EXPERIMENT NO.

= O1
AIM: To find out the surface or convection heat transfer co-efficient for a material.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Water Bath, Thermometer, Metallic Container (Negligible
thickness), Fluid (Ketchup).
SAMPLE TAKEN: Glycerol
THEORY:
Transfer of heat energy that occurs when the molecules possessing high energy levels move
to another part of the system. Bulk molecular motion is involved in convective heat transfer.
It is the primary mechanism of heat transfer in fluids (i.e. Liquids or gases).
In free or natural convection the flow is set up by the buoyancy forces generated by the
differences in density and these differences in density are caused by the temperature
variations in the fluid. For free convection fluid properties are evaluated at the mean film
temperature.
In forced convection the fluid motion is artificially created by means of external agency
like blower, fan, pump, agitator etc. In this case the flow is independent of density gradient.
In forced convection, the fluid properties h are evaluated at the bulk temperature.
The basic equation for both natural and forced convective heat transfer is:
( )
s surface ambient
Q hA T T
Where,
Ts = surface temperature
Ta = ambient temperature
Where, h is surface or convective or simply heat transfer co-efficient.
Let in time dt the temperature change in the body is dT .
T
m
= Temperature of medium
T
0
= Temperature at t = 0
In case of heating, convection heat transfer to body will be = Increase in the internal energy
of the body:
( )
p
hA T dt mc dT
Here,
T deriving force

dT changeinthetemperatureof thebody

h convectionheat transfer co effecient

A surface area fromwhichconvectionis occuring

m mass of the sample

p
C specific heat of sample
( ) ,
m p
or hA T T dt mC dT
( ) ( ) ,
m p
or hA T T dt v C dT
FT-6154 Page 1
(In case of cooling, convection heat loss by body will be = increase in internal energy of the
body, so ve sign is given)
( )
0
0
,
T t
m p T
dt hA
Now dt
T T C v

( )
( )
0
, log
m
e
m p
T T
hA
or t
T T C v

( )
( )
10
0
, log
2.303
m
m p
T T
hA
or t
T T C v

Here,

0
m
T temperatureof themedium
T temperature at timet
T initial temperature

By comparing it with y = mx+c, we have

tan
2.303
p
p y hA
Slope
b x C v

Thus from above equation we can find out the value of h.
GENERAL CALCULATION:

0
m p
m
v
hA
t
T T
C
e
T T

. log
0
m
m p
v
T T hA
t
e
T T C

Drawn the graph between

10
0
log
m
m
T T
T T
_

,

along with Y-axis and t along with X-axis.

From the graph find the slope of the points which is:

2 1
2 1
tan
2.303
p
y y p y hA
Slope
b x x x C v

FT-6154 Page 2
10
0
2.303
log .
m
m p
hA
C v
T T
t
T T
_

,

p
A Surface area of the metalic container
Density of the fluid
v Volume of the fluid
C Specific heat of fluid

From the above equation calculate the Heat Transfer Co-efficient (h).
PROCEDURE:
1.)
500 ml of beaker was taken and washed out.
2.) Blank beaker was weighed out with the help of weighing machine.
3.) Now 150 ml of glycerol was taken in the beaker.
4.)
Now the temperature of the water in the water-bath was evaluated with the help of
digital thermometer. Evaluated temperature was 90.2.
5.)
Then the beaker with glycerol was put in the water bath for heating and after certain
interval of time, the temperature at the centre of the glycerol in the beaker was
estimated.
6.)
For the determination of density we will measured the weight of the sample (glycerol).
7.)
The initial temperature (T
s
) of the fluid is taken.
8.)
Then, with the help of formula derived, temperature ratio was calculated and then log
of temperature ratio was also taken out.
9.)
The sample was placed in water bath for 25min. of experimentation. During this period
in every five minutes gap the temperature of the sample is taken.
10.)
Now, the graph was plotted between log (TR) at Y-axis and time (t) at X-axis.
With the help of graph slope was calculated and hence convection heat transfer co-efficient
was calculated.
FT-6154 Page 3
PRECAUTIONS:

Before adjustment of the water temperature in water bath at the fixed

temperature experiment should not start.

Temperature of the sample should be taken carefully. Do not touch the

thermometer inside of containers wall.
FT-6154 Page 4
EXPERIMENT NO. = O1
AIM: To find out the surface or convection heat transfer co-efficient for a material.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Water Bath, Thermometer, Metallic Container (Negligible
thickness).
SAMPLE TAKEN: Glycerol
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.
t
s
T
0
T
T TR
TR
10
log
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CALCULATION:
Volume of glycerol taken=150ml
Specific heat of glycerol=2.430.00J/kg.K
Weight of glycerol taken=

2
,
4
D
here A DH +

D=
FT-6154 Page 5
H=
A=

m
T

0
T


2 1
2 1
tan
2.303
p
y y y
x x x v
hA
Slope
C

2 1
2 1
y y
Slope
x x

h
RESULT:
The convection heat transfer co-efficient of the sample was
FT-6154 Page 6
EXPERIMENT NO. = 2
AIM: To study the Heat Transfer in natural convection.
APPARATUS: The apparatus consists of a brass tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a
vertical fashion. The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the
purpose of undisturbed surrounding. One side of the duct is made up of persperc for
visualization. An electric heating element is kept in the vertical tube which intern heats the
tube surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by natural convection. The
temperature of the vertical tube is measured by seven thermocouples. The heat input to the
heater is measured by an ammeter and voltmeter and is varied by a dimmerstat.
SPECIFICATION:
a.) Diameter of the tube (d) = 38 mm.
b.) Length of tube (l) =500 mm.
c.) Duct size (20cm*20cm*.75).
d.) Number of thermocouples =7.
e.) Thermocouple number 8 reads the ambient temperature and is kept on the duct.
f.) Temperature indicator (0-300
0
C).
g.) Ammeter (0-2 amp.)
h.) Voltmeter (0-100/200 volts).
i.) Dimmerstat 2 amp. 260 volts.
THEORY:
When a hot body is kept in a still atmosphere heat is transferred to the surrounding fluid by
natural convection.
The fluid layer in contact with the hot body gets heated, rises up due to the decrease in its
density and the cold fluid to take place. The process is continuous and the heat transfer takes
place due to the relative motion of hot and cold fluid particles.
The heat transfer co-efficient is given by:

( )
s s a
Q
h
A T T

(1)
Where, h = average surface heat transfer co-efficient (kcal/ hr-m
2
-
0
C).
q = heat transfer rate (kcal/ hr).
As =area of the heat transferring surface.
FT-6154 Page 7
Ts = average surface temperature (
0
C).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7
s
T T T T T T T
T
+ + + + + +

T
a =
Ambient temperature in the duct (
0
C) = the surface heat transfer co-efficient of a system
transferring heat by natural convection depends on the shape, dimension and orientation of
the fluid and the temperature difference between heat transferring surface and the fluid.
PROCEDURE:
1.) Put on the supply and adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the required heat input (say 40
w, 60 w, 70 w) etc.
2.) Wait till the steady is reached which is confirmed from temperature reading (T
1
to T
7
).
3.) Measure the surface temperature at the various points T
1
to T
7
.
4.) Note the ambient temperature T
8
.
5.) Repeat the experiment at different heat inputs (do not exceed 80 watts).
GENERAL CALCULATIONS:
1.) Calculate the value of average surface heat transfer co-efficient neglecting and losses
using equation 2.
2.) Calculate and plot the variation of local heat transfer co-efficient along the length of
the tube using:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7
s
T T T T T T T
T
+ + + + + +

