7372 Fish Pass Design
7372 Fish Pass Design
7372 Fish Pass Design
Supplement 14N
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Cover photo: Restoring fish migration may require culverts and other
water conveyances to be redesigned or replaced.
Advisory Note
Techniques and approaches contained in this handbook are not all-inclusive, nor universally applicable. Designing
stream restorations requires appropriate training and experience, especially to identify conditions where various
approaches, tools, and techniques are most applicable, as well as their limitations for design. Note also that product names are included only to show type and availability and do not constitute endorsement for their specific use.
(210VINEH, August 2007)
Technical
Supplement 14N
Contents
Introduction
TS14N1
Passage barrier and screening overview.................................................... TS14N1
Federal and state authority and regulations............................................... TS14N2
Behavioral attractors
TS14N10
TS14Ni
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TS14Nii
Bypass design
TS14N46
Maintenance and operation........................................................................ TS14N47
Example problem: Preliminary design for fish passage.......................... TS14N47
Tables
Table TS14N1
TS14N3
Table TS14N2
TS14N3
Table TS14N3
TS14N6
Table TS14N4
TS14N7
Table TS14N5
TS14N8
Table TS14N6
TS14N20
Table TS14N7
TS14N25
Table TS14N8
TS14N33
Table TS14N9
Table TS14N10
TS14N48
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Figures
Figure TS14N1
Figure TS14N2
TS14N11
Figure TS14N3
TS14N12
Figure TS14N4
TS14N15
Figure TS14N5
Figure TS14N6
Figure TS14N7
Weir schematic
TS14N18
Figure TS14N8
TS14N18
Figure TS14N9
TS14N19
Figure TS14N10
Figure TS14N11
TS14N23
Figure TS14N12
TS14N23
Figure TS14N13
TS14N23
Figure TS14N14
TS14N24
Figure TS14N15
TS14N27
Figure TS14N16
TS14N27
Figure TS14N17
Figure TS14N18
Figure TS14N19
Figure TS14N20
TS14N5
TS14N29
TS14N30
TS14Niii
TS14Niv
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Figure TS14N21
TS14N30
Figure TS14N22
TS14N31
Figure TS14N23
TS14N32
Figure TS14N24
TS14N34
Figure TS14N25
Figure TS14N26
TS14N36
Figure TS14N27
TS14N38
Figure TS14N28
TS14N39
Figure TS14N29
TS14N40
Figure TS14N30
TS14N42
Figure TS14N31
TS14N42
Figure TS14N32
TS14N43
Figure TS14N33
TS14N43
Figure TS14N34
Infiltration gallery
TS14N44
Figure TS14N35
TS14N45
Figure TS14N36
TS14N45
Technical
Supplement 14N
Introduction
Fish passage and screen facility design is often a
significant component in stream restoration and water
resource management. A wide variety of issues often
arise regarding passage and screening design, depending on the project region and species of interest. This
technical supplement provides an overview of fish passage and screening design approaches that incorporate
biological considerations into the hydraulics of commonly used structures; guidance on site assessment
and operations and maintenance (O&M) of fishways
and screens; an overview of assessment and design
approaches for fishways and screens, ladders, culverts, tidegates, and floodgates; and finally, an example
design is presented.
TS14N1
TS14N2
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Migration type
Migratory life history strategies vary widely and include bidirectional migrations between marine and
freshwater environments (diadromy), or solely within
Table TS14N1
Category
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National Engineering Handbook
Species
Anadromous
Catadromous
American eel
Amphidromous
Table TS14N2
Category
Species
Adfluvial
Fluvial
TS14N3
Migration schedule
Migration timing is tied to species life stage (spawning), time of day (foraging or predatory migrations),
changes in water temperature, increases in flow rates,
or changes in flow direction (tides). In addition, migrations can occur hourly, daily, monthly, and seasonally in
fish populations across the United States and Caribbean
area. Providing uninterrupted passage or continuous
operational screening is often very difficult, and it is
likely that any given project will have short periods of
inoperation or down time. However, project designers
should develop fish passage and screening approaches
that provide the best level of protection for sensitive
life histories and important migratory periods and that
have the greatest effect on population health and sustainability.
Since migration timing and frequency of movement
vary among species and watersheds, knowledge of the
specific behavior of the target species is necessary for
development of fish passage and screening criteria. Different species or age classes may migrate at different
times of the year; multiple hydrologic analyses may be
needed to determine the controlling hydraulic requirements at any particular site. Movements may occur
both upstream and downstream.
Generally, anadromous adult salmon and steelhead
spawning migrations occur during a distinct season
(fall, winter, spring, or summer). Juvenile salmon rearing in freshwater migrate first in the spring as fry and
later in the summer and early fall as fingerlings or parr,
searching out different habitats as they grow (WDFW
1999). The largest movement of anadromous salmonids
occurs in the spring, as juveniles transition (smolt)
from their freshwater rearing areas into the productive
ocean environment where they will grow to adulthood.
Anadromous fish on the Atlantic coast primarily make
spawning runs in the spring, and adults reproduce in
estuarine or freshwater stream habitats. Conversely,
catadromous American eels of the eastern coast of the
United States live in freshwater streams and lakes for
up to 5 years before they journey to the Sargasso Sea
of the Atlantic Ocean near Bermuda to spawn. Juvenile
eels spend about a year in the ocean before returning to
freshwater where they grow to adulthood.
Freshwater migrations occur for spawning and foraging purposes. A study of warm-water fish in Arkansas
TS14N4
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Burst (darting) speedhighest swimming speeds; endurance less than 20 seconds; ends in extreme fatigue
Figure TS14N1
TS14N5
Behavioral responses
Understanding the behavioral response of a species
to stimuli enables the development of fish attractors
and detractors for fish passage and screening projects.
