AN887

APPLICATION NOTE

MICROCONTROLLERS MADE EASY

by Microcontroller Division Applications

WHAT IS A MICROCONTROLLER?
A few years ago, system control functions were implemented using logic components and
were usually large, heavy boxes. Later on, microprocessors were used and the entire con-
troller could fit onto a small circuit board. As the process of miniaturization continued, all of the
components needed for a controller were built right onto one chip. By only including the fea-
tures specific to the task, cost is relatively low.
A typical microcontroller has bit manipulation instructions, easy7 and direct access to I/O, and
quick and efficient interrupt processing. Therefore, a microcontroller is a highly integrated
device which includes, on one chip, all or most of the parts needed to perform an application
control function.
Microcontrollers come in many varieties. Depending on the power and features that are
needed, customers might choose a 4, 8, 16, or 32 bit microcontroller.
Figure 1. Typical MCU Block Diagram

CONTAINS CONTAINS
PROGRAM ROM RAM TEMPORARY
AND DATA DATA

CONTAINS
EXECUTES PROGRAM
MANAGES EVENTS
CPU EEPROM PERMANENT
DATA

SIGNAL GENERATION A/ D
ANALOG DATA
EVENT COUNTING TIMER
CONVERTER ACQUISITION
APPLICATION TIMEBASE

SERIAL SENDS AND

PERIPHERAL
INTERFACE
I/O PORT RECEIVES
INTERFACE
DATA

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ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM is usually used to store program instructions. ROM is the least expensive mean of
storing a program in a microcontroller, especially for high volume manufacturing.

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Flash
Flash is an electrically erasable and programmable memory. It can be used instead of ROM to
store program instructions and data. A key parameter of Flash memory is its endurance or the
number of times it can be erased or reprogrammed. Depending on the technology used, flash
endurance can be either 100 or 300,000 program/erase cycles.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
During in the execution of a program, data have to be saved for later use. Data are usually
stored in RAM.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
There is another way to store data in a microcontroller: EEPROM is used to store data that
must be saved through a power down cycle.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
It is the brain of the system that processes all data and their travel along the bus. For example,
in order to execute a program, the CPU will read the first instruction from program memory.
This instruction is decoded by the CPU and executed. At the completion of the execution of
the instruction, the next instruction is fetched from memory and is executed. This procedure is
repeated until the end of the program (or an endless loop) is found.
Figure 2. Typical Microcontroller Block Organization

PROGRAM
MEMORY
INPUT BUS ROM
OUTPUT DATA
MEMORY
PERIPHERAL
RAM
SYSTEMS CENTRAL
TIMING EEPROM
PROCESSING
SYSTEM
UNIT
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TIMERS
The timer or timing system makes it possible to measure and time external and internal
events. The power of the timers varies greatly between different MCUs.
I / O (INPUT / OUTPUT) PORTS
Most microcontrollers have several digital I/O ports that are used to drive a LED or get a key-
board input. Usually, a port consists of eight or less bits, usually programmable as either input
or output bits.

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SERIAL INTERFACE
Serial interface are used to exchange data with the external world. Many microcontrollers
have both asynchronous and synchronous communications peripherals built in. Usually, an
asynchronous interface is called a serial communication interface (SCI or UART) while the
synchronous interface is called a serial peripheral interface (SPI). A typical SCI application is
to connect a PC for debugging purpose while a typical SPI application is to connect an ex-
ternal EEPROM.
A synchronous bus includes a separate line for the clock signal which simplifies the transmitter
and receiver but is more susceptible to noise when used over long distances. With an asyn-
chronous bus the transmitter and receiver clocks are independent, and a resynchronization is
performed for each byte at the start bit.
Figure 3. Synchronous and Asynchronous Communication Principles

SYNCHRONOUS ASYNCHRONOUS

CLOCK
CLOCK
0 b b b b b 1 +
Start Stop DATA
b b b b b b b DATA

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A/D CONVERTER
Converts an external analog signal (typically relative to voltage) into a digital representation.
Microcontrollers that have this feature can be used for instrumentation, environmental data
logging, or any application that lives in an analog world.
Figure 4. A/D Converter Principle

