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Ski Manual CH 1 The Art of Teaching PDF
Ski Manual CH 1 The Art of Teaching PDF
This chapter outlines the role and responsibilities of the ski instructor, the
process of learning, understanding and meeting guests needs, teaching
styles, communication modes and the teaching model.
Learning is the goal of teaching and for this to be achieved several key
elements must be maintained.
safety
environment with both the instructor and other participants in the lesson.
enjoyment
Skiing is a recreational sport and the goal of a lesson is for students to have
successful lesson.
LEARNING
When these two elements are present the environment is primed for learning.
Safety, enjoyment and learning are the responsibilities of the ski instructor.
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1.1
leader
Instructors are required to be well organised leaders students can rely on.
Effective instructors are approachable and the goal is to listen and respond
lesson, taking into account terrain, weather, snow conditions, the condition
of the students and the number of people on the mountain at the time.
and encouragement.
follower
Good instructors know when not to lead and when to be sensitive to the
teacher
the learning environment called Maslows Hierarchy of Needs. This model can
be very helpful for the instructor when setting up the learning environment
learning.
physiological needs
These are basic needs of the body, which include food, hydration, warmth
and physical comfort. Students need to be dressed appropriately for warmth.
role model
They must be fed, hydrated and able to make toilet stops if required. Their
Instructors must set a high standard through their own skiing and on-snow
equipment should fit comfortably and work correctly. If these needs are
etiquette consistently following the same rules and expectations in their own
not met it will be difficult for a student to focus on learning, therefore the
instructor should address these issues not only at the outset of a lesson but
regularly throughout the session.
goalsetting
Instructors must work with students to negotiate appropriate goals and
limits to plan and structure their development with clear and
well-communicated pathways.
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1.2
safety needs
social belonging
These are basic emotional needs of safety and security. Students need to feel
This refers to the students sense of emotional comfort with the inter-personal
relationships that will exist in the lesson environment. In a private lesson this is
not induce fear they must feel that they can accomplish the task at hand.
primarily the learning partnership that is created between the instructor and the
This involves feeling safe in their surroundings and terrain as well as having
student. In a group lesson social belonging also involves the other students. It
a trust in the learning partnership created with the instructor. The instructor
communication between all participants in the lesson. Students need to feel that
ensures the students safety. This includes educating and adhering to the
their personal goals are addressed from the outset of the lesson and that they
have the ability to renegotiate them at anytime. Creating an open and positive
Self-fulfillment
needs
self-actualization
achieving ones full
potential, including
creative activities
esteem needs
prestige and feelings of accomplishment
Psychological
needs
Basic
needs
physiological needs
food, water, warmth, rest
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1.2
self esteem
This refers to the need to be accepted by others as well as the belief that
one can achieve. Identifying wants and needs, negotiating and agreeing upon
achievable goals within a given time frame is the main role of the instructor
by-component, using feedback to shape and master them into until they
This is a process that requires repetition, trial and error and internal and
external feedback.
self-actualisation
lateral and vertical movements to affect the skis while sliding. There
other lower needs are met, the student generally has the ability to assess
Fitts and Posner (Human Performance 1967) developed a theory that suggests
learning movements is a sequential process. Mastering a skill can be broken
down into three distinct phases. As students pass through each phase they
demonstrate specific behaviours that an instructor can recognise.
Fitts & Posners Model for Motor Skill Development suggests the following:
Cognitive phase
Identification and development of the component parts of the skill involves
formation of a mental picture of the skill.
Associative phase
Linking the component parts into a smooth action - involves guided
practicing of the skill and utilising feedback to master the skill.
Autonomous phase
Developing the learned skill so that it becomes automatic involves little or
no conscious thought or attention while performing the skill. Note that not
all students reach this stage.
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1.3
When students are introduced to a new movement or task, their main objective
Once students have determined an effective way of producing the same result
and therefore achieved repeated success, they have entered the associative
picture of the skill or movement. During this phase the student will develop and
phase. During this phase the student takes this newly learned skill or task and
try possible strategies for success through a process of trial and error and feedback
and trial. This process requires considerable mental activity and concentration.
Good strategies are retained and inappropriate ones are quickly discarded.
During this process of trial and error the students new movements are generally
inconsistent, slightly confused and by no means smooth. This is usually because
the student is going through a process of trial and error meeting various
degrees of success along the way. The simplest way for a student to create an
of the student. At a beginner level this phase can last hours, at an upper
level, many days or weeks. The student gradually produces small changes in
movement patterns that will allow more effective performance.
