Production of Materials

1 .Fossil fuels provide both energy & raw materials such as ethylene,
for the production of other substances
Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of
the fractions from the refining of Petroleum
Ethylene originates from crude oil which is obtained from biomass. Crude oil is
taken to a fractional distillator and distilled to separate the large hydrocarbons
fro the small ones. These large hydrocarbons are then processed into catalytic
cracking, which involves breakdown of large hydrocarbons into smaller one by
heating the alkane to high temperatures in presence of a catalyst (zeolite). The
cracking of large hydrocarbons results in the production of ethylene.
Thermal cracking

This is a process in which a mixture of alkanes with steam is passed

through very hot metal tubes to decompose the alkanes

Catalytic Cracking

This is the process in which high molecular weight fractions from crude oil
are broken into lower molecular weight substances in order to increase the
output of high demand fractions. For Catalytic Cracking, inorganic
compounds known as zeolites are used as catalysts.

Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double

bond, is readily transformed into many useful products

Since ethylene has double carbon-carbon bonds, its very reactive

Most reactions of alkenes take place at the double bond
Alkene react with many substances to form single bonds. this process is
called addition reaction.

Addition reaction : A chemical reaction in which double or triple covalent bonds

in unsaturated hydrocarbons break down to combine with other hydrocarbons to
form
large
Structural formula
Molecule formula

(C4 H4)

compounds. This reaction usually occours with a presence of a catalyst

1 | Page

Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are

made

Polymer: a ling chained molecules made up of a linked series of repeated

monomers
Monomer: simple compound that join up to form polymers
Polymerisation: the process of making polymers by allowing monomers
to link up
o Ethylene is a monomer which is catalytically cracked to from single
bonded compounds which join together to form a polymer called
polyethylene
o Under the influence of a catalyst, each double bond in ethylene
becomes single bonds that tie the molecules together into long
chains.

Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning

of this term
Additional polymer: polymer made by adding double bonded molecules to
each other, resulting in no other products, under the presence of a catalyst.
Additional polymerisation: when unsaturated monomers combine by the
breakdown of double or triple bonded covalent bonds to form a polymer
Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a
commercially and industrially important polymer
Low Density Polyethylene
Properties: Low density, flexible, soft

These are polymers which consist of branched chains. Since they

branched, they are moved further apart and therefore have lower density
and cant pack closely together. This also results in weaker dispersion
forces.
Used as : garbage bags, glad warp, plastic squeeze bottle, electrical
insulation

High Denisity Polyethylene

Properties: Dense, hard and rigid

These are polymers which consist of unbranched chains, or straight

chains. Since they are straight, they can be packed together, creating
density. This in turn creates a stronger dispersion forces. This causes HDPE
to be hard and rigid
Uses : toys, rubbish bins, boats, canoes, hands on tools.

2 | Page

Identify the following as commercially significant monomers: vinyl

chloride, styrene , by both their systematic and common name

Monomer
common
name
Vinyl
chloride

Monomer
systemic name

Styrene

Ethenylbenzene

Chloroethene

Polymer
common
name
Polyvinyl
chloride

Polymer systemic
name

Polystyrene

Polyethenylbenzen
e

Polychloroethene

Structure

Uses

Piping,
gutters,
credit cards
Packaging,
Cups
Insulation
Tool hands

Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in
terms of their properties
Poly Vinyl Chloride

Properties: it is a good electrical/ heat insulator, is stiff and rigid due to

Cl side groups, is a good shock absorber, has fire retardant properties

Polystyrene

Properties: is a good electrical and heat insulator since it has no free

electrons to conduct electricity. It is extremely stiff and strong as well as
rigid due to the large Phenyl/ethyl side group, therefore can be used to
make toys, screwdriver handles etc. It can be turned into low density
Styrofoam by blowing air molecule through it

Student: identify data, plan and preform a first- hand investigation to

compare the reactivity of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding
alkanes in bromide water
Alkenes are more chemically reactive than their corresponding alkanes. The
yellow colour of bromine water, which is due to the presence of bromine, is lost
when the bromine water comes in contact with an alkene, but not when in
contact with an alkane. This demonstrates the high reactivity of a double bonded
carbon to carbon structure compare to a single bond carbon to carbon.
2. Some Scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to
reduce our dependence on fossil fuels
Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently
obtained from the petrochemical industry