Voltage
A/D
ANALOG CONVERTER DIGITAL
5
4
ANALOG
3 SIGNAL
5 4 2 1 1 2
2

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1 TYPICAL MICROCONTROLLER APPLICATIONS

Microcontrollers are frequently found in home appliances (microwave oven, refrigerators, tel-
evision and VCRs, stereos), computers and computer equipment (laser printers, modems,
disk drives), cars (engine control, diagnostics, climate control), environmental control (green-
house, factory, home), instrumentation, aerospace, and thousands of other uses. In many
items, more than one processor can be found.
Figure 5. Typical MCU Applications

TV SET BODY CONTROLLER

TELEPHONE SET
MONITOR

CAR RADIO KEYBOARD

DASHBOAD
FRONT PANEL

REMOTE
REMOTE BATTERY CHARGER DIMMER METER
SWITCH KEYLESS
CONTROL

While microprocessors target the maximum processing performance, the purpose of micro-
controllers is to implement a set of control function in the most cost effective way. Although
controlling a microwave oven with a Pentium(TM) might seem an attractive idea, it can be easily
accomplished with an ST6.
In a typical application, the MCU has to manage several tasks according to their priority or to
the occurrence of external events (new command send by the keyboard, external temperature
rise,...)
Figure 6. Example of MCU Task Management.

CENTRAL MCU
FUNCTION
KEYBOARD INFORMATION
SCANNING DISPLAY

MEASURE CHANGE
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
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The ability to manage control tasks by hardware or by software is the main performance indi-
cator for MCUs.

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EXAMPLE: THE AUTOMOTIVE MARKET

The automotive market is the most important single driving force in the microcontroller
market, especially at it’s high end. Several microcontroller families were developed specifically
for automotive applications and were subsequently modified to serve other embedded appli-
cations.
Figure 7. MCU Applications in Automotive

FUEL INJECTION TRIP COMPUTER

WINDOW LIFT KEYLESS ENTRY

CAR RADIO AIRBAG

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SEAT BELT FASTENER DASHBOARD DISPLAY
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The automotive market is demanding in term of device performance and component reliability.
Electronics must operate under extreme temperatures and be able to withstand vibration,
shock, and EMI. The electronics must be reliable, because a failure that causes an accident
can (and does) result in multi-million dollar lawsuits. Reliability standards are high - but be-
cause these electronics also compete in the consumer market - they have a low price tag.
Figure 8. MCU Applications in Today’s and Tomorrow’s Home

TODAY’S TOMORROW’S
HOME HOME

- TV SET, VCR - ENERGY MANAGEMENT

- CORDLESS PHONE - HOME AUTOMATION

- HEATING SYSTEM
- WASHING MACHINE
- "GREEN" REFRIGERATOR
- VACUUM CLEANER
- SECURITY

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2 ADDITIONAL MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES

2.1 TIMERS
Watchdog timer. A watchdog timer provides a means of graceful recovery from a system
problem. This could be a program that goes into an endless loop, or a hardware problem that
prevents the program from operating correctly. If the program fails to reset the watchdog at
some predetermined interval, a hardware reset will be initiated. The bug may still exist, but at
least the system has a way to recover. This is especially useful for unattended systems.
Auto Reload Timer. Compared to a standard timer, this timer automatically reloads its
counting value when the count is over, therefore sparing a waste of CPU resource.
Figure 9. Standard Timer and Auto-Reload Timer Principle

STANDARD TIMER AUTO RELOAD TIMER

CLOCK CLOCK

End of End of
Count Count
TIMER TIMER
CPU CPU
Load Register Load Register
Reload Reload

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Pulse Width Modulator. Often used as a digital-to-analog conversion technique. A pulse

train is generated and regulated with a low-pass filter to generate a voltage proportional to the
duty cycle.
Figure 10. PWM Principle

CLOCK ANALOG
V VOLTAGE

PWM RC Filter

time
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Pulse Accumulator. A pulse accumulator is an event counter. Each pulse increments the
pulse accumulator register, recording the number of times this event has occurred.
Input Capture. Input Capture can measure external frequencies or time intervals by copying
the value from a free running timer into the input capture register when an external event oc-
curs.