Example
Once students can perform a gliding wedge with some degree of success
consistent feedback is necessary throughout this phase because the student has
they have created a functional mental image of the task and an ability
not fully associated positive movements with positive results. During this stage an
to execute it. From this point they begin to refine and master individual
components of the new skill. They might be balanced slightly aft creating
A student attempting a wedge for the first time. The wedge has been
explained, demonstrated and the key feelings highlighted. As students
receive the information they begin to form a mental picture of what they are
trying to learn. Despite the information received their first attempt is often
inaccurate. The wedge may be asymmetrical, the student is often off-balance
muscle fatigue in the thighs. Students associate this feeling with being aft,
creating a basic understanding of this cause and effect relationship.
Through this process of association students learn ways of self-correcting.
Progress at this stage still uses a considerable amount of mental energy due
to creating relationships between the mental picture and a physical outcome.
Because movements are more refined, progress is considerably slower than
laterally or the skis may shoot out from under them and they lose balance.
during the cognitive stage. Guided practice, allowing for mistakes and the
From here the instructor provides feedback, generally something simple that
will enhance a students performance. The student then attempts the wedge
consistent. This phase can continue for some time depending on the level
accurate mental picture of the task is through imagery. Accurate and frequent
Example
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1.3
and alter and apply the mastered skill in a variety of terrain and conditions.
slightly different way of learning, all students will have to go through a cycle
Example
A student who has mastered the wedge and can make it automatically
will maintain the use of the wedge when introduced to turning. More
accomplished skiers may however start the season with a lower skill level than
they finished with the previous season.
Through practice skills will resurface in a reasonable timeframe. This may
take minutes, hours, days or weeks. This is simply the associative process,
the student is able to perform the skill with minimum conscious thought
and can concentrate on tactical situations
the motor programme is established and stored in the long term memory
and is able to be recalled with little prompting
self confidence is increased and the student is able to consistently
correct performance
when feedback is given it can be specific and highlight errors to ensure
improvement
improvements are slow and if practice is not maintained the student may
return to the associative phase
Using this model for skill development will greatly help instructors pace the
information in lessons and help students master the skills of skiing.
1.3
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1.4
visual communication
aural communication
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1.4
kinesthetic communication
While students may have a preference for one or two of these communication
feeling
Refers to creating concrete experiences and processing new information
through activity. The instructor must be clear about the sensations the student
is to perceive, and be specific about the part of the body where the sensations
will be felt, and what it should feel like when the movement is performed
accurately. Tactile teaching (when appropriate) to guide students to a new skill
can be very effective.
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1.4
WATCHING
feeling
Concrete Experiences
demonstrations are required to ensure that all necessary skills are observed
by students.
thinking
Refers to the process of looking for the why and figuring out the how
in skills and understanding the logic for each movement. This is often
a combination of a visual and auditory process using words and images
doing
Active Experimentation
Learning Through
Experience
(David Kolb)
watching
Reflective Observation
thinking
Abstract Conceptualization
doing
Involves creating kinesthetic awareness and trial and error to actively
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1.4
1.5.3 task
This involves a partial shift of focus from the instructor to the student. Tasks
Teaching style refers to the method or approach the instructor uses to teach
are presented to the student which they practice on their own, stopping at
a pre-arranged meeting area. They can travel at their own speed and choose
their own route, providing more freedom during the learning process. The
1.5.4 reciprocal
1.5.1 command
This focuses on the instructor and the subject. This style of teaching is
used when the instructor takes total control of the learning process making
all decisions and controlling all variables, specifying when, where and how
as well as delivering all the feedback. The instructor determines the social
and emotional climate of the class. This format is most effective during a
beginner lesson when all movements introduced are new to the student.
the partner observes, giving immediate feedback and reinforcement, with the
guidance of the instructor. Another example is using a paired exercise, such as
having one student pull on another students poles from a downhill position,
to develop edging and lateral balance. This style is most effective when the
students have a certain level of knowledge, and it requires care and planning
in setting clear parameters and expectations. The level of independence from
the instructor continues to evolve.
outcome to the skiers (setting a goal) and then providing a brief verbal, visual
and/or kinesthetic description to try and achieve the goal and then letting the
skiers have a go. Once the skiing approach has been attempted a progression
student to the desired result. Each step is based on the response or outcome
from the previous steps. The instructor waits for answers and realisations
make some slight direction changes. The instructor would give a small
them. Guidance may include exercises and situations to lead the student to
piece of information, such as point your toes where you want to go give a
demonstration and then let the students try it. Once attempted the instructor
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1.5
answers, working within a framework set by the instructor. This teaching style
and then attempted by the student prior to developing it. All new concepts
single problem. This style seeks to develop the ability to find alternatives,
eventually integrates the new skill into the students freeskiing. The following
and versatility.
