Introduction to wind energy

Relevant to offshore wind farm design

Offshore Wind Farm Design

Michiel Zaaijer
2007-2008
1

DUWIND

Overview

Rotor aerodynamics
Power and load control
Energy production
Turbine technology
Multi-MW turbines turbines

2007-2008

Rotor aerodynamics

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3

Determining power and loads

0. The approach

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4

Blade element momentum method

1. Momentum balance
Macroscopic perspective
Loads from conservation laws

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2. Blade elements
Local perspective
Loads from lift and drag

Determining power and loads

1. Momentum balance

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6

Mass, momentum and energy flows

Mass per second through A:
Mass flow

m=UA

Substitute:
Momentum flow
Energy flow
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m U = U2 A
m U2 = U3 A
7

Actuator disc represents rotor

At actuator disc:
Axial rotor force (thrust) D
Power extraction
P
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Conservation laws
Thrust change in momentum
D = m (U-Ve)
Power extracted at rotor disc
D V1 = m V1 (U- Ve)
Kinetic energy loss in flow
m (U2-Ve2) =
m (U-Ve) (U+Ve)
Power Energy loss
V1 = (U+ Ve)
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Dimensionless induction factor

Define induction factor
(dimensionless)
a = (U-V1)/U

U(1-a)

U(1-2a)

Rearrange
V1= U (1-a)
Substitute on previous page
Ve = U (1-2a)
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Substitution with induction factor

Mass flow
m

= V1 A

= U (1-a) A

= m (U-Ve)

= U2 A 4a(1-a)

Thrust
D
Power
P

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= m (U2-Ve2)
= m (U-Ve)(U+Ve) = U3 A 4a(1-a)2
11

Dimensionless thrust and power

Define
D
P

= U2 A 4a(1-a) = Cd U2 A
= U3 A 4a(1-a)2 = Cp U3 A

Dimensionless coefficients become

Cd = 4 a (1-a)
Cp = 4 a (1-a)2
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Intermezzo: Optimum power

The Betz optimum:
Cp is maximum when

Cd

0.8

dC p

0.6

Cp

0.4

da
Result
a

0.2
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

a
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=0

= 1/3

CP,max = 16/27 0.59

Cd

= 8/9
13

Annular approach
Divide stream tube in concentric annuli, parallel to flow

Assumptions
1.
Annuli dont interact
- Induction factor a independent of other annuli
- No flow from one annulus to another)
2.
No tangential change within one annulus
- Induction factor a constant over annulus
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Mass, thrust and power per annulus

Mass flow
m = V1 A
dm = mass per annulus

= U (1-a) A
= U (1-a) 2r dr

Thrust
D
dD

= m (U-Ve)
= thrust per annulus

= U2 4a(1-a) A
= U2 4a(1-a) 2r dr

Power
P
dP
2007-2008

= m (U2-Ve2)
= U3 4a(1-a)2 A
= power per annulus = U3 4a(1-a)2 2r dr
15

Determining power and loads

2. Blade elements of a rotor

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Cross-section of blade
Consider cross-section of blade,
perpendicular to blade axis,

U(1-a)

with velocity vectors

U(1-a) and r

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Aerofoil forces and velocities

l

Rotor plane

U(1-a)

Vres

r
= radial velocity
U(1-a) = local wind speed
Vres
= resultant speed
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= blade twist angle

= angle of inflow
= angle of attack
l = lift Vres
d = drag // Vres
18

Lift and drag (2-dimensional flow)

1
l = Cl U 2 c
2

1
d = Cd U 2 c
2

Lift coefficient

Drag coefficient

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Flow regimes

Attached flow
after Prandtl and Wieselsberger

Separated flow
(stalled)
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Thrust and power

Contribution to thrust dD per blade element dr
N = Number of blades
dD = N ( l cos() + d sin() ) dr
dD = N ( Cl Vres2 cos() + Cd Vres2 sin() ) c dr
dD = N ( Cl (r)2 + Cd (U(1-a))2 ) c dr
Contribution to power dP per blade element dr
dP = N ( l sin() d cos() ) r dr
dP = N ( Cl (U(1-a))2 Cd (r)2 ) c r dr