( )
s s a
Q
h
A T T

s
A dL
PRECAUTIONS:
1.) Adjust the temperature indicator to ambient level by using compensation screw before
starting the experiment.
2.) Keep dimmerstat to zero volt position and increase it slowly.
3.) Use the proper range of ammeter and voltmeter.
4.) Never exceed 80 watts.
FT-6154 Page 8
EXPERIMENT NO = 2
AIM: To study the Heat Transfer in natural convection.
OBSERVATION:
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
T
6
T
7
T
8
Diameter of the tube = 38 mm. = 0.038 m.
Length of tube (l) = 500 mm.
Voltage (V) = 80 volts.
Current (I) = 1.6 Ampere.
CALCULATION:
Total heat transfer,
0.86* * Q V I
=
Ts = average surface temperature (
0
C).
FT-6154 Page 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7
s
T T T T T T T
T
+ + + + + +
=
Area of rod =
s
A dL

=
The heat transfer co-efficient is
( )
s s a
Q
h
A T T

=
=
Calculation of h for various thermocouples:
( )
1
1 s s a
Q
h
A T T

=
( )
2
2 s s a
Q
h
A T T

=
( )
3
3 s s a
Q
h
A T T

=
( )
4
4 s s a
Q
h
A T T

=
( )
5
5 s s a
Q
h
A T T

=
( )
6
6 s s a
Q
h
A T T

=
( )
7
7 s s a
Q
h
A T T

=
Now plot a graph between the distance (y-axis) and h of different thermocouples (x-axis).
RESULT:-
The surface heat transfer co-efficient for a vertical tube by natural convection was
FT-6154 Page 10
EXPERIMENT NO. = 3
AIM: To determine the surface heat transfer coefficient for a vertical tube loosing heat by
forced convection to air flowing through it.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: a vertical tube made up of brass fitted in a rectangular duct, an
electric heating element, several thermocouples indicated as T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6,
ammeter, voltmeter, dimmerstat, blower, orifice meter.
SPECIFICATION:
1.) Pipe diameter (inner) = 32mm
2.) Pipe diameter (outer) = 28mm
3.) Length of test section = 50mm
4.) Blower 1 H.P motor.
5.) Orifice diameter = d = 14mm which is connected to water manometer.
6.) Dimmerstat 0 to 2 amp, 260 volts.
7.) Temp. indicator range 0 to 300 C
8.) SIX Thermocouples.
9.) Voltmeter 0 to 100/ 200 volts
10.) Ammeter 0 to 2 amp
11.) Nichrome wire heated wound on test pipe.
THEORY: Forced convection is a mechanism, or type of heat transport in which fluid
motion is generated by an external source (blower). It should be considered as one of the
main methods of useful heat transfer as significant amount of heat energy can be transported
very efficiently and this mechanism is found very commonly in everyday life.
GENERAL CALCULATIONS:

p
Q mC T &

Where, Q is rate of heat transfer

m& is mass flow rate
C
p
is specific heat
T
is temperature gradient

FT-6154 Page 11
air air
m q &
Where, q
air
is volumetric flow rate of air
air

is density of air

2
2
4
w
air d
a
d
q C gH

Where, C
d
is coefficient of discharge of venturimeter

2
4
d
is cross sectional area
H is height of manometric difference

w

is density of water
air

is density of air
( )
a
S air
Q
h
A T T

Where, h
a
is average heat transfer coefficient (kcal/m
2
c.hr)
Q

is rate at which the air is getting heated
A is test section area(hear transferring area)
T
a
is average temperature of air
T
s
is average surface temperature
PROCEDURE:
1.) Blower was started and adjusted the flow by means of value to some desired
difference in manometer level
2.) Heating of test section was started with the help of dimmerstat and adjusted desired
heat input with the help of voltmeter and ammeter.
3.) Readings of all the thermocouples at an interval of 10 minutes were taken until steady
state was reached.
4.) Now, readings of all six thermocouple were noted down.
5.) Then heater input was noted down and calculations were done.
PRECAUTIONS:
1.) Keep the dimmerstat at zero position before switch on power supply.
FT-6154 Page 12
2.) Start the blower unit
3.) Increase the voltage gradually.
4.) Dont stop the blower in between the testing period.
5.) Dont disturb thermocouple while testing.
6.) Dont exceed 200 watts.
EXPERIMENT NO. = 3
AIM: To determine the surface heat transfer coefficient for a vertical tube loosing heat by
forced convection to air flowing through it.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: a vertical tube made up of brass fitted in a rectangular duct, an
electric heating element, several thermocouples indicated as T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6,
ammeter, voltmeter, dimmerstat, blower, orifice meter.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
1.) Pipe diameter (inner) =32mm
2.) Pipe diameter (outer) =28mm
3.) Length of test section =50mm
4.) Blower 1 H.P motor.
5.) Orifice diameter = d = 14mm which is connected to water manometer.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.no Voltage(v) Current(I
)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Manometric
reading of
water H(m)
p
Q mC T &
FT-6154 Page 13
air air
m q &
2
2
4
w
air d
a
d
q C gH

1 6
2
a
T T
T
+

i
A d L


2 3 4 5
4
a
T T T T
T
+ + +

( )
a
S air
Q
h
A T T

FT-6154 Page 14
EXPERIMENT NO. = 4
AIM: To find the thermal conductivity of given insulating material.
APPARATUS: Thermometer, insulating material, steel plate, heating element.
THEORY: Let's assume that we have a combination of different materials put together to
form a composite structure. Let's also assume that the cross-sectional area normal to the flow
of heat transfer is constant and the periphery is insulated so that heat flow is one-dimensional.
Taking only one of the slabs for now, the heat transfer is governed by Fourier's Law:

dT
Q kA
dx

We now must introduce the concept of thermal resistance for conduction. Resistance in
general is defined as the ratio of driving potential over the transfer rate. As transfer rate goes
to zero, the resistance becomes infinite and, similarly, as the driving potential goes to zero,
resistance fails to exist. By using Fourier's Law and the definition of resistance, we can derive
the thermal resistance for conduction as: where Rcond is the resistance to thermal
conduction, T1 and T2 are the temperatures at the boundary surfaces of the material, and L is
the length of the material.

3 2
1 2 3
T
Q
x x x
k A k A k A

+ +
Now what happens if we combine all the slabs? If we sum up all the individual heat transfers,
the
intermediate temperatures cancel and we get: To simplify Equation 3, we can combine
everything that does not change across the composite bar, like the hot and cold end
temperatures Th and Tc of the bar and the area Ax, and call the rest that does change from
material to material the overall heat transfer coefficient U.
( )
h c
Q UA T UA T T
Now we have to find the overall heat transfer coefficient, experimentally. By plotting the
temperature profile along the bar we can find the value of k for each section of the bar using
Fouriers Law and plug.
PROCEDURE:
1.) Switch on the heater & set the temp constant.
2.) Put the composite disc on heater.
3.) With the help of thermometer check the temp of upper surface of first disc.
4.) Then put the insulator & after sometime check the temp of upper surface.
5.) Note down the readings
FT-6154 Page 15
GENERAL CALCULATIONS:
Rate of heat transfer (Q) =
Thermal conductivity of insulator =
PRECAUTIONS:
5.) Adjust the temperature indicator to ambient level by using compensation screw before
starting the experiment.
6.) Keep dimmer stat to zero volt position and increase it slowly.
7.) Use the proper range of ammeter and voltmeter.
8.) Never exceed 80 watts.
FT-6154 Page 16
EXPERIMENT NO. = 4
AIM: To find the thermal conductivity of given insulating material.
APPARATUS: Thermometer, insulating material, steel plate, heating element
OBSERVATION:
SR.NO. T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
Diameter of the disc = 10 cm = 0.10 m.
Thickness of disc (x) = 0.02m
Thickness of insulator (
2
x
) =0.005m
CALCULATION:

( ) ( )
2
2 3
4
K D T T
Q KA T



3 2
1 2 3
T
Q
x x x
k A k A k A

+ +
RESULT:
The thermal conductivity of insulator is w/m k
FT-6154 Page 17
EXPERIMENT NO. = 05 (A)
AIM: To determine the LMTD, heat transfer rate, OAHTC & effectiveness by LMTD and
NTU method for a parallel flow double pipe heat exchanger.
APPARATUS: Double pipe heat exchanger, thermometers, measuring cylinder.
SPECIFICATIONS OF HEAT EXCHANGER:
1.) Inner diameter of inner of inner tube = (d
i
) =0.01 m
2.) Outer diameter of inner tube (d
o
) = 0.012
3.) Length of heat exchanger (L) = 2 meter

OBSERVATIONS:
1.) Specific heat of hot fluid (C
PH)
=
(SI Units)
2.) Specific heat of cold fluid (C
PC
) =
(SI Units)
3.) Mass flow rate of hot water (m
h
) =
4.) Mass flow rate of cold water (m
c
) =
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
No.
Inlet Temp of
hot water
Inlet Temp
of cold
water
Outlet temp
of hot water
Outlet temp of
cold water
1
2
3
4
5
6


( )
( )
h ph hi ho
c pc co ci
Q m c T T
Or Q m c T T


FT-6154 Page 18

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
log log
i o hi ci ho co
lm
i hi ci
e e
o ho co
T T T T T T
LMTD T
T T T
T T T


_ _


,
,
TO FIND OUT OAHTC:
2
i i
Inner heat transfer areaof inner tube A r L
2
o o
Outer heat transfer areaof inner tube A r L

( ) ( )
log log
i i i o i o
i i
i i
e e
o o
U A T T T T
Q U A
T T
T T
1
1

1

1
_ _
1


1
, , ]
i
U
Similarly,
( ) ( )
log log
o o i o i o
o o
i i
e e
o o
U A T T T T
Q U A
T T
T T
1
1

1

1
_ _
1


1
, , ]
o
U
EFECTIVENESS OF HEAT EXCHANGER (By LMTD method):
Maximum value of temperature in heat exchanger = T
hi
Minimum value of temperature in heat exchanger = T
ci
Therefore, maximum temperature difference available = (T
hi
-T
ci
)
( ) ( )
max min min hi ci
Q C Maximumavailable temp difference C T T
min c h
WhereC C or C whichever is smaller

( ) ( )
actual h h c c
Q C T C T

( ) ( )
actual h hi ho c co ci
Q C T T C T T

( )
( )
( )
( )
max min min
h hi ho c co ci actual
imum hi ci hi ci
C T T C T T Q
Q C T T C T T



FT-6154 Page 19
EFFECTIVENESS OF PARALLEL FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER BY NTU
METHOD:
min
UA
NTU Number of transfer units
C

min
max
C Minimum heat capacity rate
C Capacity Ratio
Maximum heat capacity rat C

DISCUSSION:
FT-6154 Page 20
( )
( )
1
1
1
NTU C
e
C
+
1

1
+
]
EXPERIMENT NO. = 05 (A)
AIM: To determine the LMTD, heat transfer rate, OAHTC and effectiveness by LMTD
and NTU method for a counter current flow double pipe heat exchanger.
APPARATUS: Double pipe heat exchanger, thermometers, measuring cylinder.
SPECIFICATIONS:
1.) Inner diameter of inner of inner tube = (di)=0.01 m
2.) Outer diameter of inner tube (do) = 0.012
3.) Length of heat exchanger (L) = 2 meter

OBSERVATIONS:
1.) Specific heat of hot fluid (C
PH)
= (SI Units)
2.) Specific heat of cold fluid (C
PC
) = (SI Units)
3.) Mass flow rate of hot water (m
h
) =
4.) Mass flow rate of cold water (m
c
) =
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr
No.
Inlet Temp of hot
water
Inlet Temp of
cold water
Outlet temp of hot
water
Outlet temp of cold
water
1
2
3
4
5
6
FT-6154 Page 21

( )
( )
h ph hi ho
c pc co ci
Q m c T T
Or Q m c T T


( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
log log
i o hi co ho ci
lm
i hi co
e e
o ho ci
T T T T T T
LMTD T
T T T
T T T


_ _


,
,
TO FIND OUT OAHTC:
2
i i
Inner heat transfer areaof inner tube A r L
2
o o
Outer heat transfer areaof inner tube A r L

( ) ( )
log log
i i i o i o
i i
i i
e e
o o
U A T T T T
Q U A
T T
T T
1
1

1

1
_ _
1


1
, , ]
i
U
Similarly

( ) ( )
log log
o o i o i o
o o
i i
e e
o o
U A T T T T
Q U A
T T
T T
1
1

1

1
_ _
1


1
, , ]
o
U
EFECTIVENESS OF HEAT EXCHANGER (By LMTD method):
Maximum value of temperature in heat exchanger = T
hi
=
Minimum value of temperature in heat exchanger = T
ci
=
Therefore, maximum temperature difference available = (T
hi
-T
ci
) =

( ) ( )
max min min hi ci
Q C Maximumavailable temp difference C T T
=
min c h
WhereC C or C whichever is smaller
FT-6154 Page 22
( ) ( )
actual h h c c
Q C T C T
( ) ( )
actual h hi ho c co ci
Q C T T C T T
( )
( )
( )
( )
max min min
h hi ho c co ci actual
imum hi ci hi ci
C T T C T T Q
Q C T T C T T



EFFECTIVENESS OF PARALLEL FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER BY NTU
METHOD:
min
UA
NTU Number of transfer units
C

min
max
C Minimum heat capacity rate
C Capacity Ratio
Maximum heat capacity rat C

( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
NTU C
NTU C
e
Ce

DISCUSSION:
FT-6154 Page 23
EXPERIMENT NO. = 05 (B)
AIM: To determine the LMTD, heat transfer rate, OAHTC and effectiveness by LMTD
and NTU method for a parallel flow double pipe heat exchanger.
APPARATUS: Double pipe heat exchanger, thermometers, measuring cylinder.
SPECIFICATIONS:
1.) Inner diameter of inner of inner tube = (di)=0.01 m
2.) Outer diameter of inner tube (do) = 0.012
3.) Length of heat exchanger (L) = 2 meter
THEORY & GENERAL CALCULATIONS:



( ) ( )
log log
i o i o
lm
i i
e e
o o
UA T T T T
Q UA UA T
T T
T T
1
1

1

1
_ _
1


1
, , ]

i o
If T T

( )
2
i o
mean
T T
Thentake MeanTemperature Difference T
+

FT-6154 Page 24

&
mean
Q UA T
EFECTIVENESS OF HEAT EXCHANGER:

max
actual
imum
Q
Q

Now Q
max
is achieved if a fluid with minimum heat capacity rate (mc
p
) undergoes a
temperature change equal to the maximum possible temperature difference available.
Maximum value of temperature in heat exchanger = T
hi
Minimum value of temperature in heat exchanger = T
ci
Therefore, maximum temperature difference available = (T
hi
-T
ci
)
( ) ( )
max min min hi ci
Q C Maximumavailable temp difference C T T

min c h
WhereC C or C whichever is smaller

( ) ( )
actual h h c c
Q C T C T

( ) ( )
actual h hi ho c co ci
Q C T T C T T

( )
( )
( )
( )
max min min
h hi ho c co ci actual
imum hi ci hi ci
C T T C T T Q
Q C T T C T T



In case of LMTD method, the equation ( )
lm
Q UA F T
can be used in the design of heat
exchangers, when all the terminal temperatures are known.
The difficulty arises if the temperatures of fluids leaving the heat exchangers are not known.
In such cases effectiveness by NTU method is used for the determination of heat transfer and
this method does not involve any of the outlet temperatures.
EFFECTIVENESS OF COUNTER CURRENT FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER BY NTU
METHOD:

min max
min max
1 1
1 1
min
min max
1
1 1
UA
C C
UA
C C
e
C e
C C
_


,
_


,

,
FT-6154 Page 25
min
min max
min
min max
1
1
min min
min max
1
1
C UA
C C
C UA
C C
e
C C
e
C C
_