Attractors and detractors may take the form of shade,
light, fishway water velocity, relative volume of fishway attraction flow to streamflow, temperature, sound,
and shoreline or overhead movements. Fishway composition can be a very important factor determining
success or failure. For example, some fish (shad) are
hesitant to swim through a submerged orifice, instead
preferring flow that is directed through a vertical slot
or over a weir. Excessive turbulence at a fishway entrance may confuse or restrict target species, and the
orientation of a fish ladders entrance to the adjacent
stream channel is of the utmost importance. Many fish
move up a river system by capitalizing on lower velocities along the bankline boundary layer. Conversely,
juvenile emigrants are usually found moving downstream in the fastest flowing portion of the channel,
within 1 foot of the surface.
Fish size and stage of development also affect swimming capabilities. Juvenile and smaller fish do not
swim as strongly as healthy adults of the same species
(table TS14N5 (modified from Bell 1990)), so slower
velocities should be considered in the design of fish
passage and screening projects (Tillinger and Stein
1996). Projects in settings with a variety of fish species of differing body sizes and swimming capabilities
Table TS14N3
Salmonid
species
Example of maximum swimming speeds and maximum jumping heights for selected adult salmonids
Sustained
speed
ft/s
Cruising
speed
Burst
speed
Maximum
jump height
m/s
ft/s
m/s
ft/s
m/s
ft
Steelhead
4.6
1.40
13.7
4.18
26.5
8.08
11.2
3.4
Chinook
3.4
1.04
10.8
3.29
22.4
6.83
7.8
2.4
Coho
3.4
1.04
10.6
3.23
21.5
6.55
7.2
2.2
Cutthroat
2.0
0.61
6.4
1.95
13.5
4.11
2.8
0.9
Chum
1.6
0.49
5.2
1.58
10.6
3.23
1.7
0.5
Sockeye
3.2
0.98
10.2
3.11
20.6
6.28
6.9
2.1
TS14N6
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Table TS14N4
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Chinook
Coho
Sockeye
Steelhead (22.7 ft)
Cutthroat
Brown trout
Grayling
Whitefish
Shad (1214 in)
Herring (611 in)
Anchovy
Carp
Goldfish (48 in)
Suckers
Cod (1.8 ft)
Mackerel (1315 in)
Plaice (2.410 in)
Alewives (2.53 in)
Mullet (9.5 in)
Stickleback (4 in)
Lamprey
Eel (2 ft)
Cruising speed
Sustained speed
Darting speed
Eel (3 ft)
Eel (5 ft)
Eel (8 ft)
0
12
16
20
Velocity (ft/s)
24
28
32
36
TS14N7
Table TS14N5
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Coho (2 in)
Coho (3.5 in)
Coho (4.75 in)
Sockeye (5 in)
Brook trout (35 in)
Grayling (24 in)
American shad (13 in)
Herring larvae (.48 in)
Striped bass(.5 in)
Striped bass (1 in)
Striped bass (2 in)
Striped bass (5 in)
Mullet (.52.75 in)
Glass eels (2 in)
Elvers (4 in)
Cruising speed
Sustained speed
Darting speed
TS14N8
.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Velocity (ft/s)
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Ambient environmental conditions also greatly affect the migratory habits of fish. For many species,
spawning migrations may be triggered by changes in
water temperature. For example, Lower Columbia
River white sturgeon spawn when water temperatures
are between 48 degrees and 63 degrees Fahrenheit
(Wydoski and Whitney 2003) and may be delayed or
prevented when water temperatures are unsuitable
(Fresh et al. 1999). Light can be used as an artificial
guidance stimulus, repelling fish at higher intensities
and attracting them at lower intensities (Bell 1990).
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Velocity
Velocities within a fish passage structure should be
less than the sustained swimming capability for each
species in long uniform sections and less than burst
swimming ability over short distances (Katopodis
1991). Fish that are forced to swim through a structure
with bursts or sustained cruising speeds will suffer
stress from fatigue. If adult or juvenile migratory fish
are unduly fatigued by a fishway, their ability to survive and complete life history requirements may be
significantly diminished. Resting alcoves or cover must
be provided if velocities within a fish passage structure
exceed the swimming capabilities of the target species
for long distances. Velocity breaks and shadows using
boulders or large wood can be used to provide resting areas in roughened channels or fishways that are
designed to mimic natural stream conditions. Species
velocity criteria would then be applied to flow areas
between constructed resting areas.
For adult salmonid passage through a culvert, NOAA
Fisheries Service (2000) recommends average calculated velocities of 6.0 feet per second for distances
of less than 60 feet, 4.0 feet per second for distances
between 100 and 200 feet, and 2.0 feet per second for
distances greater than 300 feet. Recent studies found
that warm-water fish passage through culverts less
than 30 feet in length was reduced substantially at velocities over 1.3 feet per second (Warren and Pardew
1998). Conversely, salmonids are expected to sustain
this velocity for more than 300 feet. Knowledge of the
swimming abilities of target species is a vital element
of the design process.
Fish screen designs must account for approach velocities in the forebay of the structure and sweep velocities along the face of the screen. Approach velocity is
velocity perpendicular to the screen that may trap or
impinge a fish against a screen. Physical contact with a
screen face causes various injuries, and studies of fish
biomechanics have been used to set hydraulic criteria
for approach velocities (Pearce and Lee 1991). Sweep
velocity is the velocity parallel to the face of the
screen that sweeps fish along its face and into a bypass
that will take them back to a river or other water body.
For juvenile salmonids, NOAA Fisheries Service (2000)
and WDFW (2000a) recommend an approach velocity
of 0.4 feet per second in rivers and streams, and 0.33
feet per second in lakes and reservoirs. Sweeping ve-
TS14N9
Depth
Minimum low-flow depths within fishways should be
maintained to accommodate fish size, swimming abilities, and behavioral responses. For pool style fishways
or channel-spanning structures, WDFW (2000a) recommends a maximum head differential of 12 inches for
most adult salmonids, 6 inches for juvenile salmonids,
and 3 inches for grayling. These depths are difficult to
attain in many culvert crossings on small headwater
streams at baseflow, so culvert size, shape, composition, and installation techniques become important
factors that regulate passage.
Minimum operating depth at screening facilities depends on the type of screen and site hydraulics. However, a good rule of thumb to protect juvenile or smallbodied fish is to provide a minimum of 2.5 square feet
of submerged screen for every cubic foot per second
of flow diverted through it.
