ) Wdx

T0

t(x), insulation

T(x), Wall surface

1L
V
t avg = t ( x )dx =
L0
LW
Minimize heat loss through
the insulation

& = kW T( x ) To dx
Q
t(x)
0
L

subject to the constraint, V is constant

Optimization
p
L

= F( x )dx

Minimize the
heat loss integral

0
L

T( x ) To
= kW
+ Wt ( x )dx
t(x)

F
=0
t

Reduces to

1/ 2

k
t opt ( x ) =

t opt ( x ) =

[T( x ) To ]

1/ 2

t avg L
L

1/ 2
[
]
T
(
x
)
T
dx

1L
V
t avg = t ( x )dx =
L0
LW

[T(x ) To ]1 / 2

Variational Calculas
b

Consider a Integral given as

I = F ( x , y , y )dx
a
Where y(x) is a function of x

The special function y(x) for which the integral I reaches

an extremum satisfies the Euler equtaion,

F d F
= 0

y d
dx y
If the wanted variable y(x) additionally satisfies an
b
integral constraint of the type,

C = G( x , y , y )dx

a
Then y(x,) satisfies the new Euler equation
H d H
where H = F + G
=0

dx y

Minimum Heat Transfer Rate

L

kW
1/ 2
&
Q=
(T ( x ) To ) dx
t avg L 0

It is worth to mention here that the same expression of

topt (x) is obtained if the thickness is minimized subject
to a fixed rate of heat loss to the ambient.

Modeling
g of Thermal Systems
y

MEL 806
Thermal System Simulation (2-0-2)
Dr. Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Modeling
g
The process of simplifying a given problem so
that it may be represented in terms of a system
of equations
equations, for analysis
analysis, or a physical
arrangement, for experimentation, is termed
modeling
The design and optimization processes are
closely coupled with the modeling effort,
effort and
the success of the final design is very strongly
influenced by the accuracy and validity of the
model employed.

Descriptive
p
Model
The model may be descriptive or predictive.
We are all very familiar with models that are used to
describe and explain various physical phenomena. A
working model of an engineering system
system, such as a
robot, an internal combustion engine, a heat exchanger,
or a water pump, is often used to explain how the device
works.
k
Frequently, the model may be made of clear plastic or
may have a cutaway section to show the internal
mechanisms.
Such models are known as descriptive and are frequently
used
d iin classrooms
l
tto explain
l i b
basic
i mechanisms
h i
and
d
underlying principles

Predictive model
Predictive models are of p
particular interest to our p
present
topic of engineering design because these can be used
to predict the performance of a given system.
The
Th equation
ti governing
i th
the cooling
li off a h
hott metal
t l
sphere immersed in an extensive cold-water
environment represents a predictive model because it
allows us to obtain the temperature variation with time
and determine the dependence of the cooling curve on
physical variables such as initial temperature of the
sphere, water temperature, and material properties

Modeling
g
Physical
y
insight
g is the main basis for the simplification
p
of
a given system to obtain a satisfactory model. Such
insight is largely a result of experience in dealing with a
variety of thermal systems
systems.
Estimates of the underlying mechanisms and different
effects that arise in a given system may also be used to
simplify and idealize. Knowledge of other similar
processes and of the appropriate approximations
employed for these also helps in modeling
modeling.
Overall, modeling is an innovative process based on
experience, knowledge, and originality.

Experiment
p
In many practical systems, it is not possible to
simplify the problem enough to obtain a
sufficiently accurate analytical or numerical
solution. In such cases, experimental data are
obtained, with help from dimensional analysis to
d t
determine
i th
the iimportant
t t di
dimensionless
i l
parameters.
Experiments are also crucial to the validation of
the mathematical or numerical model and for
establishing the accuracy of the results obtained

Fire Protective Fabrics

Modeling
g of the setup
p

Points selected for temperature

measurements of entire specimen holder.

Curve-fitting
g
Material properties are usually available as discrete data
at various values of the independent variable, e.g.,
density and thermal conductivity of a material measured
at different temperatures. For all such cases, curve fitting
is frequently employed to obtain appropriate correlating
equations to characterize the data. These equations can
then serve as inputs to the model of the system, as well
as to the design process.

Types
yp of Model

Analog models
Mathematical models
Ph i l models
Physical
d l
Numerical models

Analog
g Model
Analog
g models are based on the analogy
gy or similarity
y
between different physical phenomena and allow one to
use the solution and results from a familiar problem to
obtain the corresponding results for a different unsolved
problem.
An example of an analog model is provided by
conduction heat transfer through a multilayered wall,
which may be analyzed in terms of an analogous electric
circuit with the thermal resistance represented by the
electrical resistance and the heat flux represented by the
electric current

Examples
p of Analog
g Model

Conduction heat transfer in a composite wall

.

Analog model of plume

flow in a room fire

Mathematical Model
A mathematical model is one that represents the
performance and characteristics of a given system in
terms of mathematical equations.
These models are the most important
p
ones in the design
g
of thermal systems because they provide considerable
versatility in obtaining quantitative results that are needed
as inputs for design
design.
Mathematical models form the basis for numerical
modeling and simulation, so that the system may be
investigated without actually fabricating a prototype
A solution to the equations for a heat exchanger would
give the dependence of the total heat transfer rate on the
inlet temperatures of the two fluids and on the dimensions
of the system.

Physical
y
Model
Ap
physical
y
model is one that
resembles the actual system
and is generally used to
obtain experimental results
on the behavior of the
system.
An example of this is a
scaled down model of a car
or a heated body
body, which is
positioned in a wind tunnel to
study the drag force acting
on the
th body
b d or th
the h
heatt
transfer from it.