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Determining power and loads

3. Blade element momentum method: BEM

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Combining two theories

l

r
U(1-a)

Vres

Momentum balance

Blade elements

dD = U2 4a(1-a) 2r dr

dD = N ( Cl (r)2
+ Cd (U(1-a))2 ) c dr

When we assume dDmomentum balance = dDblade elements

Two equations two unknowns: dD and a
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Solving induction factor with BEM

For each annulus:
Choose an initial value for a.
Use this to calculate angle of attack and from this Cl and Cd
Calculate axial aerodynamic force on blade element: dD
From dD follows a new value for a with momentum theory
Continue until a reaches a constant value.
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Solving loads and power with BEM

Once a is known for all annuli, integrate blade elements
Thrust on rotor
R

D = 0 N ( Cl (r)2 + Cd (U(1-a))2 ) c dr
Power on main shaft
P = N ( Cl (U(1-a))2 Cd (r)2 ) c r dr
R
0

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Additions to BEM
Tip losses / infinite number of blades
Wake rotation (tangential forces and velocities)
Included in all state-of-the-art calculation tools

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Characterising rotor aerodynamics

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The CP - curve

Define tip speed ratio

= R / U
(Low = low or high U)

Small

Stall region
Example

design = 8
Cp,max = 0.46
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28

Cp- curves for different pitch

Full span pitch
new, local = old, local + pitch

Pitch to stall
(increase )

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Pitch to vane
(decrease )

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Wind turbine control

Aerodynamic aspects

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Power and thrust curves

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Ideal Power and thrust curves

P

P = TV = Constant

~ArotorV2

~V-1
~V3

~AbladeV2

V
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Terminology for regions of operation

P
Full load

Idle / Stand-still

Partial load

Vcut-in
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Vrated

Vcut-out

V
33

Partial load power control

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Ideal power control variable speed

P = Cp
= R/U

U3 A

P ~ U3

Cp() = Cp,max

= design

~ U
Variable speed!
(Fixed pitch)
design = 8
Cp,max = 0.46

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Constant speed power control

P= Cp U3 A

P Pvariable speed

= R/U

Cp,max only at one

wind speed

Increasing Decreasing
wind speed wind speed

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design = 8
Cp,max = 0.46
36

Power, RPM, wind speed

constant
Power (kW)
= Cp U3 A

constant

Wind speed (m/s)

Determined from
Cp curve
(RPM) = (60 / 2) U / R
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Power difference (partial load)

Variable speed: ~V3

Constant speed design point:
= design; = design; Cp = Cp,max
Constant speed: ~V3
Vcut-in

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Full load power control

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Control options (constant speed)

Passive stall:
U => Cp

Active stall/
Pitch to stall:
 & U
=> Cp

Pitch to vane:
 => Cp
U => Cp
Total: Cp
= constant:
U => 

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Passive stall control

Power (kW)
constant

Natural power
limitation at high
wind speeds
(RPM)
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Passive stall power curves

Comparison of power curves
600

Identical stall-turbines
in Bockstigen wind farm

500

Power [kW]

400

P based on WS_ST, unit=1

P based on WS_nac, unit=1

300

P based on WS_ST, unit=2

P based on WS_nac, unit=2
P based on WS_ST, unit=3

200

P based on WS_nac, unit=3

P based on WS_ST, unit=4
P based on WS_nac, unit=4

100

P based on WS_ST, unit=5

P based on WS_nac, unit=5
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

Wind speed in tower and nacelles [m/s]

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Pitch to vane power curve

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Full load - Loads

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Non-ideal thrust of stall control

Stall control:

High drag

Higher lift compensates

V
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Dynamic loads of pitch control

l
Pitch to vane:
U => Lift Quick
Slow
 => Lift
Slow
Total: Lift
r

U(1-a)

2007-2008

d
Rotor plane

Vres

46

Dynamics thrust of pitch control

T
Response
to gust or pitch failure

V
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Load alleviation: gust response