TS14N10
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Behavioral attractors
Many fish passage structures use high velocity attraction flow at or near their entrances. This practice is
based on behaviors observed in salmonids. Migratory
salmon and steelhead tend to assume upstream migration paths by cueing-in on higher velocity currents.
A fishway entrance can be designed as a constriction
to increase velocities compared to surrounding flow
conditions, guiding fish into the structure based on
their natural behaviors in finding upstream migration
paths. When gravity flow through a passage structure
decreases, auxiliary pumps may be required to supply
high velocity attraction flow near fishway entrances.
Alternative behavioral attractors, including entrance
size, light, and acoustics are being explored in many
areas of the Pacific Northwest. For example, recent
studies show that salmonid species will select smaller,
well-lit entrances over larger, darker ones (Oregon
Department of Fish and Wildlife 2004).
Predation
Predation is a common problem at many fish passage and fish screen facilities. Avian predation most
often occurs along screening structures, where birds
can either land or wade near the fish screen, or dive
underwater and prey on disoriented fish at the bypass
pipe exit. Birds are also known to prey on groups of
fish stacked up at the entrance to a fishway. Piscine
or mammalian (seals and river otters) predation occurs wherever fish are in pools near the entrance to a
fishway, along the face of screens, or bypass outlets
downstream of a fish screen. Fish behavioral characteristics must be incorporated into screen and fish
passage designs so that pooling and holding areas
for predators are not adjacent to critical areas such
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National Engineering Handbook
Figure TS14N2
Site assessment
survey and mapping
biological characterization
hydraulics
geomorphology, geology
http://wdfw.wa.gov/hab/engineer/habeng.htm
http://www.fws.gov/fisheries/fwma/fishpassage/
http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/research/divisions/
fed/fishpassage.cfm
http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/hcd/expert.htm
Examples of fish screen projects and design criteria
can be found at the following Web sites:
http://wdfw.wa.gov/hab/engineer/habeng.
htm#dwnstrm
http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/hcd/fishscrn.htm
http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/hcd/pumpcrit.pdf
Initial design
biological assessment
general biologic design criteria
hydrologic analysis
hydraulic analysis of existing conditions
geomorphic and sediment considerations
identify permit requirements
TS14N11
Site assessment
Site assessments are addressed in detail in NEH654.03.
This section focuses on site assessments that are more
specific to fish passage issues. The site assessment
should include topographic and hydrographic surveys
of the passage barrier and stream channel upstream
and downstream of the barrier. Whenever possible,
collect historic photos of the site, and interview nearby residents for their perspective on the area. Accurate
contour and infrastructure (dams, diversions) as-builts
are essential for developing plans. Geomorphic assessment is necessary to characterize stream behavior
and substrate conditions. In addition, depending on
site conditions and proposed structures, geologic and
geotechnical consultation may be necessary to characterize the soils, foundation, and river alluvium composition. Fish habitat characterization should also be
performed to evaluate migration patterns, holding pool
areas, and environmental conditions that will affect
fish migration and use of the fish passage feature. The
information developed in the site assessment is the
foundation for developing topographic, geomorphic,
edaphic, and biological criteria in final engineering
designs.
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National Engineering Handbook
Figure TS14N3
1
0.8
Q2, 2day
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Days before and after peak discharge
Q x = aA b P c
(eq. TS14N1)
where:
Qx = x-year peak flood discharge (10-yr flood)
a = regression constant related to basin
parameters
A = watershed area
b = regression exponent related to basin
parameters
P = annual precipitation
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TS14N13
Hydraulic models
The current standard for evaluating stream hydraulics
is to develop a computer hydraulic model. Several
models (such as HECRAS) are available for predicting water surface elevations, forebay and tailwater
conditions, flow and diversion characteristics, and
site velocities and depths (NEH654.06). Hydraulic
analysis and design is an iterative process, balancing
the various criteria and design requirements of the
project. Therefore, the designer should perform separate calculations of composite flow profiles due to the
complex nature of the hydraulic structures associated
with fish passage facilities.
Evaluating existing hydraulic conditions will provide
the designer with forebay and tailwater curves used
in setting the preliminary invert elevations for the fish
passage entrance and exit areas. Both tailwater and
forebay rating curves are required for a wide range of
flows (if available) for fishway design. The difference
between upstream and downstream water surface elevations at the entrance and exit is the total change in
head that the feature must be designed for. Structural
head is a major determinant in how much flow will
likely be diverted into the fishway. Completing stream
hydraulics analyses and determining the range of operational flows for a passage facility begin the design
of the actual fishway.
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
equations, and schematics related to designing concrete fishways and ladders (fig. TS14N4).
General overview
Fishways and ladders are constructed in many different configurations from a range of materials. Common
variations include:
excavated, earthen channels artificially roughened with large rocks
seminatural channels equipped with stairstepped resting pools held in place with rocks,
logs, or stoplogs
concrete and/or metal structures that slow
water velocity enough to provide upstream passage
These structures are designed to function across a
range of flows and are often built at fish passage barriers with excessive drops or velocities. Many fishways
and ladders in common use today are pool-forming
structures.
Pool-forming fishways are usually constructed with
concrete, metal, or dimensional lumber and can be
designed to take all, or part, of the total streamflow.
Partial-flow fishways are more difficult to design than
full-flow fishways constructed across the entire channel. To divert only a portion of the flow, a water control structure must be included at the top (the fishway
exit from a fishs viewpoint), that provides a permanent, relatively maintenance free water supply into the
fishway. Pool and weir or orifice fishways are often designed with stoplogs or gates to allow adjustments to
pool depth according to streamflow. Although fishways
are usually more difficult to maintain proper movement of bed load and debris, they can be installed on
gradients up to 10 percent.
Pool-forming fishways function similarly to natural
step-pools formed by logs, rocks, or bedrock outcrops
along natural stream reaches. Flows down a relatively
steep channel can be governed by weirs, slots, or other
restrictions that hold back part of the flow and create resting pools. Since fish are supplied resting pools
along the fishway, structural length is generally not a
concern.