3 | Page

In the future, there is a need for alternative sources for petrochemicals, since its
a non-renewable source and the burning of petrochemicals release pollutants
into the atmosphere, threatening living life in the biosphere.
The raw materials for making the polymers essentially come from crude oil,
which is, a non-renewable resource. It is likely that the world supply of crude oil
will run out in the next few decades. Due to the huge increase in demand of
plastics, it is likely that the amount of oil used by the petrochemical energy is to
increase. Some see that as oil reduces, the main users of oil will find alternative
sources for fuel. This means that the use of oil will decrease, leaving the
petrochemical industry with plenty of oil to form their products.
The Burning of petrochemicals such as fossil fuels release toxins and pollutants
into our atmosphere which poses threat to our natural environment. The
combustion of fossil fuels releases pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and oxides
of nitrogen into our atmosphere which may lead to devastating effects such as
global warming, acid rains and photochemical smog. If our increasing use of
petrochemicals not restricted, or alternative sources no found, then we are in
danger of damaging living organisms in nature and our own health.
Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
A condensation polymer is formed by monomer molecules condensing out small
molecules (such as water) as the polymer chain forms. An example is two
glucose monomers, when they react ) or join) water condense out .
Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is
formed
Condensation polymers are formed when monomers such as beta glucose
polymerize together through the reaction between the OH groups. The Oh group
in 2 glucose molecule break and eliminate a water molecule. The remaining
oxygen group links up the monomers forming a long chain.

Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a

condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass
Cellulose is a naturally occurring condensation polymer formed by the
polymerization of many glucose molecules, its monomer, when water is
eliminated from the glucose molecules.

Cellulose is a polymer that exists in the form of chains made up of many

glucose monomers.

4 | Page

The many polar hydroxy groups that exist along cellulose chains form
hydrogen bonds with those on adjacent chains.

The bonding causes bundling of cellulose chains which results in the great
length and strength of cellulose fibres.

Biopolymer: A polymer that is made totally or in large part by living

organisms.

Cellulose is a biopolymer, and forms the main structural component of plant

cell walls.

Biomass: Material produced by living organisms.

Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures

needed to build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw
material
o

Decomposition: The breakdown of a substance into

two or more simpler substances.

Cellulose can be decomposed into glucose by certain

enzymes contained in certain bacteria.

Fermentation: The process of converting organic

compounds into simpler substances using organisms
such as yeasts and bacteria.

An example of fermentation is the conversion of glucose to ethanol and

carbon dioxide:

C6H12O6 (aq) > 2C2H5OH (l) + 2CO2 (g)

o

Dehydration: The process of removing water molecules from a certain

substance.

An example of dehydration is the conversion of ethanol to ethylene and

water:

C2H5OH (g) > C2H4 (g) + H2O (g)

o

Petrochemical: A chemical derived from petroleum.

Cellulose can be used to produce petrochemicals through conversion to

glucose (break-down), conversion into ethanol (fermentation), and
conversion to ethylene (dehydration).

5 | Page

Because cellulose is a component of biomass, which is renewable, it is an

attractive replacement for petroleum, which is unrenewable, as a source of
petrochemicals.

Analyse progress in the recent development and the uses of a named

biopolymer .this analysis should name the specific enzymes used or
organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use
or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties
Polyhyroxybutanoate (PHB)
How PHB is produced?
PHB was first produced in 1925 In a lab when a certain type of micro-organism
named Alcaligenes Eutrophus was fed a particular nutrient, which allowed this
bacteria to multiply into large colonies. By restricting the nutrient, the bacterium
was then harvested and PHB extracted. This is done by genetically modifying
crops such as corn with PHB gene, a greater amount of polymers was able to be
extracted.
Properties of PHB
PHB is used in a variety of ways due to its useful properties- its biodegradable,
renewable and non-toxic also stiff, brittle, non-polar, highly resistant to UV light.
Some of its uses include disposable nappies, bottles, packages and containers
Potential use of PHB
Since PHB is a renewable resource and possess useful properties, it has high
potential of being used for a variety of purposes, even in the medical field, due
to it being non- toxic and biodegradable. While PHB wouldnt be economic for
plastics that should be non- biodegradable, such as piping, it would be
potentially successful in the use of plastic and containers since its
environmentally friendly
3. Other resources, such as ethanol are readily available resources such
as plants
Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need
for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
o