Numerical Model
Numerical models are based on mathematical
models and allow one to obtain, using a
computer, quantitative results on the system
behavior for different operating conditions and
design parameters.
Numerical modeling refers to the restructuring
and discretization of the governing equations in
order to solve them on a computer
computer. The relevant
equations may be algebraic equations, ordinary
or partial differential equations
equations, integral
equations, or combinations of these.

Interaction between models

Even though
g the four main types
yp of modeling
g of
particular interest to design are presented as separate
approaches, several of these frequently overlap in
practical problems.
problems
Experimental data from physical models may indicate
some of the approximations or simplifications that may
be used in developing a mathematical model.
Although numerical modeling is based largely on the
mathematical model
model, outputs from the physical or analog
models may also be useful in developing the numerical
scheme.

Classification of models
There are several other classifications of
modeling frequently used to characterize
the nature and type of the model
model.

Steady state or dynamic,

deterministic or probabilistic,
lumped or distributed, and
Discrete or continuous.

For instance, the model for a hot-water storage system may be described
as a dynamic, continuous, lumped, deterministic mathematical model.
Similarly, the mathematical model for a furnace may be specified as steady
state, continuous, distributed, and deterministic

Mathematical Modeling
g
The development of a mathematical model
requires physical understanding,
experience and creativity
experience,
creativity, it is often
treated as an art rather than a science.
Inputs for Model development

Knowledge of existing systems,

characteristics of similar systems
systems,
governing mechanisms, and
pp
and idealizations
commonlyy made approximations

Steps
p in Model Development
p

Transient/steady state
Spatial dimensions
Lumped mass approximations
Simplifications of boundary conditions
Negligible effects
Idealizations
Material Properties
Conservation laws
F th simplifications
Further
i lifi ti
off governing
i equations
ti

Transient/steady
y state
Two main characteristic time scales need to be
considered: response time and characteristic time
r, refers to the response time of the material or body under
consideration,
consideration
c, refers to the characteristic time of variation of the ambient or
operating conditions.

Therefore, c indicates the time over which the conditions change.

For instance, it would be zero for a step change and the time period
p for a p
periodic p
process,, where p =1/f,, with f being
g the frequency.
q
y
The response time r for a uniform-temperature (lumped) body
subjected to a step change in ambient temperature for convective
g or heating
g is g
given by
y the expression
p
cooling

Response,
p
characteristic time
c is very large, c .
In this case, the conditions may be assumed to remain
unchanged with time and the system may be treated as
steady state.
c << r.
In this case, the operating conditions change very
rapidly, as compared to the response of the material.
Then the material is unable to follow the variations in the
operating variables.
An example of this is a deep lake whose response time is very large
compared to the fluctuations in the ambient medium. Even though the
surface temperature
p
may
y reflect the effect of such fluctuations, the bulk
fluid would essentially show no effect of temperature fluctuations. Then the
system may be approximated as steady with the operating condition taken
at their mean values

Response,
p
characteristic time
c >> r
This refers to the case where the material or body
responds very fast but the operating or boundary
conditions change very slowly. An example of this is the
slow variation of the solar flux with time on a sunny day
and the rapid response of the collector
Replacement of the ambient
temperature variation with time
by a finite number of steps, with
the temperature held constant
over each step

Periodic process
p
Periodic processes: In many cases, the behavior
off the
th thermal
th
l system
t
may be
b represented
t d as a
periodic process, with the characteristics
repeating over a given time period p.
Environmental processes are examples of this
modeling because periodic behavior over a day
or over a year is of interest in many of these
systems.
The net heat transfer over the cycle must
be zero because, if it is not, there is a net
gain or loss of energy. This would result in
a consequent increase or decrease of
temperature with time and a cyclic
behavior would not be obtained

Transient Process
If none of the p
previous approximations
pp
is applicable,
pp
, the
system has to be modeled as a general time-dependent
problem.
There
Th
are many practical
ti l systems,
t
particularly
ti l l iin
materials processing, that require such a dynamic model
because transient effects are crucial in determining the
quality of the product and in the control and operation of
the system.
Heat treatment and metal casting systems are examples
in which a transient model is essential to study the
characteristics of the system for design.

Reheat Furnace

Geometrical model of
walking beam type reheat
furnace

Spatial
p
Dimensions
Though
g all p
practical systems
y
are three-dimensional,, theyy
can often be approximated as two - or one-dimensional
to considerably simplify the modeling. Thus, this is an
important simplification and is based largely on the
geometry of the system under consideration and on the
boundary conditions.

System
y
Simulation
Information flow diagram
Block represents transfer functions which can
be considered differential equations
Consider a centrifugal pump in a fluid flow

Fire water facility

y

The equations for the water flow rate through open hydrants are :

w A = C A p 3 p at

w B = C B p 4 p at

Equations
q

The equations for the pipe section 0-1 is :

p at p1 = C1w12 + hg
Pipe section 2-3:

p 2 p 3 = C 2 w12

Pipe section 3-4:

p 3 p 4 = C3 w 22

System
y
of Equations
q
These five equations
q
can be written in functional form:

f1 ( w A , p 3 ) = 0
f 2 (w B , p4 ) = 0
f 3 ( w1 , p1 ) = 0
f 4 ( w1 , p 2 , p3 ) = 0
f 5 ( w 2 , p3 , p 4 ) = 0
An additional function is provided by the pump
characteristics:

f 6 ( w1 , p1 , p 2 ) = 0

Six equations eight unknowns??

