11

Dispersion Strengthening by Phase

Transformations and Heat Treatment

11–2 Determine the constants c and n in Equation 11–2 that describe the rate of crystal-
lization of polypropylene at 140C. (See Figure 11–31)

Solution: f  1  exp1ct n 2 T  140°C  413 K

We can rearrange the equation and eliminate the exponential by taking natu-
ral logarithms of both sides of the rearranged equation. We can then note that
ln(1  f ) versus t is a power equation; if these terms are plotted on a log-log
plot, we should obtain a linear relationship, as the graph of the data below
indicates. Note that in setting up the equation for plotting, we switch the minus
sign from the right hand to the left hand side, since we don’t have negative
numbers on the log-log paper.

1  f  exp1ct n 2 f t(min) ln(1  f )

ln11  f 2  ct n
ln3ln11  f 2 4  ln1ct n 2
0.1 28 0.1
ln3ln11  f 2 4  ln1c2  n ln1t2
0.2 37 0.22
0.3 44 0.36
A log-log plot of “ln(1  f )” versus “t” is 0.4 50 0.51
shown. From the graph, we find that the slope 0.5 55 0.69
n  2.89 and the constant c can be found from 0.6 60 0.92
one of the points from the curve: 0.7 67 1.20
0.8 73 1.61
if f  0.5, t  55. Then 0.9 86 2.302
1  0.5  exp 3c1552 2.89 4
c  6.47  106

123
124 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

2.0

1.0

− In (1 − f ) 0.5
n = 2.89

0.2

0.1
5 10 20
t (min)

11–3 Determine the constants c and n in Equation 11-2 that describe the rate of
recrystallization of copper at 135C. (See Figure 11–2)

Solution: f  1  exp1ct n 2 T  135°C  408 K

We can rearrange the equation and eliminate the exponential by taking natu-
ral logarithms of both sides of the rearranged equation. We can then note that
ln(1  f ) versus t is a power equation and should give a linear relationship in
a log-log plot. Note that in setting up the equation for plotting, we switch the
minus sign from the right hand to the left hand side, since we don’t have
negative numbers on the log-log paper.

1  f  exp1ct n 2 f t (min) ln(1  f )

ln11  f 2  ct n
ln3ln11  f 2 4  ln1ct n 2 0.1 5.0 0.10
ln 3ln11  f 2 4  ln1c2  ln1t2 0.2 6.6 0.22
0.3 7.7 0.36
0.4 8.5 0.51
0.5 9.0 0.69
0.6 10.0 0.92
0.7 10.5 1.20
0.8 11.5 1.61
0.9 13.7 2.30
CHAPTER 11 Dispersion Strengthening by Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment 125

A log-log plot of “ln(1  f )” versus “t” is shown. From the graph, we find
that the slope n  3.1 and the constant c can be found from one of the points
from the curve:

If f  0.6, then t  10. Then

1  0.6  exp 3c1102 3.1 4
c  7.28  104.

4.0

2.0

1.0
− In (1 − f )

0.5
n = 2.89

0.2

0.1
30 50 100
t (min)

11–4 Determine the activation energy for crystallization of polypropylene, using the
curves in Figure 11–36.

Solution: We can determine how the rate (equal to 1t) changes with temperature:

rate  1t  c exp1QRT2

1 t 1s1 2 1 T 1K1 2
1  19 min2160 s/min2  1.85  103 1  1130  2732  2.48  103
1  155 min2160 s/min2  3.03  104 1  1140  2732  2.42  103
1  1316 min2160 s/min2  5.27  105 1  1150  2732  2.36  103
126 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

From the semilog graph of rate versus reciprocal temperature, we find that the
slope is:
ln1103 2  ln15  105 2
QR 
0.00246  0.00236
QR  29,957
Q  59,525 cal/mol

10−3

In (10−3) − In (5 × 10−5)
Rate (s−1)
10−4

0.00246 − 0.00236

10−5
0.0023 0.0024 0.0025
1/T (K−1)

11–16 (a) Recommend an artificial age-hardening heat treatment for a Cu–1.2% Be alloy
(see Figure 11–34). Include appropriate temperatures. (b) Compare the amount of
the g2 precipitate that forms by artificial aging at 400C with the amount of the
precipitate that forms by natural aging.