1.5.7 individual
static
This demonstrates the complete independence of the student. The subject
a vivid description.
active
Putting the static exercise or description into motion. This is often
done in a situation that is comfortable for the student and does not require
any given situation and through the course of a lesson many teaching styles
tactical considerations.
may be used. As the information evolves and the students demonstrate more
autonomy of a given skill the instructor needs to alter the teaching style to
complex
Putting the concept or movement into basic turns or a level of skiing below
the students level of free skiing. This is important because students learn
accuracy by practicing new skills below their personal speed and dynamic
threshold.
whole
Take it skiing! Explore, play and discover the learning!
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1.6
ask the students if there are any immediate concerns before heading away
from the meeting area
equipment should be checked ensuring that it is suitable for the level and
The teaching model outlines practical steps that will create successful
introduction
skier analysis
negotiating goals
the instructors body language and tone of voice are important elements.
Positive body language should include smiling, being open and relaxed
create a safe, fun, open and supportive learning environment. The sooner
the student feels at ease and has confidence in the instructor, the sooner
lesson plan
presenting information
guided practice
checking for
understanding
2. skier analysis
To create a great learning experience an instructor needs to know what level
students are at and why they are taking the lesson. Without the what the
instructor does not know where to start, without the why the instructor
summary
does not know where to go with the lesson. The two basic ways to assess a
student is to watch them ski and ask questions.
1. introduction
What
what is the students current level?
The introduction sets the tone for the lesson. The initial meeting between
this includes the movements of the body and how they blend
and co-ordinate
introduce oneself clearly and courteously and ensure that everyone in the
Why
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1.7
Prioritising needs
Based on the analysis of the student and the agreed upon goal, the instructor
process as the needs and wants may change as the students progress.
will have to choose a starting point for the progressions. The order in which
needs are prioritised should be addressed from simple to complex.
3. negotiating goals
A goal is the aim, intention, objective or purpose of a person or group of
Linear approach
people. Great lessons need goals to make the direction of the lesson clear.
A linear approach refers to building one step on top of the next. The easiest
task should be achieved first with the next step leading on from this. Each
step should introduce and include a new concept (movement, skills, co-
ordination).
what the student needs (movements and understandings). Both are assessed
through skier analysis.
Terrain selection
psychologically and physically. Students will not learn effectively if they are
This will give incentive and clear direction for the lesson
goals must be attainable for the time period of the lesson and skill level
of the student. This will set the students up for success accomplishing
the degree of challenge that the terrain presents for the student
the goal makes the experience enjoyable and will motivate students
students can become frustrated, if they are too low they may
become bored
Pacing Information
the student to experience early success. Short-term goals will also allow
4. lesson plan
similar information
This is the series of steps or activities that the instructor plans to achieve
the negotiated goals. When planning the lesson the following areas need to
be considered:
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Time Management
To achieve the negotiated goals the plan needs to fit within the time frame
demonstrations are effective while skiing towards and away from the class.
The instructor can demonstrate while students are following, however this
5. presenting information
The instructor is required to present information more than once and often
environment to avoid or overcome learning barriers that may affect the ability
of students to understand.
6. guided practice
to process information they are likely to have a bias towards one or two.
This is the part of the teaching model where the information is processed
process information. They must also match teaching styles to the level of the
student and the complexity of the concept to be learned. Initially using an
Time
Practice should take a large portion, if not the majority of the lesson,
depending on how quickly the student absorbs and learns the information.
During this time students will practice through repetition as the instructor
guides the effort to achieve the desired result. The instructor should ensure
there is plenty of time and enough flexibility in the lesson plan to make
the instructor should accurately describe and show what the student is
adjustments.
to learn
the instructor should explain and show why it is desirable to have
certain skills
the instructor should explain and demonstrate how this new skill is to
class management. Various ways to manage the class on the snow will
be accomplished
organised manner
benefit the turn shape of the students who are directly following
particular focus
tasks, exercises and teaching styles that are appropriate to the skill level
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and speed are also elements of effective practice time and can be used to
challenge and test the success of the guided practice
Observe
feedback
The instructor can watch students perform the task and evaluate the level of
The two main ways in which feedback is received are intrinsic and extrinsic:
Ask
The instructor needs to ask open questions that require a detailed answer
or what they are doing and feeling allows an assessment of the students
control their own performance when they practice on their own. This type
understanding.
Listen
being specifically asked, e.g. A student could complain about cramp under
the foot. This could indicate that they are not balanced effectively along the
and constructive.
The body of the lesson is constantly revolving. Points two seven are interactive
and repetitive. Instructors are constantly assessing the student, readjusting the
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8. summary
The summary at the end of the lesson is the instructors opportunity to review
what has been achieved.
Important points to include are:
review the lesson starting with the goals and the steps that students have
taken to reach their current performance. This part of the teaching model
NOTES
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1.0