Information-flow diagram
g
Mass balances provide the other two
f 7 ( w1 , w A , w 2 ) = 0
equations w1 = w A + w 2
and w 2 = w B f 8 ( w 2 , w B ) = 0

Sequential and Simultaneous

Calculations
S
Sometimes
ti
it is
i possible
ibl tto start
t t with
ith th
the iinputt
information and immediately calculate the output of a
component. The output information from this first
component is all that is needed to calculate the input
information of the next component and so on to the final
component of the system.
system This is a sequential
calculation
In simultaneous calculations, a set of algebraic
equations need to be solved simultaneously.

Modeling
g of Thermal Systems
y

MEL 806
Thermal System Simulation (2-0-2)
Dr. Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Example
p
A water p
pumping
p g station consists of two p
parallel p
pumps
p
drawing water from a lower reservoir and delivering it to
another that is 40 m higher. In addition to overcoming
the pressure difference due to elevation
elevation, the friction in
the pump is 7.2w2, where w is combined flow rate in
kilograms per second. The pressure-flow-rate
characteristics off the pumps are
p = 810 25w1 3.75w12
p = 900 65
65w 2 30
30w 2 2
Where w1 and w2 are the flow rate through pump 1 and
pump
p
p 2, respectively.
p
y Use successive substitution to
simulate the system and determine the values of p,
w1,w2, w.

Solution by successive substitution

Guess w1=4.2
Find P (eq. 3)
Find w (eq. 1)
Find w2 (eq. 2)

p = 7.2w 2 +

( 40m ) (100kg / m3 )( 9.807m / s2 )

(1)

1000Pa / kPa
(2)

w = w1 + w 2

p = 810 25w1 3.75w12

(3)

p = 900 65w 2 30w 2 2

(4)

Information Flow Diagram

g
-1
p
p

Elevation
and
Friction

w
w2

w1
Mass
Balance

p
Pump 1

Pump 2

Iteration = 50, p = 650.90, w2 = 1.995, w = 5.993, w1 = 3.998

Information Flow Diagram

g
-2
p
p

Elevation
and
Friction

w
w1

w2
Mass
Balance

Pump 1

Start with w2 = 2.0 Diverges

Iteration = 5,
5 p = 42
42.8,
8 w = imaginary

p
Pump 2

Information Flow Diagram

g
-3
p
p

Pump 1

w1
w2

w
Mass
Balance

Pump 2

Start with w = 6.0 Diverges

Iteration = 9,
9 p = 951
951.2,
2 w1 = imaginary

Elevation
and
Friction

Newton-Raphson
p
Method
Taylor series expansion:

1 d 2 y (a )
dy(a )
2
y = y (a ) +
(x a) +
(
x

a
)
+
2
d
dx
d
2 dx

y y(a ) + [ y(a )]( x a )

x + 2 = ex

Basis of Newton-Raphson
q
iterative technique

Solve

y( x ) = x + 2 e x
y( x c ) = 0

Xc is the correct value of x that solves the eq.

Assume some temporary value of x, say xt = 2

y(xt) = -3.39

Newton-Raphson
p
Method
E
Express
y iin tterms off x by
b expanding
di about
b tx

y( x c ) y( x ) + [ y( x )]( x c x )
For x = xt

y( x c ) y( x t ) + [ y( x t )]( x c x t )
y( x t )
xc xt
y( x t )

Newton-Raphson method with multiple eqs. and

unknowns
Suppose that three nonlinear equations to be
solved for the three unknown variables x1, x2, x3.
f1((x1,,x2,,x3) = 0
f2(x1,x2,x3) = 0
f3(x1,xx2,xx3) = 0
Rewrite the equations so that all terms are on
one
o
e sside
de o
of tthe
e equa
equality
ty ssign
g
Assume temporary values for the variables, x1,t,
x2,t
2 t and x3,t
3t

Algorithm
g
Calculate the values of f1, f2 and f3 at the temporary
p
y
values of x1, x2 and x3.
Compute the partial derivatives of all functions with
respectt to
t allll variables.
i bl
Use Taylor-series expansion to establish a set of
simultaneous equations
f1 ( x1, t , x 2, t , x 3, t ) f1 ( x1,c , x 2,c , x 3,c )
+
+

f1 ( x1, t , x 2, t , x 3, t )
x1
f1 ( x1, t , x 2, t , x 3, t )
x 3

( x1, t x1,c ) +
( x 3, t x 3,c )

f1 ( x1, t , x 2, t , x 3, t )
x 2

( x 2, t x 2, c )

Algorithm
g
The set of equation is

f1

x1
f 2
x
f 1
3
x1

f1
x 2
f 2
x 2
f 3
x 2

f1

x 3 x x f
1, t
1,c
1
f 2

x 2 , t x 2 , c = f 2

x 3
x 3, t x 3,c f 3

f 3
x 3

Solve the set of linear simultaneous equations to

determine xi,t xi,c

Algorithm
g
Correct the xxss
X1,new = x1,old (x1,t x1,c)
---- X3,new = x3,old (x3,t x3,c)
Test for convergence. If the absolute
magnitudes of all the fs
f s or all the x
xss are
satisfactorily small, terminate: Otherwise return
to step
p ((indicated with red))