Solution: (a) For the Cu–1.2% Be alloy, the peritectic temperature is 870C; above this
temperature, liquid may form. The solvus temperature is about 530C.
Therefore:

1) Solution treat between 530C and 870C (780C is typical for beryl-
lium copper alloys)
2) Quench
3) Age below 530C (330C is typical for these alloys)

(b) We can perform lever law calculations at 400C and at room temperature.
The solubility of Be in Cu at 400C is about 0.6% Be and that at room
temperature is about 0.2% Be:
1.2  0.6
g2 1at 400°C2   100  5.4%
11.7  0.6
1.2  0.2
g2 1room T2   100  8.5%
12  0.2
11–17 Suppose that age hardening is possible in the Al–Mg system (see Figure 11–11). (a)
Recommend an artificial age-hardening heat treatment for each of the following
alloys, and (b) compare the amount of the b precipitate that forms from your
treatment of each alloy. (i) Al–4% Mg (ii) Al–6% Mg (iii) Al–12% Mg (c) Testing
of the alloys after the heat treatment reveals that little strengthening occurs as a
result of the heat treatment. Which of the requirements for age hardening is likely
not satisfied?
CHAPTER 11 Dispersion Strengthening by Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment 127

Solution: (a) The heat treatments for each alloy might be:
Al–4% Mg Al–6% Mg Al–12% Mg
TEutectic  451C 451C 451C
TSolvus  210C 280C 390C
Solution
Treat at: 210–451C 280–451C 390–451C
Quench Quench Quench
Age at: 210C 280C 390C

(b) Answers will vary depending on aging temperature selected. If all three
are aged at 200C, as an example, the tie line goes from about 3.8 to
35% Mg:
Al–4% Mg: %b  14  3.82  135  3.82  100  0.6%
Al–6% Mg: %b  16  3.82  135  3.82  100  7.1%
Al–12% Mg: %b  112  3.82  135  3.82  100  26.8%

(c) Most likely, a coherent precipitate is not formed; simple dispersion

strengthening, rather than age hardening, occurs.

11–18 An Al–2.5% Cu alloy is solution-treated, quenched, and overaged at 230C to

produce a stable microstructure. If the spheroidal u precipitates so that form has a
diameter of 9000 Å and a density of 4.26 g/cm3, determine the number of precipitate
particles per cm3.

53  2.5
Solution: wt% a   97.12% wt% u  2.88%
53  1
2.88 g4.26 g/cm3
vol fraction u   0.0182 cm3 u cm3 alloy
2.88 4.26  97.122.669
du  9000  1010 m  9  105 cm ru  4.5  105 cm
Vu  14p3214.5  105 cm2 3  382  1015 cm3
0.0182 cm3
# of particles   4.76  1010 particles
382  1015 cm3

11–38 Figure 11–32 shows a hypothetical phase diagram. Determine whether each of the
following alloys might be good candidates for age hardening and explain your
answer. For those alloys that might be good candidates, describe the heat treatment
required, including recommended temperatures.
(a) A–10% B (b) A–20% B (c) A–55% B
(d) A–87% B (e) A–95% B

Solution: (a) A–10% B is a good candidate: Solution Treatment @ T  290 to 400C

quench
Age @ T  290C

(b) A–20% B: Some age hardening effect may occur when alloy is solution
treated below 400C and quenched. However, eutectic is also present and
the strengthening effect will not be as dramatic as in (a).
128 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

(c) A–55% B: almost all u is formed. The alloy is expected to be very brittle.

(d) A–87% B: the alloy cools from a two-phase (b  u) region to a one-phase

(b) region, opposite of what we need for age hardening.

(e) A–95% B: the alloy is single phase (b) at all temperatures and thus cannot
be age hardened.

11–51 Figure 11–1 shows the sigmoidal curve for the transformation of austenite.
Determine the constants c and n in Equation 11-2 for this reaction. By comparing
this figure with the TTT diagram, Figure 11–21, estimate the temperature at which
this transformation occurred.