Use rotor as a flywheel

Increase speed to absorb energy

Decrease speed to release energy

Reduce torque variations & peaks

Reduce power variations

Axial loads are NOT reduced!
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48

Load alleviation: Peak shaving

P

Start pitch control in partial load

Stop constant control in partial load
Vrated goes up and is less clear

Vrated
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V
49

Energy production

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Wind speed distribution

De Bilt
observations
1961/1970
1971/1980

Example: Wind speed

between 6 and 7 m/s

9% of the time

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Weibull distribution
De Bilt
Weibull fit

V
k V k 1
f ( ) = ( ) e
a
a a

V
( ) k
a

With
k = shape factor
a = scale factor

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Weibull distribution: examples

k=4
k=3
k=1
k=2
a=1

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Shape factor vs average wind speed

a=

Vavg

With
a
= Weibull scale factor
Vavg = Annual average wind speed
= Gamma function

1
(1 + )
k

Example

( ) = 1e d
0

1
0.434
(1 + ) 0.568 +

k
k
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1
k

1
(1 + ) 0.886
k

 Vavg > a
54

Wind speed vs height

Power law

h
v(h) = v(href )
h
ref

Offshore 0.08 0.14

Guideline = 0.11
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Calculation of annual yield

Vco

ETurbine = T Pel (V ) f (V ) dV

T
(hours/
(m/s))

Vci

Contribution to energy (kWh/(m/s))

Power
(kW)
v (m/s)
v (m/s)
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Total area = energy

production in one year
56

Energetic efficiency (1)

P
is constant
is constant
E

Ideal turbine
Turbine with
pitch control

Energy content

is constant
(exaggerated)
x
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V
V

Turbine with
stall control

57

Energetic efficiency (2)

Vcut-in
:
Speed control :
Pitch/stall
:
Vcut-out
:
Vrated
:

2007-2008

Hardly affects E, only interest is public perception

Some effect on E
Some effect on E
Limited effect on E, primarily determined by loads
Has largest influence on E

58

Capacity factor (1)

Yearly energy production
Vco

E = T Pel (V ) f (V ) dV
Vci

The same yearly production would be generated in an equivalent

amount of time Tequivalent running at full power:

E = Prated Tequivalent
cf =
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Tequivalent
Tyear

is called the capacity factor

59

Capacity factor (2)

cf 0
cf 1
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A high capacity factor is not necessarily good!

There is an economic optimum
60

Characteristic values for cf

First generation turbines: cf 0.2
Present generation:
cf 0.25 - 0.3
Offshore wind farms:
cf 0.35 - 0.45
For comparison
The capacity factor of all the power generation ability mounted in
the Netherlands :
cf =

total electricity consumption

maximum electricity production 8760

0.5

(8760 is the number of hours in a year)

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Energy losses
P (V )Electrical = P (V )Aero Drive train Generator Conversion
P-V curve of manufacturer includes these losses

Additional farm related losses:

Availability of the turbines
Availability of the electrical infrastructure
Aerodynamic farm losses (wakes)
Transformation and transmission losses
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Sources
Models
Guestimates
(literature)

62

Estimating energy production (1)

Energy yield =
number of hours/year * installed power * capacity factor
e.g.: 8760 h * 108 MW * 0.35 331 GWh / y
for offshore wind park Egmond aan Zee
(Average Dutch household: 3.2 MWh / y)

Only applicable for order of magnitude guess !!

Wind speed distribution (based on data) indispensable
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Estimating energy production (2a)

Estimate power curve
P
P = Cp V3 D2
use
D and estimate of Cp
or
Prated and
Vrated 10-12 m/s

Prated

Vcut-in
3-5
2007-2008

Vrated

10-12

Vcut-out

V (m/s)

25-30

64

Estimating energy production (2b)

Estimate wind speed distribution
Data at reference height

Weibull scale

Average wind speed Weibull shape factor

at reference height

Gamma function

at reference height

Power law

at reference height

Equal
(simple model)