Figure TS14N4
Qhf
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Longitudinal profile
Cross section
Qhf
Qlf
Single weir
Qlf
Composite
weir
Weir with
orfice
Vertical slot
Concrete ladder
Flow control gate
Entrance
Exit
Diversion dam
Flow direction
Irrigation diversion
TS14N15
TS14N16
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U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation Design of Small Canal Structures, 1978
http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/hydraulics_lab/pubs/
manuals/SmallCanals.pdf
ISCO Open Channel Flow Measurement Handbook, 1989 (Grant and Dawson 1989)
Equation TS14N2 is the general form of a weir equation and can be used to estimate discharge, given water surface elevation and weir height, or back-calculate
water surface elevations by rearranging the equation
to solve for head on the weir (fig. TS14N7).
Q = Cd LH1.5
(eq. TS14N2)
where:
Q = flow rate (ft3/s)
Cd = coefficient of discharge
L = weir length (ft)
H = head above the weir crest (not including velocity head) (ft)
Figure TS14N5
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Wc
X
Baffle wall
Ow=orifice
width
d=pool depth
Oh=orifice height
B=pool width
Cross section
Hp=head
between pools
Flow
Crest profile
L=equals length
Slope
Profile
TS14N17
Vweir =
Q
L 0.67 H
Q = kA o ( 2gh )
0.5
where:
V = velocity (ft/s)
Figure TS14N6
(eq. TS14N4)
where:
Q = flow rate (ft3/s)
k = flow coefficient (function of opening size and
shape)
Ao = area of opening (ft2)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/s2)
h = head differential (ft)
(TS14N3)
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Figure TS14N7
Q
Ao
(eq. TS14N5)
Weir schematic
Water surface
L=pool
length
H
Flow
Side view
Plan view
Front view
Ws=width
of slot
Figure TS14N8
Water surface
d=depth
of pool
Hf=Height
floor sill
B=pool width
Side view
End view
TS14N18
Front view
Figure TS14N9
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National Engineering Handbook
Plunging flow
Streaming flow
Orifice
Figure TS14N10
D number parameters for evaluating hydraulic jump geometry of a vertical drop spillway
yo
C
D=
Aerated
B
q2
gh3
yl
y2
yp
A
Ld
Lj
(210VINEH, August 2007)
TS14N19
0.27
(eq. TS14N7)
y 2 = 1.66 hD
(eq. TS14N8)
L d = 4.3 hD0.27
(eq. TS14N9)
The final step is to determine the jump length (Lj) using equations TS14N10 through TS14N13 (Krochin
1961).
y2
= 0.5 1 + 8Fr12 1
(eq. TS14N10)
y1
V1
Fr1 =
V1 =
Q
Ly1
(eq. TS14N12)
L j = y 2
(eq. TS14N13)
gy1
(eq. TS14N11)
where:
Fr = Froude number, dimensionless
V1 = velocity at the start of the jump (ft/s)
Q = discharge (ft3/s)
L = weir length (ft)
= jump length coefficient
The jump height coefficient can be determined through
empirical values shown in table TS14N6 (Department
of Interior Bureau of Reclamation 1984).
The next step in design is checking to ensure that the
weir system is not washed out with streaming type
flows and that the plunging flow condition exists (fig.
TS14N9) (Bates 1992; Rajaratnum, Katopodis, and
Lodewyk 1988). Rajaratnum developed techniques for
evaluating plunging and streaming flows using the
following scaling equations. For plunging flows, the
TS14N20
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National Engineering Handbook
Q
gSL2 h 3
(eq. TS14N15)
where:
S = slope (ft/ft)
The dimensionless discharge is equal to,
Q* = 0.5
L pool
h
(eq. TS14N16)
where:
Lpool = length of pool (ft)
h
= depth of streaming flow, similar to head
above weir
Table TS14N6
Channel
slope
Fr 4
4 Fr 3
3 Fr 2
2 Fr 1
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
6.15
5.20
4.40
3.85
3.40
3.00
5.54
4.68
3.96
3.46
3.06
2.70
4.99
4.21
3.56
3.12
2.75
2.43
4.49
3.79
3.21
2.81
2.48
2.19
Qh
(eq. TS14N17)
V
Energy dissipation factor (ft-lb/ft3/s)
EDF =
where:
V = volume of the pool (ft3)
= unit weight of water (62.4 lb/ft3)
Q = discharge, ft3/s, through openings or over weirs
h = head (ft)
The fishway entrance should be at the upstream-most point of fish passage adjacent
to a barrier. Do not place fish passage facility
entrances in turbulent areas.
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
TS14N21
Exit
The primary design considerations for the fish passage
exit are headwater and flow diversion control, maintenance of diversion design discharges during fluctuating headwater conditions, protection from debris, and
alignment with migration pathways to ensure that fish
find their way upstream from the passage barrier. It is
also important to locate the exit far enough upstream
from the crest of the dam so that fatigued or disoriented fish do not fall back downstream. Typically, fish
need to acclimatize and orient themselves to the river
after traveling through the fish passage facility.
Oftentimes, the fishway exit is also used to divert and
regulate streamflow into the passage structure. Gates,
stoplogs, tilting weirs, and other combinations of slots
and orifices are often used as flow control devices. The
following list provides useful considerations for fishway exit conditions:
Build the fishway exit so that it can be dewatered for maintenance and inspection.
Rock fishways
The use of rock weirs and step-pools as fish passage
features is a viable option in stream systems with large
cobble to boulder channel beds. Use of rock emulates
natural step-pool sequences, cascades, riffles, rock
aprons, and log sills that fish naturally migrate past.
They are typically more visually appealing than concrete and, in some cases, may be more cost effective
(fig. TS14N11).
TS14N22
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National Engineering Handbook
Rock ladders have the same general features (entrance, ladder, and exit area) as concrete ladders, and
many of the equations that are applied to designing
concrete ladders can also be used to evaluate rock
ladder performance. However, additional analyses
are required to account for increased energy losses
and turbulence induced from the uneven shape and
placement of boulder and cobble materials. Hydraulic
models should be developed to evaluate water surface profiles through rock ladders, especially when
no structures are included to control flow rates into
the fish passage channel, entrance, and exit areas.