Solution: f 1f ln(1  f ) t(s)

0.25 0.75 0.288 63 s
0.50 0.50 0.69 110 s
0.75 0.25 1.39 170 s

From the log-log plot of “ln(1  f )” versus “t”, we find that the slope n
 1.52 and since t  110 s when f  0.5,
0.5  1  exp 3c11102 1.52 4
c  5.47  104

Figure 11–1 shows that the transformation begins at about 20 s and ends
at about 720 s. Based on the TTT diagram (Figure 11–21), the transfor-
mation temperature must be about 680C.

2.0

1.0
− In (1 − f )

0.5
n = 1.52

0.1
50 100 200
t (s)
CHAPTER 11 Dispersion Strengthening by Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment 129

11–52 For an Fe–0.35%C alloy, determine (a) the temperature at which austenite first
begins to transform on cooling, (b) the primary microconstituent that forms, (c) the
composition and amount of each phase present at 728C, (d) the composition and
amount of each phase present at 726C, and (e) the composition and amount of each
microconstituent present at 726C.

Solution: (a) 795C (b) primary a-ferrite

0.77  0.35
(c) a: 0.0218% C %a   100  56.1%
0.77  0.0218
g: 0.77% C %g  43.9%

6.67  0.35
(d) a: 0.0218% C %a   100  95.1%
6.67  0.0218
Fe3C: 6.67% C %Fe3C  4.9%

(e) primary a: 0.0218 %C % primary a  56.1%

pearlite: 0.77 %C % Pearlite  43.9%

11–53 For an Fe–1.15%C alloy, determine (a) the temperature at which austenite first
begins to transform on cooling, (b) the primary microconstituent that forms, (c) the
composition and amount of each phase present at 728C, (d) the composition and
amount of each phase present at 726C, and (e) the composition and amount of each
microconstituent present at 726C.

Solution: (a) 880C (b) primary Fe3C

1.15  0.77
(c) Fe3C: 6.67% C %Fe3C   100  6.4%
6.67  0.77
g: 0.77% C %g  93.6%

6.67  1.15
(d) a: 0.0218% C %a   100  83%
6.67  0.0218
Fe3C: 6.67% C %Fe3C  17%

(e) primary Fe3C: 6.67 %C % primary Fe3C  6.4%

pearlite: 0.77 %C % Pearlite  93.6%

11–54 A steel contains 8% cementite and 92% ferrite at room temperature. Estimate the
carbon content of the steel. Is the steel hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid?

6.67  x
Solution: a  0.92  x  0.53% C, ∴ Hypoeutectoid
6.67  0

11–55 A steel contains 18% cementite and 82% ferrite at room temperature. Estimate the
carbon content of the steel. Is the steel hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid?

6.67  x
Solution: a  0.82  x  1.20% C, ∴ Hypereutectoid
6.67  0

11–56 A steel contains 18% pearlite and 82% primary ferrite at room temperature. Estimate
the carbon content of the steel. Is the steel hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid?
130 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

0.77  x
Solution: primary a  0.82  ,
0.77  0.0218
x  0.156% C, ∴ Hypoeutectoid

11–57 A steel contains 94% pearlite and 6% primary cementite at room temperature.
Estimate the carbon content of the steel. Is the steel hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid?

6.67  x
Solution: Pearlite  0.94  , x  1.124% C, ∴ Hypereutectoid
6.67  0.77

11–58 A steel contains 55% a and 45% g at 750C. Estimate the carbon content of the
steel.

Solution: a  0.02% C and g  0.6% C (from the tie line at 750C)

0.6  x
%a  55   100 x  0.281% C
0.6  0.02

11–59 A steel contains 96% g and 4% Fe3C at 800C. Estimate the carbon content of the
steel.

Solution: g  0.92% C and Fe3C  6.67% C (from the tie line at 800C)
6.67  x
g  0.96  x  1.15% C
6.67  0.92

11–60 A steel is heated until 40% austenite, with a carbon content of 0.5%, forms.
Estimate the temperature and the overall carbon content of the steel.

Solution: In order for g to contain 0.5% C, the austenitizing temperature must be

about 760C (from the tie line). At this temperature:
x  0.02
0.4  x  0.212% C
0.5  0.02

11–61 A steel is heated until 85% austenite, with a carbon content of 1.05%, forms.
Estimate the temperature and the overall carbon content of the steel.