,
_


,

,

h c
Similarly if C C <

min max
&
h c
Then C C C C
CONCEPT OF OVEALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT:
If U
i
& U
o
are the OAHTC based on unit area of inside and outside surfaces of the inner tube,
then

i i lm
Q U A T

&
o o lm
Q U A T
PROCEDURE:
1.) Start the water supply. Adjust the water supply on hot and cold sides.
2.) Firstly, keep the valves V2 and V3 clossed and V1- V4 opened so that arrangement is
parallel flow.
3.) Put few drops of oil in thermometer pockets. Put the thermometer in the thermometer
pockets.
4.) Switch on the geyser. Temperature of water will start rising. After temperatures
become steady, note down the readings and fill up the observation table.
5.) Repeat the experiment by changing the flow.
6.) Now open the valves V2and V3 and then close the valves V1 and V4 the arrangement
is now counter flow.
7.) Wait until the steady state is reached and note down the readings.
PRECAUTIONS:
1.) Never switch on the geyser unless there is water supply through it.
2.) If the red indicator on geyser goes of f during operation, increase the water supply,
because it indicates that water temperature exceeds the set limit.
3.) Ensure study water flow rate and temperatures in before noting down the readings, as
fluctuating water supply can give erratic results.
FT-6154 Page 26
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
NTU C
NTU C
e
Ce

EXPERIMENT NO. = 05 (B)

AIM: To determine the LMTD, heat transfer rate, OAHTC and effectiveness by LMTD
and NTU method for a parallel flow double pipe heat exchanger.
APPARATUS: Double pipe heat exchanger, thermometers, measuring cylinder.
SPECIFICATIONS:
1.) Inner diameter of inner of inner tube = (di)=0.01 m
2.) Outer diameter of inner tube (do) = 0.012
3.) Length of heat exchanger (L) = 2 meter
THEORY & GENERAL CALCULATIONS:


Heat lost by hot fluid = Heat gained by cold fluid
( ) ( )
. .
h c
ph h pc c
Q m c T m c T
( ) ( )
h h c c
Q C T C T
( ) ( )
h hi ho c co ci
Q C T T C T T
( ) ( )
log log
i o i o
lm
i i
e e
o o
UA T T T T
Q UA UA T
T T
T T
1
1

1

1
_ _
1


1
, , ]
FT-6154 Page 27
EFECTIVENESS OF HEAT EXCHANGER:

max
actual
imum
Q
Q

Now Q
max
is achieved if a fluid with minimum heat capacity rate (mc
p
) undergoes a
temperature change equal to the maximum possible temperature difference available.
Maximum value of temperature in heat exchanger = T
hi
Minimum value of temperature in heat exchanger = T
ci
Therefore, maximum temperature difference available = (T
hi
-T
ci
)

( ) ( )
max min min hi ci
Q C Maximumavailable temp difference C T T

min c h
WhereC C or C whichever is smaller

( ) ( )
actual h h c c
Q C T C T

( ) ( )
actual h hi ho c co ci
Q C T T C T T

( )
( )
( )
( )
max min min
h hi ho c co ci actual
imum hi ci hi ci
C T T C T T Q
Q C T T C T T



In case of LMTD method, the equation ( )
lm
Q UA F T
can be used in the design of heat
exchangers, when all the terminal temperatures are known.
EFFECTIVENESS OF PARALLEL FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER BY NTU
METHOD:-

min
min max
1
min min
min max
1
1
C UA
C C
e
C C
C C
_
+

,
1
1

1
_
+
1

1
, ]

h c
Similarly if C C <

min max
&
h c
Then C C C C
We will get the same result.
min
&
UA
The term NTU Number of transfer units ADimensio nless parameter is a measureof size
C
of heat exchanger

FT-6154 Page 28

min
max
&
C Minimum heat capacity rate
C Capacity Ratio
C Maximum heat capacity rat


( )
( )
1
1
1
NTU C
e
C
+
1

1
+
]
CONCEPT OF OVEALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
If U
i
& U
o
are the OAHTC based on unit area of inside and outside surfaces of the
inner tube, then

(5)
i i lm
Q U A T

& (6)
o o lm
Q U A T
FT-6154 Page 29
EXPERIMENT NO. = 6
Aim: To find out the (a) average velocity of the fluid flowing through a pipe (b) mass flow
rate (c) weight flow rate and (d) Reynolds number.
APPARATUS: Beaker, stop watch, measuring cylinder, pipe, tape water flow, weighing
balance.
THEORY: AVERAGE VELOCITY OF F LUID : The velocity is defined as the fluid
covered a distance in a particular time. The dimension is LT
-1
. Here the area is perpendicular
to the direction of flow.

2
4
avg
Q Q
V
A D

Where
avg
V average velocity of a fluid

.
Q volumetric flowrate
A Areaof the pipe
d Diameter of the pipe

A.)Mass flow rate: Mass flow rate is the mass of a substance which passes through a
given surface per unit time. The unit is kg/s.

m A V

, where m mass flowrate
V velocity
A areaof pipe
mass
density
volume

B.)Weight flow rate: The weight flow rate is defined as the mass flow rate multiplied by
the gravitational force. The unit is kg/s.

AV
V velocity
A areaof pipe
weight
weight density
volume

C.)Reynolds number: It is the ratio of inertial stress to the viscous stress (due to
viscosity). It indicates the relative importance of inertial & viscous affect in a fluid
motion. Denoted by Re.
FT-6154 Page 30

Re
,
cos
cos
avg avg
DV DV
where D dia of tube
vis ity of liquid
density of fluid
kinematic vis ity

The flow is laminar if the Re No. is 2100 in a straight circular pipe flow & if the Re No.
exists in between 2100 & 4000 in a straight circular pipe then it is turbulent flow.
PROCEDURE:
a) For finding the average velocity of the fluid:
Pipe was connected with water tap.
Then the fluid pump was switched on & noted down the time by a stop watch by
collecting the water in a beaker.
The water is then transferred to the measuring cylinder & measure the time from
stop watch to obtain the volumetric flow rate.
And then repeated the process for at least 3 times.
Then measure the diameter of the pipe & calculated the area of pipe.
Then calculate the average volumetric flow rate.
b) For mass flow rate
At first we repeated the same 3 steps as done in case of finding avg. vel.
Then measure the measuring cylinder weight without water by using weighing
machine
And then measure the cylinder containing water &calculated the mass difference.
Then calculated the mass/volume for determining the density & by multiplying
the area & velocity with density, we got the mass flow rate.
c) Weight flow rate:
Again first 3 steps were repeated.
FT-6154 Page 31
Then determined the weight by multiplying the mass with gravitational force (g).
Then determined the ratio of weight with volume to get weight density.
Multiplying with area & velocity with weight density we can calculate the value
of weight flow rate.
d) Reynolds Number: The Re. No. was determined by multiplying the tube diameter
with average velocity & density of the fluid with the ratio of viscosity of the liquid.

Re
,
cos
cos
avg avg
DV DV
where D diaof tube
vis ity of liquid
density of fluid
kinematic vis ity

2
4
avg
Q Q
AverageVelocity V
A D

GENERAL CALCULATION
:
Mass FlowRate m A V

Weight FlowRate AV
Re Re
avg avg
DV DV
ynold Number



PRECAUTIONS:

Reading should be taken carefully.

Apparatus should be clean & dust free.