Example
p p
problem

Solve the previous problem with Newton-Raphson method

f1 = p 7.2 w 2 392.28 = 0
Step 1: f1(x1,x
x2,xx3) = 0

f2(x1,x2,x3) = 0
f3(x1,x2,x3) = 0

f 2 = p 810 + 25w1 + 3.75w12 = 0

f 3 = p 900 + 65w 2 + 30 w 22 = 0
f 4 = w w1 w 2 = 0

Step
p 2: Chose trial values of the variables
P = 750
w1 = 3
w2 = 1.5
w=5

Step 3: calculate the magnitudes

of fs at the temporary values
of the variables:

f1 = 177, f2 = 48.75, f3 = 15.0, f4 = 0.5

Example
p p
problem
Find the partial derivatives:
f1 = p 7.2 w 2 392.28 = 0
Insert Table 6.4
f1
(p)
f 2
(p)
f 3
(p)
f 4
(p)

f1
w1
f 2
w1

f1
w 2

f1
w

f 2 = p 810 + 25w1 + 3.75w12 = 0

f 3 = p 900 + 65w 2 + 30 w 22 = 0
f 4 = w w1 w 2 = 0
0
0 72
1
1 47.5 0

1
0 155
0

1
1

Example
p p
problem
Substitute the temporary
p
y values of the variables into the
equations for the partial derivatives. Forms a set of linear
simultaneous equations
0
0 72 x1 177.7
1
1 47.5 0
x 48.75
0

2 =

1
0 155
0 x 3 15

1 x 4 0.5
0 1 1
Where xi = xi,t
i t xi,c
ic
Solution of simultaneous equations
x1 = 98.84, x2 = -1.055, x3 = -0.541, x4 = -1.096
The corrected value of the variables are
P = 750 98.84 = 651.16, w1 = 4.055, w2 = 2.041, w = 6.096

Example
p p
problem
These variables are returned to step 3 for
the next iteration.
The calculations converged satisfactorily
after three iterations
Table
T bl 6
6.5
5

Simulation of a Gas Turbine System

Optimization
p

MEL 806
Thermal System Simulation (2-0-2)
Dr. Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Introduction

In the preceding lectures, we focused our attention on obtaining a

workable, feasible, or acceptable design of a system. Such a design
satisfies the requirements for the given application, without violating
any imposed constraints. A system fabricated or assembled
b
because
off this
thi design
d i is
i expected
t d to
t perform
f
the
th appropriate
i t tasks
t k
for which the effort was undertaken.
However, the design would generally not be the best design, where
th d
the
definition
fi iti off b
bestt iis b
based
d on cost,
t performance,
f
efficiency
ffi i
or
some other such measure.
In actual practice, we are usually interested in obtaining the best
quality
lit or performance
f
per unit
it cost,
t with
ith acceptable
t bl environmental
i
t l
effects. This brings in the concept of optimization, which minimizes
or maximizes quantities and characteristics of particular interest to a
given application
application.

Example
p

Optimization is by no means a new concept. In our daily lives, we

attempt to optimize by seeking to obtain the largest amount of goods
or output per unit expenditure, this being the main idea behind
clearance sales and competition.
In the academic world, most students try to achieve
the best grades with the least amount of work,
hopefully without violating the constraints imposed by
ethics
thi
and
d regulations
l ti
The value of various items, including consumer products like
televisions, automobiles, cameras, vacation trips, advertisements,
and
d even education,
d
ti
per d
dollar
ll spent,
t iis often
ft quoted
t d tto iindicate
di t th
the
cost effectiveness of these items.

Optimization
p
in design
g

The need to optimize is similarly very important in design and has

become particularly crucial in recent times due to growing global
competition. It is no longer enough to obtain a workable system that
performs the desired tasks and meets the given constraints. At the
very least,
l
t severall workable
k bl d
designs
i
should
h ld b
be generated
t d and
d th
the
final design, which minimizes or maximizes an appropriately chosen
quantity, selected from these
Diff
Different
t product
d t characteristics
h
t i ti may be
b off particular
ti l interest
i t
t in
i
different applications and the most important and relevant ones may
be employed for optimization. For instance, weight is particularly
important in aerospace and aeronautical applications
applications, acceleration
in automobiles, energy consumption in refrigerators, and flow rate in
a water pumping system. Thus, these characteristics may be chosen
for minimization or maximization
maximization.

Workable/Optimum
p
design
g

Workable designs are

obtained over the
allowable ranges of the
design variables in order
t satisfy
to
ti f the
th given
i
requirements and
constraints
O ti i ti ttries
Optimization
i to
t find
fi d
the best solution, one
that minimizes or
maximizes a feature or
quantity of particular
interest in the application
under consideration

The optimum
p
design
g in a domain of
acceptable designs

Basic concepts
p of optimization
p
Objective function
Any optimization process requires specification of a
quantity or function that is to be minimized or maximized.
This function is known as the objective function, and it
represents the aspect or feature that is of particular
interest in a g
given circumstance.
Though the cost, including initial and maintenance costs,
and profit are the most commonly used quantities to be
optimized,
ti i d many others
th
aspects
t are employed
l
d ffor
optimization, depending on the system and the
application.

Examples
p of Objective
j
Function
The objective
j
functions that are optimized
p
for thermal systems
y
are frequently
q
y
based on the following characteristics:
1. Weight
2. Size or volume
3 Rate of energy consumption
3.
4. Heat transfer rate
5. Efficiency
6. Overall profit
7. Costs incurred
8. Environmental effects
9. Pressure head needed
10 Durability and dependability
10.
11. Safety
12. System performance
13. Output delivered
14. Product quality

Let us denote the objective function

that is to be optimized by U, where U
is a function of the n independent
variables in the p
problem x1, x2, x3, . . .
, xn. Then the objective function and
the optimization process may be
expressed as
U = U (x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn) Uopt
where Uopt denotes the optimal value
of U. The xs represent the design
variables
i bl as well
ll as the
h operating
i
conditions, which may be changed to
obtain a workable or optimal design
Global maximum of the objective function
U in an acceptable design domain
of the design variable x1.