Solution: In order for to contain 1.05% C, the austenitizing temperature must be

about 845C (from the tie line). At this temperature:
6.67  x
0.85  x  1.893% C
6.67  1.05

11–62 Determine the eutectoid temperature, the composition of each phase in the eutectoid
reaction, and the amount of each phase present in the eutectoid microconstituent for
the following systems. For the metallic systems, comment on whether you expect
the eutectoid microconstituent to be ductile or brittle.
(a) ZrO2–CaO (See Figure 11–33)
(b) Cu–Al at 11.8%Al (See Figure 11–34(c))
(c) Cu–Zn at 47%Zn (See Figure 11–34(a))
(d) Cu–Be (See Figure 11–34(d))
CHAPTER 11 Dispersion Strengthening by Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment 131

Solution: (a) @900C: Tetragonal12% CaO S Monoclinic3% CaO  Cubic14% CaO

14  12
%Monoclinic   100  18% %Cubic  82%
14  3

The eutectoid microconstituent (and the entire material, for that matter)
will be brittle because the materials are ceramics)

(b) @565°C: b11.8% Al S a9.4% Al  g2 15.6% Al

15.6  11.8
%a   100  61.3% %b  38.7%
15.6  9.4

Most of the eutectoid microconstituent is a (solid solution strengthened

copper) and is expected to be ductile.

(c) @250°C: b¿ 47% Zn S a36% An  g59% Zn

59  47
%a   100  52.2% %g  47.8%
59  36

Slightly more than half of the eutectoid is the copper solid solution; there
is a good chance that the eutectoid would be ductile.

(d) @605°C: g1 6% Be S a1.5% Be  g2 11% Be

11  6
%a   100  52.6% %b  47.4%
11  1.5

Slightly more than half of the eutectoid is the copper solid solution; we
might then expect the eutectoid to be ductile.

11–64 Compare the interlamellar spacing and the yield strength when an eutectoid steel is
isothermally transformed to pearlite at (a) 700C, and (b) 600C.

Solution: We can find the interlamellar spacing from Figure 11–20 and then use this
spacing to find the strength from Figure 11–19.

(a) l  7.5  105 cm 1 l  13,333 YS  200 MPa 129,400 psi2

(b) l  1.5  105 cm 1 l  66,667 YS  460 MPa 167,600 psi2

11–72 An isothermally transformed eutectoid steel is found to have a yield strength of

410 MPa. Estimate (a) the transformation temperature and (b) the interlamellar
spacing in the pearlite.

Solution: We can first find the interlamellar spacing from Figure 11–19; then using
this interlamellar spacing, we can find the transformation temperature
from Figure 11–20.

(a) transformation temperature  615C

(b) 1l  60,000 or l  1.67  105 cm

11–73 Determine the required transformation temperature and microconstituent if an eutec-

toid steel is to have the following hardness values:
(a) HRC 38 (b) HRC 42 (c) HRC 48 (d) HRC 52
132 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

Solution: (a) 600C (b) 400C (c) 340C (d) 300C

pearlite bainite bainite bainite

11–74 Describe the hardness and microstructure in an eutectoid steel that has been heated
to 800C for 1 h, quenched to 350C and held for 750 s, and finally quenched to
room temperature.

Solution: HRC  47 and the microstructure is all bainite.

11–75 Describe the hardness and microstructure in an eutectoid steel that has been heated
to 800C, quenched to 650C and held for 500 s, and finally quenched to room
temperature.

Solution: HRC  25 and the microstructure is all pearlite.

11–76 Describe the hardness and microstructure in an eutectoid steel that has been heated
to 800C, quenched to 300C and held for 10 s, and finally quenched to room
temperature.

Solution: HRC  66 and the microstructure is all martensite.

11–77 Describe the hardness and microstructure in an eutectoid steel that has been heated
to 800C, quenched to 300C and held for 10 s, quenched to room temperature, and
then reheated to 400C before finally cooling to room temperature again.

Solution: HRC  42 and the microstructure is all tempered martensite.