FT-6154 Page 32
EXPERIMENT NO. = 06
Aim: To find out the (a) average velocity of the fluid flowing through a pipe (b) mass flow
rate (c) weight flow rate and (d) Reynolds number.
APPARATUS: Beaker, stop watch, measuring cylinder, pipe, tape water flow, weighing
balance.
OBSERVATIONS:
Sr. No. Volumetric
flow rate
Area of pipe Volume of
pipe
Mass (kg) Weight
density
1
2
3
CALCULATIONS:
Average volumetric flow rate Q =
Mass flow rate =
The weight flow rate =
Reynolds number =
DISCUSSION: The Reynolds number isthan 2100. Therefore flow is
FT-6154 Page 33
EXPERIMENT NO. = 07
AIM: Different types of Heat Exchanger used in food industry.
INTRODUCTION:
Heat transfer is probably the most common unit operation within petroleum chemical, power
plant as well as food processing industries. Equipments such that sterilizers and pasteurizers
in the food industry and incinerators and distillations columns in chemical industry involve
cooling as well as heating of the processes fluids. Heating media are hot water or steam or
any, and cooling media are tower water, tape water, ice water. The control of the flow of heat
at the desired rate is therefore of prime importance in the design and operation of heat transfer
equipment in the processing industries. Given a temperature difference will occur, according
to one or more of three different mechanisms:
1.) Conduction
2.) Convection
3.) Radiation
A device for transferring or exchanging the heat in the form of heat between two fluids is
known as heat exchangers. Two fluids are separated by surface metallic or non-metallic
through heat transfer takes place generally in the direction perpendicular to the flow. Broadly
speaking heat exchanges could be classified as fired or unfired. In the case of a fired heater
heat is transferred from a flame to the fluid by the radiation. In the case of unfired heaters the
mode of heat transfer is by convection in the fluids and by the conduction across solid surface
separating two fluids.
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGER:
1.) ON THE BASIS OF FUNCTION:
On the basis of nature of Heat exchanging process, Heat exchanger are classified as:
a.) Direct contact (open)
b.) Indirect contact (surface)
1.) Regenerator
2.) Recuperator
a.) DIRECT CONTACT HEAT EXCHANGER :
In Direct contact heat exchanger the heat exchange takes place through direct mixing of
hot and cold fluids. The transfer is usually accompanied by mass transfer. this type of heat
exchanger are used in cases where mixing jets of two fluids is harmless and its example as
cooling towers , jet condensers and direct contact feed heaters . Steam gives its latent heat
to heat the water and gets condensed. The non condensing gas is taken out for efficient
heat transfer.
FT-6154 Page 34
b.) INDIRECT CONTACT HEAT EXCHANGER :
Indirect contact heat exchanger the transfer of heat between two fluids could be carried
out by transmission through a wall separating the two fluids. This type includes
regenerators, Recuperators and surface exchangers.
1.) REGENERATORS:
These are heat exchanger in which the hot and cold fluids flow
alternatively (i.e. periodically) through the same space with no or little
physical mixing between streams. The heat carried away by the hot fluids
is accumulated in the walls of the equipment called solid matrix and then
transferred to the cold when it passes the surface next. This is made
possible by rotating the matrix through the fluid passengers arranged side
by side. The parameters which affect the performance of regenerators are:
Heat capacity of the regenerating materials
Rate of absorption of heat and
Rate of release of heat.
2.) RECUPERATORS:
These are the most common heat exchanger in which the hot and the cold
fluids dont come into contact with each other but are separated by a tube
wall or a surface which may be flat or curved in some manner and both the
fluids flow at the same time. The energy exchange is thus accomplished
from hot fluids to a surface by convection through the wall or plate by
conduction and then again by convection from surface to cold fluids.
Category of Recuperators:
a.) Oil coolers, intercoolers, air preheaters, economizers, super heaters, condensers and
surface feed heaters of a steam power plant
b.) Radiators of automobiles,
c.) Evaporators of an ice plant and milk chiller of a pasteurizing plant.
The flow through the Recuperators and direct contact heat exchangers may be treated as
steady state while through regenerators, the flow is essentially transient.
FT-6154 Page 35
2. ON THE BASIS OF FLOW PATH:
a.) PARALLEL FLOW:
As the name implies the hot and the cold fluids flow in the same directions and thus enter the
exchanger from the same side, hence it is called the parallel flow. The temperature distribution
is obvious from the figure 1 that the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids
goes on decreasing from inlet to outlet. This type of heat exchanger is rarely used in practice
because it requires a large area of heat transfer. In a parallel flow heat exchangers, fluids flow
in the same direction. If the specific heat capacity of fluids is constant, it can be given as;
dQ /dt = U A T
Where, dQ / dt = rate of heat transfer between two fluids,
U = overall heat transfer co-efficient,
A = surface area of heat exchange,
Fig.1. Parallel flow heat exchanger
T = logarithmic mean temperature difference defined by
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
log log
i o hi ci ho co
lm
i hi ci
e e
o ho co
T T T T T T
T
T T T
T T T


_ _


,
,

b.) COUNTER FLOW :
In this arrangement, the two fluids flow through the exchanger in opposite direction and thus
enter at and leave from opposites ends. It is evident that the temp difference between the two
fluids remains more or less nearly constant. Due to counter flows this type of exchanger give
maximum heat transfer rate for an given surface area. Hence this type of exchangers is most
favorable devices for heating and cooling of fluids. In a counter flow heat exchanger fluids
FT-6154 Page 36
flows in the opposite direction if the specific heat capacity of fluids are constant it can be
shown that;
dQ /dt = U A T
Where, dQ / dt = rate of heat transfer between two fluids,
U = overall heat transfer coefficient,
A = surface area of heat exchanger,
T = logarithmic mean temperature difference defined by

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
log log
i o hi co ho ci
lm
i hi co
e e
o ho ci
T T T T T T
T
T T T
T T T


_ _


,
,
c.) CROSS FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER :
In this arrangement, the two fluids flow at right angle two each other. Three arrangement of
this type of exchanger is possible. in the first case ,each of fluid is unmixed at its flows
through the exchanger, hence the temp of fluid leaving the heater section its not uniform .an
automobile radiator is the example of this type of heat exchanger. In the second case, one fluid
is perfectly mixed while the other is unmixed as it flows through the exchanger. The temp of
mixed fluid will be uniform across any section and will vary only in the direction of flow.
FT-6154 Page 37
3.) SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER:
This is the most widely used types of heat exchanger. The equipment consists of a number of
parallel tubes closed in a relatively closed fitting cylindrical shell. If one of the fluids, either
in the tube or in the shell condenses the unit is known as condenser or as the heater, depending
on whether the primary purpose of the unit is to condense one fluid or to heat the other. In the
case of vapor in tube condenser , the vapors distribution is uniform ,pressure drop is
reasonable and vapors sub cooling is readily accomplished for the service at high vacuum
condition, horizontal vapor in shell condenser is preferred design, because at high vacuum
vapor lines are large ,vapor temp usually high and condensate sub cooling is not too important.
.
Figure: 2 Shell and tube type Heat
Exchanger
FT-6154 Page 38
TYPES OF SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
1.) TYPE L, M AND N - FIXED TUBE SHEETS : These units are constructed with the tube
sheets integral with the shell. They may be used in conjunction with an A, B or N type front
head. The tube bundle is not removable so that spare bundles cannot be used nor can the shell
intervals be mechanically cleaned. This rigid attachment of the tubes to the shell permits
differential expansion only if an expansion joint is used. This tends to limit the pressure
attainable and the thermal cycling.