Flow control structures can be incorporated into the
design to limit the amount of flow diverted into the
fish passage channel. If not, the rock fishways must
be designed to withstand a range of flows throughout
the year, rather than diversions made only during fish
migration seasons. A flow control structure may be
necessary to protect the rock ladder from flood flows
and provide adequate head to diversion facilities at
low-flow conditions.
Much of the information available for designing
step-pool features is related to studies performed on
boulder and rock grade control weirs. These types
of designs can be adapted to meet biological design
criteria for fish passage. A rock ladder has three main
components: a boulder, rock or cobble weir; scour or
plunge pool; and tailwater area (fig. TS14N12).
Figure TS14N11
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Qhf
Qhf
Qlf
Longitudal profile
Qlf
Cross section
Rock ladder
Flow direction
Entrance
Exit
Diversion dam
Flow direction
Irrigation diversion
Figure TS14N12
Figure TS14N13
N1
N2
L2
N3
Qlf
N4
TS14N23
where:
Li = incremental widths (ft)
N = number of contraction sides
Boulder pools
The next step in evaluating boulder and rock weirs
is to determine scour depth below the drop (fig.
TS14N14). Scour depth determination should be done
for the highest design discharge expected at the site
location. As an initial estimate, scour depth below the
bed of the channel should be equal to the drop height
from the water surface to the bed surface along the
tailwater area. Several scour equations are available,
although the most appropriate are plunge scour functions for vertical drop structures. Equation TS14N19
(Jager 1939 in Simons and Senturk 1992) is derived
from empirical analyses of scour downstream from
grade control structures.
1
Yd 3
Ys = 6 h0.25 q 0.5
D90
(eq. TS14N19)
where:
Ys = depth of scour (m)
Yd = downstream depth of flow (m)
q = unit discharge (m3/m-s)
D90 = sediment diameter with 90 percent of material
finer (mm)
= difference
in head between upstream water
h
surface and downstream water surface (m)
Figure TS14N14
TS14N24
h
Ya
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Step-pool length is the final geometric element evaluated in designing a rock pool feature. Pool length
and volume in boulder weirs is directly related to the
EDF described in the previous section (eq. TS14N17)
and has a similar effect on fish passage success. Pool
length equations from the previous section should be
used as a first estimate. A second method to estimate
pool length involves examining natural step-pool geometry and spacing in the same river system. The goal
in designing a step-pool feature is to allow the fully
turbulent flow jet to dissipate. Comiti (2003) reports
a range of step-pool lengths based on head, channel
slope, and scour depth listed in equations TS14N20
and TS14N21. Ratios in natural systems for pool drop
to scour depth typically range between 1.0 and 2.0 for
slopes greater 15 percent. However, as the slope flattens (less than 15%), step lengths to scour hole depth
ratios typically begin to approach 3.0.
For slopes between
0.05 <
h
< 0.50
L
(eq. TS14N20)
1.0 < 1 +
Ys
< 3.0
h
(eq. TS14N21)
Rock sizing
The final design element for step-pool rock ladders
is substrate sizing. Overall, the rock along the ladder
must be designed to withstand the entire range of flow
conditions. Designers should identify a safety range
based on the accuracy of the design hydrology, hydraulics, and other site conditions and apply this range
to subsequent rock size estimates. The primary design
elements requiring rock sizing are the weir structure,
plunge pool scour apron, and tailwater area.
Typically, rock weirs are comprised of boulders with
interstitial cobbles. The boulder and rock features
must be sized to withstand the highest expected flow
event and provide openings and passage paths for
fish during the migration period. Forces acting on the
boulder and cobble rock on the weir crest include
drag, lift, weight, and frictional resistance. Structural
rock remains stable and in place, as long as weight
and frictional resistance are greater than drag and lift
forces. Equation TS14N22 can be used to estimate
minimum rock diameter on a boulder weir crest for
fully turbulent flow over a rough horizontal surface,
with completely submerged rock and similar submergence along both faces of a weir. The major difficulties in using equation TS14N22 are estimating
the friction slope and verifying the assumption that
similar submergence occurs on all sides of the rock.
Friction slope is difficult to determine over a drop, but
an estimate can be made using equation TS14N9 for
drop length. A general rule of thumb is that the rock
size should be greater than the drop height. Another
general criterion is that the final step-pool at the downstream end of a sequence should have a buried armor
layer along the entire length of the step that is similarly sized to the weir and toe protection material.
Dmin =
(18 (0.67H ) Sf )
( G s 1)
(eq. TS14N22)
where:
Dmin = minimum boulder median diameter (ft)
H = depth of flow over weir (ft)
Sf = friction slope (ft/ft)
Gs = specific gravity of rock (~ 2.65)
Rock size required along a weir crest can be determined using equation TS14N23 when velocity acting
on the weir structure is known (a function of crest
height and the drop into a scour hole area). In addition, velocity (V1) can be compared to the rock sizes
shown in table TS14N7 for guidance (Fischenich
2000). Designers are encouraged to perform more
thorough calculations that refine friction slope and energy losses across the boulder weir and evaluate other
factors affecting rock stability (countersinking rock to
resist hydraulic forces).
V
D50 = 1
2.57
Class name
Median
diameter
(in)
Critical
velocity
(ft/s)
Large boulder
>40
19
Medium boulder
>20
14
Small boulder
>10
10
Large cobble
>5
Small cobble
>2.5
>1.25
(eq. TS14N23)
where:
D50 = median diameter (in)
V1 = velocity (ft/s)
V1 = Vweir 2 + Vy 2
(eq. TS14N24)
Vy = 2gh
(eq. TS14N25)
Table TS14N7
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National Engineering Handbook
1.7 <
D85
< 2.7
D15
(eq. TS14N26)
TS14N25
Engineered channel
An engineered channel is a roughened waterway that
is an excavated earthen channel or a natural stream
channel lined with a series of boulders that are properly sized and placed for site streamflow and gradient.