Constraints

The constraints in a given design problem arise due to limitations on

the ranges of the physical variables, and due to the basic
conservation principles that must be satisfied.

The restrictions on the variables may arise

due to the space, equipment, and materials
being employed. These may restrict the
dimensions of the system,
y
the highest
g
temperature that the components can safely
attain, allowable pressure, material flow rate,
force generated, and so on. Minimum values
of the temperature may be specified for
thermoforming of a plastic and for ignition to
occur in an engine.
Thus,
Th s both minim
minimum
m and ma
maximum
im m values
al es
of the design variables may be involved

Equality
q
y Constraints

Many constraints arise because of the conservation laws,

particularly those related to mass, momentum, and energy in
thermal systems.
Thus, under steady-state conditions, the mass inflow into the system
must equal the mass outflow. This condition gives rise to an
equation that must be satisfied by the relevant design variables, thus
restricting the values that may be employed in the search for an
optimum.
ti
There are two types of constraints, equality constraints and
inequality constraints. As the name suggests, equality constraints
are equations
ti
th
thatt may b
be written
itt as

Inequality
q
y Constraints

Similarly, inequality constraints indicate the maximum or minimum

value of a function and may be written as

The m equality and n equality constraints are given for a general

optimization
ti i ti problem
bl
iin tterms off th
the ffunctions
ti
G and
d H,
H which
hi h are
dependent on the n design variables x1, x2, ----- , xn.

Example
p

The equality constraints are most commonly obtained from

conservation laws; e.g., for a steady flow circumstance in a control
volume, we may write

or

It is generally easier to deal with equations than with inequalities

because many methods are available to solve different types of
equations
ti
and
d systems
t
off equations
ti
whereas
h
no such
h schemes
h
are
available for inequalities

Therefore, inequalities are often converted into equations before

applying optimization methods. A common approach employed to
convert an inequality into an equation is to use a value larger than
the constraint if a minimum is specified and a value smaller than the
constraint
t i t if a maximum
i
iis given.
i
F
For iinstance,
t
th
the constraints
t i t may
be changed as follows

where C1 and C3 are chosen quantities, often known as slack

variables, that indicate the difference from the specified limits

Mathematical Formulation
The various steps involved in the formulation of the problem are
1. Determination of the design variables, xi where i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
2. Selection and definition of the objective function, U
3 Determination of the equality constraints
3.
constraints, Gi = 0,
0 where i = 1,
1 2
2, 3
3,
... , m
4. Determination of the inequality constraints, Hi or Ci, where i = 1,
2 3
2,
3, . .ll
5. Conversion of inequality constraints to equality constraints, if
appropriate

 Therefore
Therefore, the general mathematical
formulation for the optimization of a
system may be written as

 If the number of equality

q
y constraints m is equal
q
to the
number of independent variables n, the constraint
equations may simply be solved to obtain the variables
and there is no optimization problem
problem.
If m > n, the problem is overconstrained and a unique
solution is not possible because some constraints have
to be discarded to obtain a solution.
If m < n, an optimization problem is obtained.
The
Th inequality
i
lit constraints
t i t are generally
ll employed
l
d tto
define the range of variation of the design parameters

Optimization
p
methods
There are several methods that may be employed for solving
the mathematical problem to optimize a system or a process
process.
Each approach has its limitations and advantages over the
others. Thus, for a given optimization problem, a method may
b particularly
be
ti l l appropriate
i t while
hil some off th
the others
th
may nott
even be applicable.
The choice of method largely depends on the nature of the
equations representing the objective function and the
constraints.
Because of the complicated nature of typical thermal systems,
numerical solutions of the governing equations and
experimental results are often needed to study the behavior of
the objective function as the design variables are varied and
to monitor the constraints.

 However,, in several cases,, detailed numerical results

are generated from a mathematical model of the system
or experimental data are obtained from a physical model,
and these are curve fitted to obtain algebraic equations
to represent the characteristics of the system.
Optimization of the system may then be undertaken
based on these relatively simple algebraic expressions
and equations

Calculus methods

The use of calculus for determining the optimum is based on

derivatives of the objective function and of the constraints. The
derivatives are used to indicate the location of a minimum or a
maximum. At a local optimum, the slope is zero for U varying with a
single
i l d
design
i variable
i bl x1 or x2.

Lagrange
g g multipliers
p

An important method that employs calculus for optimization is the

method of Lagrange multipliers.
The objective function and the constraints are combined through the
use of constants known as Lagrange multipliers, to yield a system of
algebraic equations.
These equations are then solved analytically or numerically to
obtain the optimum as well as the values of the multipliers.
However, curve fitting often requires extensive data that may involve
detailed experimental
p
measurements or numerical simulations of the
system. Since this may demand a considerable amount of effort and
time, particularly for thermal systems, it is generally preferable to
use other methods of optimization that require relatively smaller
numbers of simulations.