Dehydration: The process of removing water molecules, or the

equivalent of water molecules, from a substance.

Ethanol can be dehydrated to produce ethylene and water when heated

with a concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) catalyst:

6 | Page

Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production

of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the
catalyst used
o

Hydration: The process of adding water molecules, or the equivalent of

water molecules, to a substance.

Ethylene can be hydrated to produce ethanol when heated with a dilute

sulfuric acid (H2SO4) catalyst:

Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for
polar and non-polar substances
Ethanol is a suitable solvent for both polar and non-polar substances due to its
unique molecular structure. It has a nonpolar CH3 end
which has the ability to dissolve other non-polar
substances. It also has a hydrophilic (water-loving)
hydroxy group which is slight electronegative at the
oxygen atom, and slightly electropositive at the carbon
and hydrogen atoms.
Thus, it is suitable as a solvent for both polar and nonpolar substances. Ethanol can be used as a solvent for medicines and foodadditives which do not dissolve easily in water. Once the non-polar material is
dissolved in ethanol, water can be added to prepare a suitable solution that is
mostly water.
Outline the use of ethanol ad a fuel and explain why it can be called a
renewable resource
Ethanol is considered a renewable resource since it is obtained from glucose
which is present in plants and they are a renewable resource. Furthermore, when
it undergoes combustion, the products released are water and carbon dioxide
which are naturally occurring liquids and gases.

The released carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis, therefore

retuning back to the carbon cycle.
Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted
o

The fermentation of sugars to ethanol is promoted by the following

conditions:
1. The sugars being in solution (involving mashing of grain or fruit if
necessary).

7 | Page

2. The presence of yeast (which contains certain enzymes).

3. A temperature of approximately 37C (blood temperature).
4. The exclusion of air, which provides low oxygen concentrations.
o

Once the concentration of ethanol reaches 14-15% by volume, the yeast can
no longer survive, and the fermentation process stops.

Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

o

Fermentation occurs when a sugar solution is added yeast and a reaction

is allowed to take place in an anaerobic and war condition

The yeast yields about 15% ethanol, the alcohol concentration at this
levels kills this yeast, therefore not allowing any more ethanol to produce
from glucose

Its extracted using fractional distillation.

Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the

value for ethanol from first-hand data

The molar heat of combustion is the heat energy released when one
mole of a substance undergoes complete combustion

Formula for change in heat:

Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the

advantages and disadvantages of its use
Potential of Ethanol:

80% of the worlds demand for transportation fuels is petroleum

derived.

However, as the price of petroleum continues to rise, the concept of

other fuels as alternatives becomes more attractive.

In Australia, sugar cane and wheat have been fermented to produce

ethanol, but here, it is currently an uneconomic proposition.

ADVANTAGES of ethanol:

8 | Page

It is a renewable resource.

It is greenhouse neutral; that is, the CO2 absorbed by the crop (e.g.
corn) can match the CO2 produced by combustion (if very efficient).

Because ethanol has less carbon than octane (the major component of
petrol), as well as the fact it already contains an oxygen atom, it
requires less oxygen to completely combust; hence it is a CLEANER and
MORE EFFICIENT fuel.

Produces only carbon dioxide and water as a by-product.

DISADVANTAGES of ethanol:

Engines must be modified to run on fuel containing more than 20%

ethanol

Engines wear down faster due to the need for higher engine
compression ratios needed for ethanol combustion.

Large areas of land are required to grow crops that will be harvested
for ethanol production; land that can be used for other purposes.

Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1

to C8

For straight chained alkanols (those without side branches) the number of
carbon atoms in the chain is given by the prefix

The presence of the -OH, substituting for an H, on one of the carbons is

indicated by the suffix 'ol'.

The middle syllable 'an' indicates the fact that the carbon atoms are
saturated (There are no double or triple bonds) therefore without the -OH
functional group it would be an alkane.

Number of carbon
atoms
Prefix

meth

eth

prop

but

pent

hex

hept

oct

4. Oxidation-Reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source

of energy
Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer
of electron
9 | Page

 Oxidation: loss of electrons

Reduction: gain of electrons
In a displacement reaction, the more active metal will oxidize and loose electrons
to from an ion in an aqueous solution. The less reactive aqueous metal in ion
form, will gain the electrons lost by the more active metal and become neutral,
forming an
elemental metal.

Zinc loses electrons and displaces copper since its more reactive than copper.
Identify the relationship between displacements of metal ions in
solution by other metals to the relative activity of metal

If a metal is higher in the activity series, the metal atoms will react when put

in a solution of ions of a metal that is lower in the activity series. The less
active metal ions are displaced from solution as they form atoms.
Thus, a metal on the series can displace out of solution ANY metal on its right,
but cannot displace any metal on its left; hydrogen is included as a standard.

Account for the changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of

their loss or gain of electrons

Oxidation state: A measure of a chemical species degree of oxidation.

During displacement reactions, the oxidation states of the two metal

species involved change:
o

Metal elements increase their oxidation state, as they lose

electrons.

Metal ions decrease their oxidation state, as they gain electrons.

The sum of the oxidation states for the elements in a molecule is zero.

In most compounds:
o

Hydrogen has an oxidation state of one.

Oxygen has an oxidation state of negative two.

Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction

reactions

10 | P a g e

A galvanic cell; consist of two half cells, each containing an electrode in a

electrolyte. One half cell( beaker with electrode) allows oxidation to take place,
the other allows reduction
Redox reactions occur when there is a direst transfer of electrons from the
Reductant and the oxidant. In a galvanic cell, however, the half reactions are
physically separated so that when oxidation takes place, reduction wont occur
simultaneously but rather, the electrons lost from oxidation travels through an
external conducting wire to the other half of the cell. This way the electrical
energy may be useable.
Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of
electron flow

The galvanic cell consists of 2 half cells and 2 electrodes. The first half cell
holds an Anode and the other the Cathode. Both electrodes are dunked in an
electrolyte. The external conducting wire allows the electrons from the anode
to be transported to the cathode. Between the cells is a salt bridge.
At the Anode, Oxidation occurs (Vowels)

At the Cathode, Reduction occurs ( consonants)

Define
terms
anode,
cathode,
electrode

the

and
electrolyte to describe galvanic cells

Electrode: A conductor, which allows electrons to pass from the external

circuit to a half-cell or vice versa.

Anode: The negative electrode, at which oxidation occurs.

Cathode: The positive electrode, at which reduction occurs.

Electrolyte: An aqueous or molten substance that conducts electricity.

All solutions in a galvanic cell are electrolytes, including the solutions in

which the electrodes are immersed and the solution that forms the salt
bridge.

11 | P a g e

5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials:

Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the
conditions under which a nucleus is unstable

Radioactivity: the spontaneous breakdown of an element into a new

element by the emission of alpha, beta and gamma radiation
Radioactive decay: the process where by the nucleus of a radioisotope
undergoes spontaneous decay
A stable isotope of an element will not emit any radiation
An Isotope is unstable if:

Its atomic number (Z) is greater then 83

Describe how transuranic elements are produced

Transuranic elements: Elements beyond uranium in the periodic table

(having atomic numbers greater than 92).

Transuranic elements do not occur naturally.

Transuranic elements with atomic numbers 93 to 95 (neptunium, plutonium,

and americium) are produced in nuclear reactors by bombarding natural
elements with neutrons from produced in nuclear fission reactions.

Transuranic elements with atomic numbers above 95 are produced by

accelerating a relatively small nucleus in a charged particle accelerator to
combine with a heavy nucleus.