Weibull scale factor Average wind speed Weibull shape factor

at hub height
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at hub height

at hub height
65

Turbine technology

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Blades

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Blades
Composite
One-piece
Flexible
Skin / spar
T-bolts

Picture source: LM
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Large blades: pre-bending in mould

Blade pitched 90
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Overview of the drive train

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Drive train (with gearbox)

rotor bearing
hub
main shaft

generator shaft
with coupling
brake

gearbox

generator

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yaw ring

yaw gear

Drive train without gear: direct drive

Zephyros 2 MW turbine
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72

Compact drive train

1-stage gearbox,
medium speed
generator, direct hubgear-generator
connections

Multibrid
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Gearbox & generator

Clipper Liberty
2.5 MW
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Hub

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Hub

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Hub and cover

Composite
aerodynamic cover

Cast-iron hub for rotor loads

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Main shaft and bearings

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Double and single bearings

Direct connection to hub

Rotating main shaft

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Bearings on fixed axle pin

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Gearbox

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type of transmission
Parallel

Planetary

Simple
Compact for high power
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Gearbox planetary & parallel stages

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Generator

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Doubly fed generator

Partly variable speed
Fed rotor
Inverters needed
5 MW-class from ABB

1:n

ASM

ac

dc
dc

2007-2008

ac
85

Direct drive (synchronous) generator

ENERCON 4.5 6 MW

Full variable speed

Rotor windings for magnetic field
Inverters needed
Low speed:
(Very) big diameters needed

SM

2007-2008

dc

dc
dc

ac
86

Permanent magnet generator

Full variable speed
No rotor windings
Inverters needed

SM

2007-2008

dc

dc
dc

ac
87

Brakes

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88

Location of (fail-safe) brakes

brake located on slow shaft

(rotor shaft has double bearings)

brake located on fast shaft

Brakes are actively released (hydraulics)

and passively clamped (springs)
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89

Aerodynamic brake

- Each blade can pitch individually to brake

- Only mechanical parking brake
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90

Bedplate / Main frame

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91

Traditional bedplate

Cast-iron mainframe
for rotor loads
Welded frame to carry
other components
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92

Compact frames

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Yaw system

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94

Yaw system

Bearing
Engines
Gearboxes
Yaw brakes
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Cable twist counter &

pull switch (redundancy)

95

Control
State of the art
Variable speed (restricted in US through patent)
Pitch control
Future advances
Individual pitch
Smart rotors

2007-2008

96

Multi-MW turbines in the market

5MW (prototypes)
GE 3.6 3.6s
Enercon E-112
REpower 5M
Multibrid M5000
Siemens SWT-3.6-107

2007-2008
97

GE 3.6 3.6s (3.6 MW)

First prototype: April 2002
Rotor:

104 m

Gearbox:

3-stage (PPE)

Generator:

Asynchronous
Doubly-fed

Inverter:

2007-2008

Partial (30%)

98

Enercon E-112 (4.5 MW)

First prototype: August 2002
Rotor:

114 m

Gearbox:

No

Generator:

Synchronous
Wound rotor

Inverter:

2007-2008

Full (100%)

99

REpower 5M (5 MW)
First prototype: November 2004
Rotor:

126 m

Gearbox:

3-stage (PPE)

Generator:

Asynchronous
Doubly-fed

Inverter:

2007-2008

Partial (30%)

100

Multibrid M5000 (5MW)

First prototype: December 2004
Rotor:

116 m

Gearbox:

1-stage (Planet)

Generator:

Synchronous
Permanent Magnet

Inverter:

2007-2008

Full (100%)

101

Siemens SWT-3.6-107 (3.6 MW)

First prototype: December 2004
Rotor:

107 m

Gearbox:

3-stage (PPE)

Generator:

Asynchronous
Squirrel cage

Inverter:

2007-2008

Full (100%)

102

Future developments

Announced by leading manufacturers

Vestas V120 (4.5 MW)
Upgrade Enercon E-112
E-126 (?? MW)
Developers involvement
Bard Engineering Bard VM (5 MW)
Econcern DarwinD (4.5 MW)
No end to scale and concept evolution

2007-2008

103