Example
p
From Stoecker

Search Methods

In the simplest approach, the objective function is calculated at

uniformly spaced locations in the domain, selecting the design with
the optimum value. This approach, known as exhaustive search, is
not very imaginative and is clearly an inefficient method to optimize
a system
t
Because of the effort involved in experimentally or numerically
simulating typical thermal systems, particularly large and complex
systems,
t
it is
i important
i
t t to
t minimize
i i i th
the number
b off simulation
i l ti runs or
iterations needed to obtain the optimum
Search methods such as dichotomous, Fibonacci, univariate, and
steepest
t
t ascentt start
t t with
ith an initial
i iti l d
design
i and
d attempt
tt
t tto use a
minimum number of iterations to reach close to the optimum

 The exact optimum is generally not obtained

even for continuous functions because only a
finite number of iterations are used. However, in
actual engineering practice, components,
materials, and even dimensions are not
available
il bl as continuous
ti
quantities
titi b
butt as
discrete steps.
For instance,
instance a heat exchanger would typically
be available for discrete heat transfer rates such
as 50
50, 100
100, 200 kW
kW, etc

Search methods can easily be applied to such circumstances,

whereas calculus methods demand continuous functions.
Consequently, search methods are extensively used for the
optimization of thermal systems.

Linear and Dynamic Programming

Linear p
programming
g
g is an important
p
optimization
p
method
and is extensively used in industrial engineering,
operations research, and many other disciplines.
However,
H
th
the approach
h can b
be applied
li d only
l if th
the
objective function and the constraints are all linear.
Large systems of variables can be handled by this
method, such as those encountered in air traffic control,
transportation networks, and supply and utilization of raw
materials.
materials
However, thermal systems are typically represented by
q
nonlinear equations.

Dynamic
y
Programming
g
g

Dynamic programming is used to obtain the best path through a

series of stages or steps to achieve a given task, for instance, the
optimum configuration of a manufacturing line, the best path for the
flow of hot water in a building, and the best layout for transport of
coall iin a power plant.
l t

Dynamic
y
Programming
g
g
Therefore,, the result obtained from dynamic
y
programming is not a point where the objective function
is optimum but a curve or path over which the function is
optimized.
optimized
The optimum path is the one over which a given
objective function, say, total transportation cost, is
minimized.
Though unique optimal solutions are generally obtained
in practical systems
systems, multiple solutions are possible and
additional considerations, such as safety, convenience,
availability of items, etc., are used to choose the best
design

Geometric Programming
g
g

Geometric programming is an optimization method that can be

applied if the objective function and the constraints can be written as
sums of polynomials. The independent variables in these
polynomials may be raised to positive or negative, integer or
noninteger exponents, e.g.,
Curve fitting of experimental data and numerical results for thermal
systems often leads to polynomials and power-law variations.
Therefore, geometric programming is particularly useful for the
optimization of thermal systems if the function to be optimized and
the constraints can be represented as sums of polynomials
However,
o e e,u
unless
ess e
extensive
te s e data a
and
d numerical
u e ca ssimulation
u at o results
esu ts
are available for curve fitting, and unless the required polynomial
representations are obtained, the geometric programming method
cannot be used for common thermal systems.
Alternative: search methods

Other Optimization
p
Methods
Among the methods that may be
mentioned are genetic algorithms (GAs),
artificial neural networks (ANNs),
(ANNs) fuzzy
logic, and response surfaces.

Optimization
p

MEL 806
Thermal System Simulation (2-0-2)
Dr. Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Introduction

In the preceding lectures, we focused our attention on obtaining a

workable, feasible, or acceptable design of a system. Such a design
satisfies the requirements for the given application, without violating
any imposed constraints. A system fabricated or assembled
b
because
off this
thi design
d i is
i expected
t d to
t perform
f
the
th appropriate
i t tasks
t k
for which the effort was undertaken.
However, the design would generally not be the best design, where
th d
the
definition
fi iti off b
bestt iis b
based
d on cost,
t performance,
f
efficiency
ffi i
or
some other such measure.
In actual practice, we are usually interested in obtaining the best
quality
lit or performance
f
per unit
it cost,
t with
ith acceptable
t bl environmental
i
t l
effects. This brings in the concept of optimization, which minimizes
or maximizes quantities and characteristics of particular interest to a
given application
application.

UNCONSTRAINED SEARCH WITH MULTIPLE

VARIABLES

Let us now consider the search for an optimal

design when the system is governed by two or
more independent variables.
However, the complexity of the problem rises
sharply as the number of variables increases and
and,
therefore, attention is generally directed at the most
important
p
variables, usually
y restricting
g these to two
or three.

 In addition, many practical thermal systems can

be well characterized in terms of two or three
predominant variables.
Examples of this include the length and diameter
of a heat exchanger, fluid flow rate and
evaporator temperature in a refrigeration
system, and so on.

 In order to graphically depict the iterative

approach to the optimum design, a
convenient method is the use of contours
or lines of constant values of the objective
function.
function

Lattice Search Method

Lattice search method in a two-variable space.

Univariate Search
An univariate search involves optimizing the
objective function with respect to one variable at
a time. Therefore, the multivariable problem is
reduced to a series of single-variable
optimization problems, with the process
converging
i tto th
the optimum
ti
as th
the variables
i bl are
alternated

Graphical
p
p
presentation

Various steps in the univariate search method.