Roughness elements, commonly boulders or concrete
blocks, are anchored in place where streamflows are
high or gradients are steep. At slopes up to about 5
percent, roughness elements can be embedded into a
cobble and gravel streambed; for slopes between five
and 9 percent, they must be anchored into a concrete
channel subgrade. Strategic placement and anchoring of rocks or concrete blocks into modified natural
stream channels can significantly improve passage
conditions. Maximum engineered channel length
depends on the swimming abilities of the target fish.
A boulder and rock weir fishway (or fish ladder) is
required if site conditions dictate a long engineered
channel that likely exceeds the known swimming abilities of the target species.
Engineered, steepened channels are designed to
survive very high flows, are easily maintained, and
cost less to build than concrete fishways. Guidance
for designing these fishways can be found in previous
chapters. There are no standard empirical methods to
predict passage using this informal method, so they
TS14N26
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National Engineering Handbook
cannot be built with gradients as steep as roughenedchannel fishways. However, the geometry of natural
analogs in the same stream system (cascades or bedrock chutes) can provide designers with insight into
structural limitations at a given project site.
Engineered channels have been successfully used in
some Midwestern states to pass warm-water fishes
such as redhorse, walleye, northern pike, and various
minnow and sucker species. Commonly referred to
as rock ramps, these structures have been in use for
several years to provide fish passage at low head dams
(fig. TS14N15). Rock ramp fishways can also provide
additional protection against undermining from toe
scour caused by water spilling over the face of a dam.
Denil
Made from wood, steel, and/or concrete, a Denil
fishway is a rectangular channel fitted with a series
of symmetrical, closely spaced baffles that redirect
flowing water and allow fish to swim around or over
a barrier (fig. TS14N16). The figure on right is modified from Powers et al. (1985). Baffles placed on the
floor or walls of the relatively steep, (10 to 25% slope)
rectangular flume reduce mean flow velocities to
ranges negotiated by migratory fish. Denil ladders
generally do not have resting areas, although pools
can be included in the design to provide resting areas
or velocity reductions. Further, switchbacks can be
added to minimize the footprint of the structure. When
small-bodied or weaker swimming fish are targeted
for passage, Denil ladders can be built at a shallower
slope with smaller baffles, or closer baffle spacing, to
minimize physiological exertion.
Many different Denil fishway designs are presently in
use. The most common, the plane baffle or standard
Denil fish ladder, is composed of baffles angled up
from the floor at 45 degrees and spaced between 2 and
4 feet. Standard Denil ladders are commonly applied at
slopes between 15 and 20 percent. Another frequently
seen approach uses herringbone-patterned baffles
made of thin steel attached only to the bottom of the
flume; the two sides of the channel remain smooth. Although the width of this design is generally not limited,
the maximum applicable slope is about 15 percent.
All Denil ladder applications are susceptible to damage from debris, as well as debris accumulation. They
Figure TS14N15
(a)
Figure TS14N16
(a)
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National Engineering Handbook
(a) North Dam on the Red River of the North (ND) before construction; (b) after construction of an
engineered channel fishway
(b)
3.0
1.75
Flow
3.5
45
1.0
2.0
0.5
Cross section
(210VINEH, August 2007)
Proflile
TS14N27
Alaska Steeppass
Alaska Steeppass fishways, a variation of the Denil ladder, are prefabricated, modular, and usually
constructed of a lightweight material like aluminum
(fig. TS14N17). The figure on right is modified from
Powers et al. (1985). These factors make the Alaska
Steeppass relatively economical to build, install, and
use, especially for temporary applications or in remote
locations. The Alaska Steeppass has a more complicated baffling system than a Denil fishway, but this design
controls water more efficiently and allows installation
and operation at slopes up to 35 percent. In addition,
internal baffle design permits the Alaska Steeppass to
Figure TS14N17
(a)
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National Engineering Handbook
11 in
Fins
Plan
Fins
27 in
22 in
11 in
Fins
14 in
27 in
Flow
4 in
5.25 in
Cross section
TS14N28
Profile
and parking lots. Culverts are usually round, rectangular, elliptical, flat-bottomed, or bottomless, and
are often made from steel, concrete, or plastic (PVC,
ABS). Their interiors can be relatively smooth, but are
often roughened by streambed substrate and/or corrugations. Culverts create fish barriers in one or more of
the following ways:
high velocities or sudden velocity changes at
the inlet or outlet or inside the culvert barrel
inadequate flow depth in the culvert barrel during critical migration periods
excessive length without adequate resting areas
significant drop at the culvert outlet
debris accumulation at the culvert inlet, outlet,
or inside its barrel
excessive turbulence inside the culvert or at its
outlet or inlet
This section on modifying or installing culverts to
provide fish passage relies heavily on results of fish
passage studies, field applications, and information
published by a team of engineers and biologists from
Figure TS14N18
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National Engineering Handbook
Figure TS14N19
TS14N29
Excessive velocity and shallow-flow depths also impede fish passage in existing culvertsthis condition
is especially common in concrete box culverts. Retrofitting a culvert with baffles may improve fish passage
across a range of flows, but only where site conditions
allow. Placing baffles within a culvert may reduce
capacity of the culvert by an unacceptable amount.
Baffles are a series of features that increase hydraulic
roughness inside the barrel of a culvert (fig. TS14N20
(modified from WDFW (2003); variables shown are
defined in their appendix D)). Unlike hydraulic control
structures (weirs), which independently reduce velocities, baffles work together to reduce the average crosssectional velocity throughout the length of a culvert.
Installing baffles into a culvert should only be considered as a temporary solution to improve fish passage.
Adding baffles reduces hydraulic capacity, generally
increases the risk of failure from flooding conditions,
and makes culverts more prone to capture debris
and bed load. Baffled culverts require maintenance,
so the barrel diameter should allow at least 5 feet of
headroom for crews to safely work inside. Proper and
frequent maintenance of culvert baffles is essential
to ensure that a modification made in the name of
improving fish passage does not result in poorer conditions than existed prior to the retrofit.