Figure: 3. Heat exchanger with fixed tube plates (four tubes, one
shell pass)
2.) FIXED BUNDLE WITH EXPANSION JOINTS : Similar to the type BEM except this
exchanger can be used where severe temp differentials exits which dictate the necessity of a unit
free to expand and contract.
3.) FIXED BUNDLE WITH CONTINOUS TUBE : With the exclusive patented continues
tube feature this type of exchanger can be used for application where severe plugging would
normally occur, such as in laundry, textile or paper mill application. the continuous tube feature
with a back flushing arrangement allows Liddell to firmly guarantee that such plugging will
never occur .because of stacked design the unit can be expanded as required by the addition of
more sections.
4.) FLOATING HEAD PULL THROUGH DESIGN : Pull through Floating Heads the
floating tube sheet is designed with a larger diameter than that required for the tube array. Studs
are located in this peripheral region of the tube sheet and the floating head cover is attached
directly to the tube sheet with a gasket. This feature offers a considerable savings where
frequent shell side cleaning or maintenance is required. Because of the large tube sheet
FT-6154 Page 39
required, these units require a somewhat larger shell size than other units of comparable surface
area.
Figure: 4 Heat exchanger with Floating head
5.) TYPE S - INSIDE SPLIT BACKING RING : The floating tube sheet is sealed to the
floating head cover using a split backing ring and a gasket surface. A large flanged surface in
the head cover provides a strong sealing surface with minimal distortion. Thermal expansion,
thermal cycling, bundle replacement, tube repair and cleaning are all straight forward. The
design is subjected to less tube sheet distortion under high pressure operation and will find its
primary application in such services.
6.) COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGER : There are many special purpose heat exchangers
called compact heat exchanger. such heat exchanger are an outgrowth of efforts to achieves a
very large transfers surface area per unit volume of the exchanger .They are generally used
when convective heat transfer coefficient associated with one of fluids is much smaller than that
associated with the other fluids.
Fig. 5. COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGE
FT-6154 Page 40
Experiment No. = 8
AIM: To measure the discharge through a pipe using venturimeter.
APPARATUS: Venturimeter, fluid flowing system.
VENTURIMETER SPECIFICATIONS:
1.) Material-acrylic,
2.) Throat diameter:-14mm,
3.) Upstream diameter:-28mm,
4.) Upstream taper:-21
5.) Downstream taper:-14
THEORY: A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a
pipe. The principle of the venturimeter is that, by reducing the cross section area of flow
passes, pressure difference is created and the measurement of pressure enables the
determination of the discharge through pipe. A venturimeter consists of an inlet
section followed by a convergent cone, a cylindrical throat and a gradually divergent cone.
GENERAL CALCULATIONS:

2 2 1 2
1 1 2 2
1 1
2 2
p p
v Z v Z
w g w g
+ + + +
Where,
1
p
w
is pressure head at inlet,

2
p
w
is pressure head at throat.

2
1
1
2
v
g
is velocity head at inlet.

2
2
1
2
v
g
is velocity head at throat.

1
Z
is elevation head at inlet.

2
Z
is elevation head at throat.
( )
2 2 1 2
1 2 2 1
1
2
p p
Z Z v v
w w g
_ _
+ +

, ,
( )
2 2
2 1
1
2
H v v
g


Where, H is manometer head difference of flowing fluid.
1 2
2 2
1 2
2
theoretical
g H
Q A A
A A

Where,
1
A
is area of cross-section at inlet.

2
A
is area of cross-section at throat.
FT-6154 Page 41
1 2
2 2
1 2
2
actual d
g H
Q C A A
A A

actual
Q
=
d
C
*
theoretical
Q
d
C
is coefficient of discharge. And its value is <1
PROCEDURE:
1.) Open flow control valve V1 given at the end of test section.
2.) To release the air from test section, start water supply at maximum flow.
3.) Regulate flow of water through test section with the help of water supply source and
valve V1 given at the end of the section.
4.) Apply air pressure by operating the hand pump gently to set the level in piezometer
tubes to observing limit.
5.) Wait for a minute and then measure the flow rate of water through the test section.
6.) Note the static head at different points of the flow meters from the piezometer tubes.
7.) Repeat the experiment for different flow rates o water.
8.) When experiment is over stop the water supply and open the flow control valve V1.
PRECAUTIONS:
1.) Always keep apparatus free from dust.
2.) Never fully close the delivery line and by-pass line valves simultaneously.
Experiment No. = 8
FT-6154 Page 42
AIM: To measure the discharge through a pipe using Venturimeter.
APPARATUS: Venturimeter, fluid flowing system.
OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS:
g = 9.81 m/s
2
d
1
=0.028 m
d
2
=0.014 m
d
0
=0.010, 0.015 m (as per selection)
a
1
=0.000616 m
2
a
2
=0.000154 m
2

w

=1000 kg/ m
3
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.
no
Manometric head reading Time(sec) Actual
discharge
Q
a
(m
3
/sec)
H
pipe
(cm) H
throat
(cm) H (cm)
CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. no H (m) Actual
discharge
Q
a
(m
3
/sec)
theoretical
discharge
Q
t
(m
3
/sec)
Coefficient
of
discharge
C
d
RESULT:
FT-6154 Page 43
Experiment No. = 9
AIM: To measure the velocity of flow in a pipe using Pitot tube.
APPARATUS: Pitot tube, fluid flowing system.
SPECIFICATION:
Pitot tube: Material copper of compatible size fitted with vernier scale.
Test section: Material clear acrylic, compatible to 1 Dia. Pipe.
Flow measurement: using measuring tank with piezometer, capacity 40 liters.
Sump tank: Capacity 70 liters.
THEORY: It is an instrument used to determine the velocity of flow at the required point in
a pipe or stream. A pitot tube is consists of glass tube bent through 90. The liquid rises up in
the pressure exerted by the flowing liquid. Applying Bernoullis equation at section 1 &2

2 2 1 2
1 1 2 2
1 1
v Z Z
2 2
p p
v
w g w g
+ + + +
Now, Z
1
+Z
2
and v
2
=0

2 1 2
1
1
v
2
p p
w g w
+

2 2 1
1
1
v
2
p p
w w g
_


,
Now, (p
2
/ p
1
/) = pressure head difference between sections 1 &2 =H

2
1
1
H v
2g

1
2
v
v C g H m/s this is a theoretical velocity.
The actual velocity is given by
( )
1
2
v
actual
v C g H (Phizometer reading in terms of flowing fluid)
Where c
v
is coefficient of pitot tube.
FORMULAE:
Discharge,
3
Q= m / s.
A R
t

Velocity, ( ) V m/ s
Q
A
,
FT-6154 Page 44
Actual velocity 2
v
C g H ,
Co-efficient of Pitot tube=
2
Q
A g H

PROCEDURE:
Starting:-
1.) Clean the apparatus and make tank free from dust.
2.) Close the drain valves provided.
3.) Fill the sump tank with clean water and ensure that no foreign
particles are there.
4.) Close all flow control valves given on the water line and open bypass
valve.
5.) Close all pressure taps.
6.) Ensure that on/off switch given on the panel is at off position.
7.) Operate the flow control valve to regulate the flow of water through
the test section.
8.) Adjust water flow rate desired rate with the help of control valve.
9.) Set the pitot tube at the center of test section.
10.) Record the difference piezometer with pitot tube and measure the
discharge with the help of measuring tank and stop watch.
11.) Calculate the co-efficient of pitot tube from actual and theoretical
velocities.
12.) Repeat the same procedure for different flow rates of water, operating
control valve bypass value.
Closing:-
1.) When experiment is over, close the entire valve.
2.) Drain all the water from the system.
3.) Clean the system.
PRECAUTIONS:
1.) Never fully close the delivery line and bypass line valves
simultaneously.
2.) Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
FT-6154 Page 45
Experiment No. = 9
AIM: To measure the velocity of flow in a pipe using Pitot tube.
APPARATUS: Pitot tube, fluid flowing system.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:
A = area of measuring tank=0.1m
2
a = cross sectional area of test pipe= 0.0005722m
2

w

= Density of water= 1000kg/m

3
g = acceleration due to gravity= 9.81m/sec
2
H = manometric head difference
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.no
( ) H cm
R(cm) T(sec)
CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. no
( ) H m
R(m) Q(m
3
/sec) C
V
RESULT:
FT-6154 Page 46
Experiment No. = 10
Aim: To measure the discharge through a pipe using orifice meter.
Apparatus: Orifice meter, fluid flowing system.
Orifice meter specifications:
Material acrylic, dia-10, 15 mm
Manometer-range-500 mm.
Theory: It is cheaper device than venturimeter. Orifice meter another device used for
measuring the discharge through pipe. Orifice meter works on the same principle as that of
venture meter i.e. by reducing the cross sectional area of the passes a pressure difference
between the two sections is developed and the measurement of the pressure difference
enables the determination of the discharge through pipe.
An orifice meter consists of a flat circular plate with a circular hole called orifice, which is
concentric with pipe axis. The discharge through orifice meter can be calculated by the
formula:

( )

1 0
2 2
1 0
aa 2g H
a a
t
Q
( )
( )

d 1 0
2 2
1 0
C aa 2g Manometer reading in terms of flowing fluid
a a
actual
Q
GENERAL CALCULATIONS:
Actual discharge (Qa), from measured water supply =
* A R
t
(m
3
/s)
Source m
3
/sec
To calculate the co-efficient for venturimeter:
FT-6154 Page 47
Pressure difference, H [H = (H
pipe
-H
orifice
)];
Theoretical discharge, (Q
t
) [
( )

1 0
2 2
1 0
aa 2g H
a a
t
Q
];
Co-efficient of discharge (C
d
) [
a
d
t
Q
C
Q

]
Procedure:
Starting:
1.) Open flow control valve v1 given at the end of test section.
2.) To release the air from test section, start water supply at maximum flow.
3.) Regulate flow of water through test section with the help of water supply
source and valve v1 given at the end of section.
4.) Apply air pressure by operating the hand pump gently to set the level in
piezometer tubes to observing limit.
5.) Wait for a minute and then measure flow rate of water through the test section
(by FM-17 Hydraulic bench).
6.) Note the static head at different points of the flow meters from the piezometer
tubes 1 to 8.
7.) Repeat the experiment for different flow rates of water.
Closing:
1.) when experiment is over stop the water supply to set up.
2.) Open the flow control valve v1
3.) Wait for a minute so that circulated water from the set up drains.
4.) Disconnect the plug provided at the inlet of the set up from the coupler of the
water supply line.
Precautions:
1.) Always keep apparatus free from dust.
2.) Always use clean water.
FT-6154 Page 48
Experiment No. = 10
Aim: To measure the discharge through a pipe using orifice meter.
Apparatus: Orifice meter, fluid flowing system.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:
g= 9.81 m/sec
2
d
1
= 0.028 m
d
2
= 0.014 m
FT-6154 Page 49
d
0
= 0.010, 0.015m (as per selection)
a
1
= 0.000616 m
2
a
2
= 0.000154 m
2

w

= 1000kg/m
3
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. no Manometric head reading Time(sec) Actual
discharge
Q
a
(m
3
/sec)
H
pipe
(cm) H
orifice
(cm) H (cm)
CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. no H (m) Actual
discharge
Q
a
(m
3
/sec)
theoretical
discharge
Q
t
(m
3
/sec)
Coefficient of
discharge
C
d
RESULT:
FT-6154 Page 50
EXPERIMENT NO. = 11
AIM: To study the working theory of different types of pumps.
INTRODUCTION:
A pump is a machine which converts mechanical energy (supplied to it from some external
source) into pressure energy of the liquid which is used to lift the liquid from lower to higher
level.
The pumps are classified as:
1.)Centrifugal pumps:
In centrifugal pumps, the mechanical energy of the liquid is increased by centrifugal
action.
2.)Positive displacement pumps:
In positive displacement pumps, a definite volume of liquid is trapped in a chamber,
which is alternatively filled from the inlet and emptied at a higher pressure through
the discharge.
Positive displacement pumps are further classified as:
(a) Reciprocating pumps e.g. Piston pump, plunger pump
(b) Rotary pumps e.g. Gear pump, mono pumps
The factors which influence the choice of pump for particular operation are:
(a) The quantity of the liquid to be pumped.
(b) The head against which the liquid to be pumped.
(c) The nature of the liquid to be handled.
(d) The nature of power supply.
(e) Method of operation i.e. continuous or intermittent.
(f) Cost and mechanical efficiency.
CAPACITY: It is the rate at which the liquid is pumped by fluid moving device.
Overall Efficiency: It is the ratio of useful hydraulic work performed by the device to the
actual work input, regardless of type of device.
FT-6154 Page 51
1.) CENTRIFUGAL PUMP :
Fig. 2.44 Schematic diagram of centrifugal pump
The impeller blades when revolve in casing, it produces a reduction in pressure at the
eye of the impeller and the liquid flows into the impeller from the suction pipe.
The liquid is thrown outward by centrifugal action along the blades. As a result of
high speed of rotation the liquid acquires a high kinetic energy.
The acquired kinetic energy is, then, converted into pressure energy when it leaves the
blade tips and the liquid passes into the volute chamber and finally discharged
through the outlet.
ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:
1. It is simple in construction.
2. It operates at high speed and hence, can be coupled directly to an electric
motor.
3. It gives a steady delivery/discharge.
4. It has lower maintenance cost than any other type of pump.
5. It can handle liquid containing high proportions of suspended solids.
6. For equal capacity, centrifugal pump is much smaller than other pumps.
DISADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:
1. It is not usually self priming
2. It has low efficiencies (50-65%)
3. It cant handle very viscous liquids efficiently
4. It does not develop a high pressure
5. If the non-return valve (NRV) is not provided in the delivery or suction line, the liquid
will run back into the suction tank (reservoir) as soon as pump stops
FT-6154 Page 52
2.) RECIPROCATING PUMPS :
A reciprocating pump consists of a piston (or plunger) which reciprocates back and
forth in a closely fitted stationary cylinder.
Fig. 2.45 Schematic diagram of single-acting and double-acting reciprocating pump
The cylinder is connected to suction and delivery pipes. Each of these pipes is provided
with a NRV called suction valve and delivery valve, respectively.
A NRV permits unidirectional flow.
During the backward movement of a piston (Suction stroke), a partial vacuum (Suction
pressure) is created in the cylinder and due to opening of suction valve the liquid moves
into the cylinder.
The forward movement of the piston (Delivery stroke) causes high pressure of the liquid
in the cylinder. During the delivery stroke, the suction valve closes and delivery valve
opens and the liquid is pumped in the delivery pipe.
FT-6154 Page 53
3.) EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP (ROTARY PUMP) :
It consists of two identical intermeshing spur gears working with a fine clearance
inside the casing.
Fig. 2.45 Schematic diagram of rotary pump
As the gears rotate, the liquid is trapped in between their teeth and is flown to the
discharge end around the casing. The rotating gears build up sufficient pressure to force
the liquid into the delivery pipe.
Each tooth of the gear acts like a piston (or plunger), of a reciprocating pump to force the
liquid into the discharge pipe.
4.) LOBE PUMP :
It resembles with a gear pump in action. As the lobes rotate, the liquid is trapped in
the pockets formed between the lobes and casing. The lobes build up sufficient pressure
to force the liquid into the delivery pipe.
Fig. 2.46 Schematic diagram of lobe pump
The only drawback of this pump is that its discharge is not as constant as that of gear
pump.
FT-6154 Page 54
5.) VANE PUMP :
It consists of a disc rotating eccentrically in the pump casing. The disc has a number
of slots containing vanes, which are free to slide radially into the slots.
Fig 2.47 Schematic diagram of vane pump
When the rotor rotates the disc, the vanes are pressed against the casing and liquid is
suctioned from the bottom side. The vanes build up sufficient pressure to force the liquid
into the delivery pipe.
FT-6154 Page 55
EXPERIMENT NO. = 12
Aim: To draw the drying curve & drying rate curve of a) Cubes b) Sphere c)
Cylinders at 60
0
C, 70
0
C, 80
0
C & to find out the moisture diffusivity (cubes,
cylinders & spheres).
APPARATUS: Dryer, beakers, weighing balance.
Sample: Potato.
THEORY: Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another
solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. This process is often used as a final
production step before selling or packaging products. To be considered "dried", the final
product must be solid, in the form of a continuous sheet (e.g. paper), long pieces (e.g. wood),
particles (e.g. cereal grains or corn flakes) or powder (e.g. sand, salt, washing powder, milk
powder). A source of heat and an agent to remove the vapour produced by the process are
necessary. In by-products like food, grains, and pharmaceuticals like vaccines, the solvent to
be removed is almost invariably water.
In the most common case, a gas stream, e.g., air, applies the heat by convection and carries
away the vapour as humidity. Other possibilities are vacuum drying, where heat is supplied
by conduction or radiation (or microwaves) while the vapour thus produced is removed by
the vacuum system. Another indirect technique is drum drying (used, for instance, for
manufacturing potato flakes), where a heated surface is used to provide the energy and
aspirators draw the vapour outside the room. In turn, the mechanical extraction of the solvent,
e.g., water, by centrifugation, is not considered "drying".
MOISTURE CONTENT:
Moisture content on dry basis is defined as the amount of water to the amount of dry matter.