To increase the mass number and the atomic number we need to add mass to
the original nucleus.

One way of doing this is to add neutrons or possible larger particles such as
He nuclei 4 2He .This can be done in two ways:
1. With a nuclear reactor where plenty of neutrons are flying about, these
bombard other nuclei
2. By accelerating mass, e.g. 4 2He nuclei into other nuclei into other nuclei,
this is done in an accelerator called a cyclotron. A cyclotron is useful in the
production of nuclei with a short half life
Linear accelerators can also be used though they are not as convenient as
having an on-site cyclotron at a hospital (they are used to diagnose disease)
Note: the nucleus that is bombarded must not be fissile- meaning it must not
be able to split as in a fission reaction.
o e.g. 235U will split because it is fissile. 238U will not split because it is not
fissile
o e.g. in a reactor 238U is bombarded with neutrons. Write out the nuclear
reaction.

Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect

radiation
12 | P a g e

Photographic Film:

Photographic film is a sheet of plastic coated with silver halide salts.

These salts are sensitive to electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light or Xrays), and darken when they are exposed to radiation.

People who work with radioactive materials often wear badges

containing photographic film; the amount of darkening shows how
much they have been exposed to radiation.

Scintillation Counter:

Some substances give off light when they are struck by high-energy
radiation.

A photo-receptor cell senses these flashes of light that occur, and from
this measures the number of decay events that are occurring.

Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

Many

synthetic radioisotopes are made in reactors

About 20 of these are useful in medicine and industry
Many are made using reactors as a neutron source
e.g. Cobalt-59 is used to make Cobalt-60

Some
products of fission:
Technium-99 is an isotope used in medical diagnosis

Medical radioisotopes are also produced on-site in cyclotrons

i.e. the target substance in bombarded with nuclei

13 | P a g e

Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical
radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their
properties
Cobalt -60
Properties Co-60

It is very hard and brittle

Half-life of 5.27 years
Emits gamma radiation
Chemically form held inside a sealed container

Uses/ application

Radioisotopes such as cobolt-60 are used in industry to detect

imperfections and thickness of certain materials. They can detect defects
in metals casting and cracks in aircraft wings, and measure the thickness
of rolled sheets of plastic, paper or metal. Beams of gamma radiation are
passes through the object and are detected by the radioactive film on the
other side. More radiation will pass through if there are cracks, breaks or
other flaws in the metal parts and will be recorded on the film. By studding
the film, structural problem can be detected.

Technetium-99m:
Properties

Uses/

It has a very short half-life of 6 hours: sufficiently long enough for medical
investigations and short enough to minimize patients exposure to
radiation
It emits low energy gamma radiation that minimises damage to tissues
but can still be detected in a person's body by a gamma ray sensitive
camera
It is quickly eliminated from the body
It is reasonably reactive; it can be reacted to form a compound with
chemical properties that leads to concentration in the organ of interest
such as the heart, liver, lungs or thyroid.
application
To show blood flow abnormalities, heart defects
o Tc-99m is attached with other substance such as tin to form
compounds which attaches onto red blood cells. This is then
injected into the patients veins. the blood flow can then be traced
by gamma cameras and any abnormalities in heart and blood
vessels detected.
o Tc-99m is attached onto different substances depending on the
purpose of analysis eg Brain, kidneys, bone or liver. Different
substances have different chemical properties that leads to
concentration in different areas of the body that is aimed for
investigation

14 | P a g e

Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated

with the use of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and
medicine
Cobalt-60:
Benefits

Able to sterilise items that would be damaged by heat-sterilisation

Able to extend the half-life of foods that have been damaged in this
manner
Has a relatively long half-life so requires little maintenance

Problems
There are radioactive wastes produced during its production
It is difficult to dispose of spent Co-60
Technetium-99:
Benefits

Relatively short half-life so leaves the body fairly quickly

Emmits low Betta radiation so minimises damage to tissue but is still
detectable by a gamma sensitive camera

Problems High cost

Harms living cells
Radioactive waste

15 | P a g e