The method
A starting point is chosen based on available information on the system
or as a point away from the boundaries of the region
region.
First, one of the variables, say x, is held constant and the function is
optimized with respect to the other variable y.
Point A represents the optimum thus obtained. Then y is held constant
at the value at point A and the function is optimized with respect to x to
obtain the optimum
p
g
given by
yp
point B.
Again, x is held constant at the value at point B and y is varied to obtain
the optimum, given by point C.
This process is continued, alternating the variable, which is changed
while keeping the others constant, until the optimum is attained.
y the change
g in the objective
j
function,, from one step
p
This is indicated by
to the next, becoming less than a chosen convergence criterion or
tolerance

Example
p
The objective
j
function U,, which represents
p
the cost of a
fan and duct system, is given in terms of the design
variables x and y, where x represents the fan capacity
and y the duct length
length, as

Both x and y are real and positive. Using the univariate

search, obtain the optimum value of U and the
corresponding values of x and y. Is this optimum a
minimum or a maximum?

If y is kept constant, the value of x at the optimum is given by

Similarly, if x is held constant, the value of y at the optimum is given by

let us choose x = y = 0.5 as the starting point.

First x is held constant and y is varied to obtain an optimum value
of U. Then y is held constant and x is varied to obtain an optimum
p
g equations
q
are used.
value of U. In both cases,, the preceding

Calculations
x
0.5
1.944161
2.437957
2 531677
2.531677
2.547644
2.550314
2.55076
2.550834
2.550847

y
1.632993
0.828139
0.739531
0 725714
0.725714
0.723436
0.723057
0.722994
0.722983
0.722982

u
9.839626
5.598794
5.427791
5 422513
5.422513
5.422363
5.422359
5.422359
5.422359
5.422359

Steepest
p Ascent/Descent Method
The steepest
p
ascent/descent method is a very
y efficient
search method for multivariable optimization and is
widely used for a variety of applications, including
thermal systems.
systems
It is a hill-climbing technique in that it attempts to move
toward the peak, for maximizing the objective function, or
toward the valley, for minimizing the objective function,
over the shortest possible path.
The method is termed steepest ascent in the former
case and steepest descent in the latter.

 At each step, starting with the initial trial point, the

di ti iin which
direction
hi h th
the objective
bj ti ffunction
ti changes
h
att th
the
greatest rate is chosen for moving the location of the
point, which represents
p
p
the design
g on the multivariable
space.

Steepest ascent method, shown in terms of (a) the climb toward the peak
of a hill and (b) in terms of constant U contours.

 It was shown that the g

gradient vector U is normal to
the constant U contour line in a two-variable space, to
the constant U surface in a three-variable space, and so
on.
on
Since the normal direction represents the shortest
distance between two contour lines, the direction of the
gradient vector U is the direction in which U changes at
the greatest rate.
For a multivariable problem
problem, the gradient vector may be
written as

 At each trial p
point,, the gradient
g
vector is determined and
the search is moved along this vector, the direction being
chosen so that U increases if a maximum is sought, or U
decreases if a minimum is of interest
interest.
The direction represented by the gradient vector is given
by the relationship between the changes in the
independent variables. Denoting these by x1, x2 , --xn , we have

First approach
pp
Choose a starting
gp
point. Select x. Calculate the
derivatives.
Decide the direction of movement, i.e., whether x is
positive
iti or negative.
ti
C
Calculate
l l t y.
Obtain
Obt i the
th new values
l
of x, y, and U.
Calculate the derivatives again at this point. Repeat
previous steps to attain new point.
This procedure is continued until the change in the
variables
i bl b
between
t
ttwo consecutive
ti ititerations
ti
iis within
ithi a
desired convergence criterion.

Second Approach
pp
Choose a starting point.
Calculate the derivatives.
Decide the direction of movement, i.e., whether x must
increase or decrease
decrease.
Vary x, using a chosen step size x and calculating the
corresponding
p
g y.
y Continue to varyy x until the optimum
p
in U is reached.
Obtain the new values of x, y, and U. Calculate the
derivatives again at this point and move in the direction
given by the derivatives.
This p
procedure is continued until the change
g in the
variables from one trial point to the next is within a
desired amount.

Example
p Problem
Consider the simple problem discussed
before and apply the two approaches just
discussed for the steepest ascent/descent
method to obtain the minimum cost U.

 The starting
gp
point is taken as x = y = 0.5. The results
obtained for different values of x are

 Therefore,, if x1 is chosen,, the changes

g in the other
variables must be calculated from these equations. In
addition, x1 is taken as positive or negative, depending
on whether U increases or decreases with x1 and
whether a maximum or a minimum is sought

Multivariable Constrained
Optimization
We now come to the problem of constrained
optimization, which is much more involved than
the various unconstrained optimization cases
considered thus far.
The number of independent variables must be
larger than the number of equality constraints;
otherwise, these constraints may simply be used
to determine the variables and no optimization is
possible

Penalty
y Function Method
The basic approach
pp
of this method is to convert the
constrained problem into an unconstrained one by
constructing a composite function using the objective
function and the constraints
Let us consider the optimization problem given by the
equations

The composite function, also known as the penalty

function, may be formulated in many different ways.

 If a maximum in U is being sought, a new objective

function V is defined as
and if a minimum in U is desired, the new objective
function is defined as
Here the rs are scalar quantities that vary the
importance given to the various constraints and are
known as penalty parameters
parameters.
They may all be taken as equal or different.
Higher values may be taken for the constraints that are
critical and smaller values for those that are not as
important.