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Output Compare. Output Compare can time an external event by sending a value stored in-
side the output compare register.
Figure 11. Input Capture and Output Capture Timer Functions

INCOMING INPUT CAPTURE

EVENT
value
TIMER CLOCK
IC register

OUTPUT COMPARE
OUTGOING
EVENT
TIMER CLOCK
value
OC register

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2.2 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS (DSP)

Microcontrollers react to and control events, whereas DSPs execute repetitive math-intensive
algorithms. Today many embedded applications require both types of processors, and semi-
conductor manufacturers have responded by introducing microcontrollers with on-chip DSP
capability and DSPs with on-chip microcontrollers.
The most basic thing a DSP will do is a MACC (Multiply and ACCumulate). The number of
data bits a DSP can Multiply and ACCumulate will determine the dynamic range (and there-
fore the application).

2.3 ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

We live in an analog world where the information we see, hear, process, and exchange with
each other, and with our mechanical and electronic systems, is always an analog quantity:
pressure, temperature, voltage and current are always analog entities. They can be digitized
for more efficient storage and transmission, but the interface (input and output) is almost al-
ways analog. Thus the essence of analog electronics lies in sensing continuously varying in-
formation, converting it to digital and reshaping the digital data to an analog signal at the other
end. Mixed analog-digital devices are being used increasingly to integrate the complex func-
tions of high-speed telecommunications, or the real-time data processing demanded by indus-
trial control systems and automotive systems.

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Figure 12. Mixed A/D System Example

DIGITAL
ANALOG A/D D/A ANALOG
DATA
DATA CONVERTER CONVERTER DATA
PROCESSING

FAN
THERMOMETER VR02101K

Analog to digital conversion (A / D). Converts an external analog signal (typically relative to
voltage) and converts it to a digital representation. Microcontrollers that have this feature can
be used for instrumentation, environmental data logging, or any application that lives in an an-
alog world. Various types of A/D converters that can be found.
Comparator. One or more standard comparators can sometimes be placed on a microcon-
troller die. These comparators operate much like standard comparators however the input and
output signals are available on the microcontroller bus.
Digital to analog conversion (D/A). This feature takes a Digital number and converts it to a
analog output. The number 50 would be changed to the analog output of (50 / 256 * 5 Volts)
= .9765625 V on a 8 bit / 5 Volt system.

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2.4 COMMUNICATION
CAN & J1850
CAN (Controller Area Network) is a multiplexed wiring scheme that was developed jointly by
BOSH and Intel for wiring in automobiles. J1850 is the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)
multiplexed automotive wiring standard that is currently in use in North America.
The CAN specification seems to be the one that is being used in industrial control both in
North American and Europe. With lower cost microcontrollers that support CAN, CAN has a
good potential to take off.
Figure 13. CAN Principle

INTER SLOW COMFORT

SPEED Radio, Display
SYSTEM
FAST
Navigation
Motor SPEED
System, Phone
ABS / ASR GATEWAY < 125 Kb / s
> 125 Kb / s
Dashboard
BODY
Fuse Box SLOW
Air Conditioner Window, Lock
SPEED
Seat, Lamps

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I2C BUS - Inter-Integrated Circuit Bus (PHILIPS)

The I2C bus is a simple 2 wire serial interface developed by Philips. It was developed for 8 bit
applications and is widely used in consumer electronics, automotive and industrial applica-
tions. In addition to microcontrollers, several peripherals also exist that support the I2C bus.
The I2C bus is a two line, multi-master, multi-slave network interface with collision detection.
Up to 128 devices can exist on the network and they can be spread out over 10 meters. Each
node (microcontroller or peripheral) may initiate a message, and then transmit or receive data.
The two lines of the network consist of the serial data line and the serial clock line. Each node
on the network has a unique address which accompanies any message passed between
nodes. Since only 2 wires are needed, it is easy to interconnect a number of devices.
UART. A UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) is a serial port adapter for
asynchronous serial communications.
USART. A USART (Universal Synchronous / Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) is a serial
port adapter for either asynchronous or synchronous serial communications. Communications
using a USART are typically much faster (as much as 16 times) than with a UART.