Figure TS14N20
Figure TS14N21
L
L
Z0
Z2
Z1
Corner
TS14N30
Notch
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National Engineering Handbook
Angled
No-slope option
The no-slope design approach is founded in the assumption that a sufficiently large culvert installed at
Figure TS14N22
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
No slope
Hydraulic
Stream simulation
WcB=1.2 Wch + 2 ft
WcB=Wch
Zero slope
L channel slope<.2D
Countersink
Culvert length
Slope up to
1.25 channel slope
Fish
Check inlet
bed stability
Countersink
Maximum velocity:
size
slope
roughness
Specify bed,
downstream
control
Set elevation:
countersink at low flow
match tailwater at high flow
Final design
Or other option
(210VINEH, August 2007)
TS14N31
Figure TS14N23
3. Downstream
4. Upstream
countersink
countersink
20 percent of rise of rise maximum
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Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Table TS14N8
where:
CW = channel bed width (bankfull: ordinary high water: active channel width) (in)
H = (1.25)(CW) = diameter of round pipe or rise of pipe arch (in)
RP = round pipe diameter (in)
PA = pipe arch rise (in)
Note: Shaded areas are culverts at least 40 feet long (typical two-lane road)
Culvert length per channel slope
(corrugated metal)
Round pipe
Pipe arch
CW
RP
PA
1%
2%
3%
4%
1%
2%
3%
4%
24
30
3524
50
25
17
13
40
20
13
10
36
45
4636
75
38
25
19
60
30
20
15
48
60
6046
100
50
33
25
77
38
26
19
60
75
8159
125
63
42
31
98
49
33
25
72
90
9567
150
75
50
38
112
56
37
28
84
105
11275
175
88
58
44
125
63
42
31
96
120
12883
200
100
67
50
138
69
46
35
108
135
13787
225
113
75
56
145
73
48
36
120
150
14291
250
125
83
63
152
76
51
38
TS14N33
Figure TS14N24
TS14N34
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National Engineering Handbook
Undersized perched culvert (left) replaced with larger pipe designed using
stream simulation option
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Figure TS14N25
3050 percent
of culvert rise
Well-graded homogeneous
native streambed sediment mix
Step-pool profile
3050 percent
of culvert rise
TS14N35
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National Engineering Handbook
Construction
Ensure completed project complies with
design drawings by producing as-built drawings.
Countersink
20 percent of culvert
rise (minimum)
Native streambed
sediment mix
(as habitat)
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Tide gates and floodgates are usually a pipe or culvert outfitted with a gate (flap) on the outlet end that
allows water to flow in only one direction. They are
usually incorporated into earthen dikes and, in many
cases, include pump stations. Floodgates operate in
nontidal areas to prevent floodwaters from backing
up into smaller tributary streams or drainage ditches.
Tide gates are designed to keep saltwater out of agricultural fields, drainage ditches, and freshwater
streams that flow into estuary and coastal areas. For
both structures, as long as positive head remains on
the upstream side, the flap remains open and allows
water to drain. When the receiving water body rises
(for a floodgate), or when the tide comes in (for a tide
gate), the outlet flap shuts and prevents saltwater or
floodwater from entering the culvert. Pumps may be
necessary to move water over the dike.
TS14N37
Figure TS14N27
(a) Two 1,800-lb steel tide gate flaps created a partial passage barrier for several fish species and age groups.
TS14N38
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Figure TS14N28
TS14N39
Figure TS14N29
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Concrete ladder
Diversion dam
Flow direction
Inlet screen location
Bypass/return channel
Irrigation diversion
Bypass screen location
TS14N40
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National Engineering Handbook
TS14N41
Figure TS14N30
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Screen
Flow
Flow
Plan
Fish bypass
pipe to river
Walkway
Brush
trolley
Headwall
W.S.
W.S.
Baffle panel
Flow
Brush
assembly
Screen panel
Section
Figure TS14N31
Debris
trough
Driver
mechanism
Jet spray
nozzle
system
Walkway
Flow
TS14N42
Chain drive
Screen travel
Screen panels
(baskets)
Flow
sands of cubic feet per second. These screens are comprised of a rotating cylinder with a mesh surface. As
the cylinder rotates, it carries debris over the screen
where it washes or falls off the backside of the screen
into a diversion canal or ditch.
Rotary screens generally have less cleaning and
maintenance requirements than a fixed or moving
vertical plate screen, but side and bottom seals must
be regularly inspected and replaced to ensure a fish
tight facility. Each rotary drum is driven by a motor or
mechanized propulsion system (commonly, a paddle
wheel, turned by the flowing water), so an adjacent
power supply is necessary. Drum seals, drive motors,
bearings, and gears often wear out, so long-term maintenance and equipment costs can be a factor. Rotary
drum screens only operate under a relatively narrow
range of water surface fluctuations, so site hydraulics
must be well defined prior to selecting this design option (WDFW 2000b).
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Figure TS14N32
Figure TS14N33
Screen mesh
Frame
Pier
Flow
Flow
Rotation
Seal
(frame to
concrete)
Isometric view
Cylindrical intake
(210VINEH, August 2007)
TS14N43
Figure TS14N34
Infiltration gallery
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National Engineering Handbook
A% =
A openings
A screen
(TS14N28)
Figure TS14N35
Perforated plate
Profile wire
Backing bar
1<
0.0689 in = 1.75 mm
Vsweep
Vapproach
(eq. TS14N29)
Vsweep = V cos
Vapproach = V sin
Profile wire
Table TS14N9
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Figure TS14N36
(eq. TS14N30)
(eq. TS14N31)
Flow
Va : Approach velocity
Vs : Sweeping velocity
V : True water velocity
Va
V Vs
Drum
screens
Fish bypass
TS14N45
where:
V
= channel velocity (ft/s)
Vsweep = lateral velocity along the face of the
screen (ft/s)
Vapproach = velocity along the approach angle, perpendicular velocity normal to the face of
the screen (ft/s)
= angle between the direction of channel
flow and the screen (approach velocity
and the sweep velocity)
Step 2 Screen dimensions
The next step is to determine the area of screen
opening to meet diversion requirements. This is an
iterative process, whereby the designer estimates
the area of the screen that will provide adequate
flow into the diversion. Head losses are calculated and the area estimate is revised until the
flow-diversion rate criteria are met. Final screen
height and length are determined at the end of an
iterative process to calculate flow diversion and
required screen opening (eqs. TS14N32 through
TS14N34).