If the penalty parameters are all taken as zero, the constraints

have no effect on the solution and, therefore, the constraints
are not satisfied.
On the other hand, if these parameters are taken as large, the
constraints are satisfied but the convergence to the optimum is
slow.
Therefore, by varying the penalty parameters we can vary the
rate of convergence and the effect of the different constraints
on the solution.
The general approach is to start with small values of the
penalty
pe
a ty parameters
pa a ete s a
and
dg
gradually
adua y increase
c ease tthese
ese as tthe
eG
Gs,
s,
which represent the constraints, become small.
This implies going gradually and systematically from an
unconstrained p
problem to a constrained one.

Penalty function method for the combined objective function V and

different values of the penalty parameter r.

Example
p

where U is to be minimized. The inequality constraints give the feasible

domain as 2 < x < 4. Without the constraints, the optimum is at x = 3,
where U is zero.
zero
With the constraints, the minimum is at x = 2, where U = 25/12 = 2.08.

Example
p Problem
In a two-component system, the cost is the objective function given by the
expression
U(x y) = 2x2 + 5y
U(x,
where x and y represent the specifications of the two components. These
variables are also linked by mass conservation to yield the constraint
( y) = xyy -12 = 0
G(x,
Solve this problem by the penalty function method to obtain minimum cost.
The new objective function V(x, y), consisting of the objective function and
th constraint,
the
t i t is
i d
defined
fi d as

Any method for unconstrained optimization may be used for obtaining

the optimum. An exhaustive search can be used because of the simplicity
of the method and the given functions.
If r is taken as zero,
zero the constraints are not satisfied
satisfied, and if r is taken as
large, the constraints are satisfied, but the convergence is slow.

We may also derive x and y in terms of the penalty parameter r, by

differentiating V with respect to x and yy, and equating the resulting
expressions to zero, as

See the spreadsheet

Geometric Programming
g
g

MEL 806
Thermal System Simulation (2-0-2)
Dr. Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi

Degree
g
of difficulty
y
D = N (n + 1)
where N is the total number of terms in the
objective function and in the constraints
and n is the number of independent
variables

Unconstrained Optimization
p
Single Independent Variable

Example
p

Multiple
p Independent
p
Variables

Two
o ot
other
e equat
equations
o s for
o w1 a
and
d w2 a
are
e
obtained from Equation
by equating the sum of the exponents
of each variable to zero in order to
eliminate these variables from the
optimum value of U.

Mathematical Proof
Objective function
The location of the optimum is found by
differentiating this equation and setting the
derivative equal to zero

Multiplying by x:

Define a function

with

To determine the values of w1 and w2 at which an optimum in F is

obtained we may apply the Lagrange multiplier method to the function F
obtained,
with a constraint:

with
i h w1 and
d w2 as the
h iindependent
d
d
variables.

Solving

It is seen that the independent variable x is eliminated

from the optimum
p
value of the objective
j
function. In
addition, the weighting factors w1 and w2 are shown to
indicate the relative contributions of the two terms u1 and
u2 at the optimum.

Constrained Optimization
p
Five terms and four variables (x1, x2, x3, x4)
Objective function:
With constraint:

U = u 1 + u2 + u3
u4 + u5 = 1

Geometric programming gives:

With

And
with

Objective function:
With constraint:

U = u1 + u2 + u3
u4 + u5 = 1

Apply the method of Lagrange multipliers to obtain the optimum.

The corresponding equations are

The derivatives are taken with respect to the independent variables xi,
one at a time, and the resulting equations multiplied by xi.
Since p was taken
as arbitrary
arbitrary, it can
be assumed to be
/U* in writing this
equation

with

These linear equations may be solved for w1, w2, w3, w4, w5, and p.

Problem
In a hot-rolling process, the cost C of the
system is a function of the dimensionless
temperature T, the thickness ratio x, and
the velocity ratio y, before and after the
rolls, and is given by the expression

subject to the constraints due to mass and energy

balance given, respectively, as

 Solution

w1 = 0.8, w2 =0.2,
w3 = w4 = 1, p1 = 1.2, and p2 = 0.4.

Linear Programming
g
g
This method is applicable if the objective
functions as well as the constraints are
linear functions of the independent
variables.
Objective function

Subject to the constraint

 There are n variables and m linear

equations and/or inequalities that involve
these variables
variables.
In linear programming, because of
inequality constraints,
constraints n may be greater
than, equal to, or smaller than m, unlike
the method of Lagrange multipliers
multipliers, which
is applicable only for equality constraints
and for n larger than m

Problem

Slack Variable
4x + 3y + s1 = 16

s1 > 0

y - 2x - s2 = -4

s2 > 0

To find the optimum value of U, two variables, in turn, are set

equal to zero and the remaining variables are obtained from a
solution of the two equations.
For this problem, there are six such combinations, this number
b i in
being
i generall [n!]/[m!(n
/ ( m)!].
)
The optimum is the extremum obtained from these combinations

Problem
A company
p yp
produces x q
quantity
y of one p
product and y of
another, with the profit on the two items being four and
three units, respectively. Item 1 requires one hour of
facility A and three hours of facility B for fabrication
fabrication,
whereas item 2 requires three hours of facility A and two
hours of facility B, as shown schematically in Figure. The
total number off hours per week available for
f the two
facilities is 200 and 300, respectively. Formulate the
optimization
p
p
problem and solve it by
y linear p
programming
g
g
to obtain the allocation between the two items for
maximum profit.

If s1 or s2 is negative, the solution is not

allowed, since these were assumed to be
positive
iti tto satisfy
ti f th
the constraints
t i t

Objective function
U = 4x + 3y
With constraint
x + 3y 200
3x + 2y 300
Introducing slack
variables
x + 3y +s1 = 200
3x + 2y + s2= 300

Graphical
p
Representation
p