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2.5 INTERRUPTS
Polling. Polling is what you have to do if your microcontroller does not have interrupts or if
what you want to do is not time critical. It is a software technique whereby the controller con-
tinually asks a peripheral if it needs servicing. The peripheral sets a flag when it has data
ready for transferring to the controller, which the controller notices on its next poll. Several pe-
ripherals can be polled in succession, with the controller jumping to different software routines,
depending on which flags have been set.
Figure 14. Polling versus Interrupt

POLLING INTERRUPT

TASK 1 TASK 1

POLLING LOOP
TASK 2
TASK 2

POLLING LOOP TASK 3

Event occurs INTERRUPT

TASK 3
Save State
Event occurs PROCESS
EVENT
POLLING LOOP PROCESS Restore State
EVENT
TASK 4
TASK 4
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Interrupts. Rather than have the microcontroller continually polling - that is, asking periph-
erals (timers / UARTS / A/Ds / external components) whether they have any data available
(and finding most of the time they do not), a more efficient method is to have the peripherals
tell the controller when they have data ready. The controller can be carrying out its normal
function, only responding to peripherals when there is data to respond to. On receipt of an in-
terrupt, the controller suspends its current operation, identifies the interrupting peripheral, then
jumps to the appropriate interrupt service routine. The advantage of interrupts, compared with
polling, is the speed of response to external events and reduced software overhead (of con-
tinually asking peripherals if they have any data ready).
Most microcontrollers have at least one external interrupt, which can be edge selectable
(rising or falling) or level triggered. Both systems have advantages. Edge is not time sensitive,
but it is susceptible to glitches. Level must be held high (or low) for a specific duration (which
can be a pain but is not susceptible to glitches).

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3 POWER SUPPLY ISSUES IN MCUs

Since automotive applications have been the driving force behind most microcontrollers, and
5 Volts was very easy to do in a car, most microcontrollers only supported 4.5 - 5.5 V opera-
tion. In the recent past, as consumer goods were beginning to drive major segments of the mi-
crocontroller market, and became portable and lightweight, the requirement for 3 volt (and
lower) microcontrollers became urgent. 3 volts means 2 battery solution, lower voltage and
longer battery life. Most low voltage parts in the market today are simply 5 volt parts that were
modified to operate at 3 volts (usually at a performance loss). Some micros being released
now are designed from the ground up to operate properly at 3.0 (and lower) voltages, which
offer a performance level comparable to 5 volt devices.
But why are voltages going down on ICs? There are a few interesting rules of thumb regarding
transistors:
1) The amount of power they dissipate is proportional to their size. If you make a transistor half
as big, it dissipates half as much power.
2) Their propagation delay is proportional to their size. If you make a transistor half as big, it’s
twice as fast.
3) Their cost is proportional to the square of their size. If you make them half as big, they cost
one quarter as much.
Figure 15. Transistor Parameter Scheme

+ TRANSISTOR +

- -
SIZE SPEED

COST POWER

SUPPLY VOLTAGE
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For years people have been using 5 Volts to power integrated circuits. Because the transistors
were large, there was little danger damaging the transistor putting this voltage across it. How-
ever, now that the transistors are getting so small, 5 Volts would now destroy them. The only
way around this is to start lowering the voltage. This is also why people are now using 3 (ac-
tually 3.3) Volt logic, and this will certainly lead to lower voltages in the next few years.

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