11–78 A steel containing 0.3% C is heated to various temperatures above the eutectoid
temperature, held for 1 h, and then quenched to room temperature. Using
Figure 11–35, determine the amount, composition, and hardness of any
martensite that forms when the heating temperature is
(a) 728C (b) 750C (c) 790C (d) 850C

0.3  0.0218
Solution: (a) g: 0.77% C %M   100%  37.2% HRC 65
0.77  0.0218

0.3  0.02
(b) g: 0.60% C %M   100%  48.3% HRC 65
0.6  0.02

0.3  0.02
(c) g: 0.35% C %M   100%  84.8% HRC 58
0.35  0.02

(d) g: 0.3% C %M  100% HRC 55

11–86 A steel containing 0.95% C is heated to various temperatures above the eutectoid
temperature, held for 1 h, and then quenched to room temperature. Using
Figure 11–35, determine the amount and composition of any martensite
that forms when the heating temperature is
(a) 728C (b) 750C (c) 780C (d) 850C
CHAPTER 11 Dispersion Strengthening by Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment 133

6.67  0.95
Solution: (a) g  0.77% C %M   100%  96.9% HRC 65
6.67  0.77

6.67  0.95
(b) g  0.82% C %M   100%  97.8% HRC 65
6.67  0.82

6.67  0.95
(c) g  0.88% C %M   100%  98.8% HRC 65
6.67  0.88

(d) g  0.95% C %M  100% HRC 65

11–87 A steel microstructure contains 75% martensite and 25% ferrite; the composition of
the martensite is 0.6% C. Using Figure 11–35, determine (a) the temperature from
which the steel was quenched and (b) the carbon content of the steel.

Solution: In order for g (and therefore martensite) to contain 0.6% C, the austeni-
tizing T  750C. Then:
0.6  x
M  g  0.25  x  0.455% C
0.6  0.02

11–88 A steel microstructure contains 92% martensite and 8% Fe3C; the composition of
the martensite is 1.10% C. Using Figure 11–35, determine (a) the temperature from
which the steel was quenched and (b) the carbon content of the steel.

Solution: In order for g (and therefore martensite) to contain 1.10% C, the austeni-
tizing T  865C. Then:
6.67  x
M  g  0.92  x  1.55% C
6.67  1.10

11–89 A steel containing 0.8% C is quenched to produce all martensite. Estimate the vol-
ume change that occurs, assuming that the lattice parameter of the austenite is 3.6 Å.
Does the steel expand or contract during quenching?

Solution: Vg  13.6 Å2 3  46.656  1024 cm3

VM  a2c  12.85  108 cm2 2 12.96  108 2  24.0426  1024 cm3

But to assure that we have the same number of atoms, we need to consider
two unit cells of martensite (2 atoms/cell) for each cell of FCC austenite
(4 atoms/cell)
122124.04262  46.656
%¢V  c d  100%  3.06%, ∴ expansion
46.656

11–90 Describe the complete heat treatment required to produce a quenched and tempered
eutectoid steel having a tensile strength of at least 125,000 psi. Include appropriate
temperatures.

Solution: Austenitize at approximately 750C,

Quench to below 130C (the Mf temperature)
Temper at 620C or less.
134 The Science and Engineering of Materials Instructor’s Solution Manual

11–91 Describe the complete heat treatment required to produce a quenched and tempered
eutectoid steel having a HRC hardness of less than 50. Include appropriate
temperatures.

Solution: Austenitize at approximately 750C,

Quench to below the Mf (less than 130C)
Temper at a temperature higher than 330C, but less than 727C.

11–92 In eutectic alloys, the eutectic microconstituent is generally the continuous one, but
in the eutectoid structures, the primary microconstituent is normally continuous. By
describing the changes that occur with decreasing temperature in each reaction,
explain why this difference is expected.

Solution: In a eutectoid reaction, the original grain boundaries serve as nucleation

sites; consequently the primary microconstituent outlines the original
grain boundaries and isolates the eutectoid product as a discontinuous
constitutent.

In a eutectic reaction, the primary phase nucleates from the liquid and
grows. When the liquid composition approaches the eutectic composition,
the eutectic constituent forms around the primary constituent, making the
eutectic product the continuous constitutent.