Amount of water
Moisturecontent on wet basis
Amount of dry matter

Moisture content on dry basis is defined as the amount of water to the amount of dry matter.

Amount of water
Moisturecontent on wet basis
Amount of wet matter

0
0
;
.
.
.
t e
e
t
e
M M
Moisture ratio
M M
Where
M Moisturecontent at any timet
M Initial moisturecontent
M Equilibriummoisturecontent

FT-6154 Page 56
MOISTURE DIFFUSIVITY:
Moisture diffusivity is considered to be constant.
D = f (Temperature & moisture Content)
If moisture migration takes place by Diffusion only, then the drying rate can be predicted by
Ficks law.

2 2 2
2 2 2
1 M M M M
x y z D t

+ +

(For Cartesian coordinates)

2
2
1 M M M
D
r r r t

+

(For Cylindrical coordinates)

2
2
2 M M M
D
r r r t

+

(For spherical coordinates)
The Numerical solutions of these differential equations can be solved by Finite
Difference analysis & gives better solution.
The analytical solutions for slab, cylindrical & spherical geometries assuming that (i)
the moisture is initially uniformly distributed throughout the sample, (ii) mass transfer is
unidirectional, (iii) surface moisture content of the samples instantaneously reaches
equilibrium with the conditions of the surrounding air, and (iv) assuming that the sample size
and geometry remain constant during convective drying .
By applying boundary Conditions:
M(r, 0) = M
o
for r <R
& M(r
o
, t) = M
e
for t>0
Analytical solutions of these equations are given by Crank (1975)
( )
( )
2
2 2 2
0
2 1
8 1
exp
2 1
t e
n
o e
D n t M M
MR
M M L
n

1
+
1

+
1
]

(For Cartesian coordinates)

2
2 2
0
4
exp
t e n
n
o e n
M M Dt
MR
M M r

1

1

(For Cylindrical coordinates)

Where
n

are the roots (2.405, 5.520, 8.64, -------) of Bassel function of Zero Order
( ) 0
o
J r
FT-6154 Page 57
2 2
2 2 2
0
6 1
exp
t e
n
o e
M M n D t
MR
M M n r

1

1

(For spherical coordinates)

Some researchers calculated effective diffusivity by using only first term of these analytical
solutions of Fickian model assuming that the effect of terms other than first one on value of
diffusivity was non-significant.
Therefore for practical purposes infinite terms of Analytical solution is reduced to only one
term.
2 2
8
exp
t e
o e
M M Dt
MR
M M L
1

1

]
PROCEDURE:
a) Cut the potatoes in different shapes like cubes, spheres & cylinders.
b) Weighed the samples & noted down the readings.
c) Now put the samples on different dryer fixed at different temperature (60, 70, 80
0
C).
d) Put one piece of sample (potato) on dryer for total moisture removal.
e) After every 10min the sample is carried out from dryer & weighed and again put it
onto dryer.
f) Take the readings on every 10 min interval.
GENERAL CALCULATIONS:

( )
( )
( )
2
2 2 2
0
2 1
8 1
exp
2 1
t e
n
o e
D n t M M
MR Cubes
M M L
n

1
+
1

+
1
]

( )
2
2 2
0
4
exp
t e n
n
o e n
M M Dt
MR Cylinders
M M r

1

1

( )
2 2
2 2 2
0
6 1
exp
t e
n
o e
M M n D t
MR Spheres
M M n r

1

1

PRECAUTIONS:
1.)
Reading should be taken carefully.
2.) Take extra care while handling with dryer.
FT-6154 Page 58
EXPERIMENT NO. = 12
AIM: To draw the drying curve & drying rate curve of a) Cubes b) Sphere c)
Cylinders at 60
0
C, 70
0
C, 80
0
C & to find out the moisture diffusivity.
APPARATUS: Dryer, beakers, weighing balance.
Sample: Potato.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Time(min) M.C(Dry
basis)
60
0
C
M.C(Dry
basis)
70
0
C
M.C(Dry
basis)
80
0
C
M. Ratio
60
0
C
M.
Ratio
70
0
C
M.
Ratio
80
0
C
For determination of drying curve:
For longer drying time we will take moisture ratio
0
t
M
M

.
FT-6154 Page 59
Plot the graph between time (X-axis) & moisture ratio (Y-axis).
For determination of drying rate curve:
Plot the graph between moisture removed/time or drying rate (Y-axis) & temperature (X-
axis).
For determination of moisture diffusivity:
1.) For Cube :
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2 2
0
2 1
8 1
exp
2 1
t
n
o
D n t M
MR Cubes
M L
n

1
+
1
+
1
]

When n = 0;
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2 2
2 1
8
exp
log ;
2 1
8
log log exp
t
o
t
o
D n t M
MR Cubes
M L
Taking inbothside
D n t M
M L

1
+
1
1
]
_
1
+ _
1


1 ,
]
,
From slope of graph between T (X-axis) & log (Moisture Ratio) on (Y-axis) gives the value
of slope =
2
D /4L
2
& intercept=8/
2
From slope we can find out the value of diffusivity.
2.) For Cylinders :
( )
( )
2
2 2
0
2
2
2
2
4
exp
0;
exp
log ,
log log exp
t n
n
o n
t n
o
t n
o
M Dt
MR Cylinders
M r
whenn
M Dt
MR
M r
taking inboth sides
M Dt
MR
M r

1

1
]

1

1
]
_ 1


1
]
,

FT-6154 Page 60
From slope of graph between T (X-axis) & log (Moisture Ratio) on (Y-axis) gives the value
of slope =
2
D /4L
2
& intercept=8/
2
From slope we can find out the value of diffusivity
3.) For sphere :
2 2
2 2 2
0
6 1
exp
t
n
o
M n D t
MR
M n r

1

1
]

2 2
2 2 2
0
2 2
2
6 1
exp
exp
t
n
o
t
o
M n D t
MR
M n r
whenn
M n D t
MR
M r

1

1
]

1

1
]

From slope of graph between T (X-axis) & log (Moisture Ratio) on (Y-axis) gives the value
of slope =
2
D /4L
2
& intercept=8/
2
From slope we can find out the value of diffusivity.
RESULT:
FT-6154 Page 61