The equation for flow through an orifice is the iterative
design analysis.
Q = CA screen ( 2gh )
0.5
(eq. TS14N32)
h =
1
Q
2g CA screen
(eq. TS14N33)
where:
Q
= diversion discharge (ft3/s)
g
= gravitational acceleration (ft/s2)
C
= loss coefficient for fine-meshed screens
(0.6 for fine-meshed screens (Colorado
School of Mines 2004))
Ascreen = estimated screen area to meet diversion
requirements
A screen = xyA %
(eq. TS14N34)
where:
x = length of screen required to meet diversion
requirements (ft)
y = height of screen, plus head losses, required to
meet diversion requirements (ft)
TS14N46
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National Engineering Handbook
Bypass design
A fish bypass system is a flow route to transport both
juvenile and adult fish from the face of a screen back
to a river. Fish screens placed directly in or on the
banks of a river require no bypass system. Bypass
routes should transport fish back into a river or stream
as quickly as possible, without injury or increased
chance of mortality from predation. Major components
of a fish bypass system include the entrance, transport
conduit, and outfall or exit. Major design considerations for each of these components are summarized.
Bypass entrance
Orient bypass entrances at the downstream
terminus of a screen face.
Include additional entrances if sweeping velocities will not move fish to one within 60 seconds
of encountering the screen face.
Entrance flow into the bypass system should
always be 10 percent greater than the true water velocity approaching it. In screen sites with
complicated or uncertain hydraulics, design
bypass entrance flow to be 25 percent greater
than approaching true water velocity.
Bypass entrances should extend from the floor
to the canal water surface and be a minimum
of 18 inches wide (for diversions greater than 3
ft3/s) or 12 inches wide (for diversions less than
3 ft3/s). These widths allow schooling fish to
move through without delay.
Bypass conduit
All surfaces and joints should be smooth to
reduce the risk of injury to fish.
Maximum velocity should not exceed 30 feet
per second with no hydraulic jumps. Optimum
pipe velocity is around 6 to 12 feet per second.
Flow inside the conduit should never be pressurized.
Avoid extreme bends, and ensure that the ratio
of bypass pipe centerline radius of curvature to
pipe diameter (R/D) is greater than or equal to
5. Greater R/D may be required for supercritical
pipe velocities.
Size bypass conduit to minimize debris blockage, sediment deposition, and facilitate cleaning. Pipe diameter should be 24 inches or
greater, but never less than 10 inches. Equip
pipes longer than 150 feet with access valves.
Never include closure valves inside a bypass
pipe.
Minimum depth of free surface flow should be
at least 40 percent of bypass pipe diameter.
Bypass outfall
Locate bypass exit where ambient river velocity is greater than 4 feet per second.
Qlf = 15 ft3/s
Qavg = 30 ft3/s
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Q = Cd ( L i 0.1NH ) H1.5
i
where:
Li = incremental widths (ft)
N = number of contraction sides (2)
H = head on weir (2 ft)
Cd = coefficient of discharge = 3.1
English units
ft
1.5
100 ft 3 /s = 3.1
L 0.1 ( 2)( 2 ft ) ( 2 ft )
s
L = 12 ft
ft
1.5
15 ft 3 /s = 3.1
L 0.1 ( 4 )(0.7 ft ) ] (0.7 ft )
s
L 7 ft
TS14N47
where:
Ys = depth of scour (m)
Yd = downstream depth of flow (m) = 2 ft = 0.6 m
q = unit discharge (m3/ms = 100 ft3/s/12 ft = 8.3
ft2/s = 0.8 m2/s)
D90 = sediment diameter with 90% of material finer
(mm = assumed 6-in material = 152.4 mm)
Dh = difference in head between upstream water
surface and downstream water surface including velocity (m = 1 ft = 0.3 m)
where:
V = velocity (ft/s)
L = weir length
Part 654
National Engineering Handbook
Q
L 0.67 H
Vweir hf
100 ft 3 /s
=
= 6.2 ft/s
(12 ft )(0.67 )(2 ft )
Vweir hf
15 ft 3 /s
=
= 4.5 ft/s
(7 ft )(0.67 )(.7 ft )
Ys = 6 (0.3 )
0.25
( 0. 8 )
0.5
0.6 3
152.4 = 0.6 m = 2.0 ft
Ys = 6 h
0.25 0.5
Yd 3
D
90
0.05 <
1 ft
< 0.50 Check, spacing could be moved
closer together and shorten reach
20 ft
overall.
Vy = 2gh
Vy = 2 ( 32.2 ft/s )(1 ft ) = 8.0 ft/s
V1 = Vweir 2 + Vy 2
Table TS14N10 Steelhead swimming design criteria
Steelhead
TS14N48
Cruising
speed
ft/s
m/s
Burst
speed
ft/s
Check.
Sustained
speed
2.0 ft
< 3.0
1 ft
Ys
< 3.0
h
The final steps are sizing the rock material for the
weir crest, scour hole toe protection, and downstream
tailwater area.
Species
h
< 0.50
L
m/s
Maximum
jump height
ft/s
m/s
ft
4.6
V1 =
= 10.1 ft/s
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National Engineering Handbook
should be larger than the drop height of 1 foot. A selection of 2-foot-diameter material for weir and scour
pool area protection is recommended. In addition, this
size material should also be laid as a subsurface armor
layer along the entire length of the furthest downstream step and tailwater area to provide a keystone
grade control feature for the entire channel.
V
D50 = 1
2.57
10.1 ft/s
D50 =
= 15.4 ft
2.57
Vweir =
100
= 6.2 ft/s
12
( )(0.67 )(2)
2
6.2 ft/s
D50 =
= 5.8 in = 0.5 ft
2.57
TS14N49